Low PRIcEe EDITION ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS anya ae ee ele ole CSL aedElectronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advanced Fifth Edition Wayne Tomasi DeVry University Phoenix, Arizona Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio !CHAPTER ‘CHAPTER CHAPTER “CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 24 CHAPTER 25 CHAPTER 26 woarvroansoan Brief Contents INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND MIXING AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMISSION AMPLITUDE MODULATION RECEPTION SINGLE-SIDEBAND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS ANGLE MODULATION TRANSMISSION ANGLE MODULATION RECEPTION AND FM STEREO DIGITAL MODULATION DIGITAL TRANSMISSION DIGITAL T-CARRIERS AND MULTIPLEXING METALLIC CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA. OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION ANTENNAS AND WAVEGUIDES ‘TELEPHONE INSTRUMENTS AND SIGNALS: THE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT ‘THE PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK CELLULAR TELEPHONE CONCEPTS CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS DATA-LINK PROTOCOLS AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS MICROWAVE RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND SYSTEM GAIN SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE MULTIPLE ACCESSING ARRANGEMENTS a 39 OSCILLATORS, PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS, AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS 65 1139 161 213 253 307 345 405 451 511 557 603 631 687 708 743 773 735 833 871 935 999 1035 41078Contents CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS 14 12 13 14 15 16 17 INTRODUCTION 1 POWER MEASUREMENTS (dB, dBm, AND Bel) 2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 12 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 12 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM 14 BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY 19 NOISEANALYSIS 21 CHAPTER 2 SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND MIXING 24 a 23 24 25 26 24 INTRODUCTION 39 SIGNALANALYSIS 41 COMPLEX WAVES 42 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH 49 FOURIER SERIES FOR A RECTANGULAR WAVEFORM 49 LINEAR SUMMING 56 NONLINEAR MIXING 58 CHAPTER 3 OSCILLATORS, PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS, AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 31 3:12 3:13 314 315 INTRODUCTION 66 OSCILLATORS 66 FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS 66 FREQUENCY STABILITY 74 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS 75 LARGE-SCALE INTEGRATION OSCILLATORS 82 PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS 88 PLL CAPTURE AND LOCK RANGES 90 VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR 92 PHASE COMPARATOR 92 PLLLOOPGAIN 98 PLL CLOSED-LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE 101 INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT PRECISION PHASE-LOCKED LOOP 102 DIGITALPLLs 106 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS 106 33 6541 4.2 43 44. 45 4-6 47 48 49 Sl 52. 53 54 35 56 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 610 611 612 CHAPTER 4 AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMISSION INTRODUCTION 120 PRINCIPLES OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION 120 AM MODULATING CIRCUITS 136 LINEAR INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT AM MODULATORS 143 AMTRANSMITTERS 147 ‘TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERNS 149 CARRIER SHIFT 151 AM ENVELOPES PRODUCED BY COMPLEX NONSINUSOIDAL SIGNALS 152 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION 153 CHAPTER 5 AMPLITUDE MODULATION RECEPTION INTRODUCTION 162 RECEIVER PARAMETERS 162 AMRECEIVERS 167 AM RECEIVER CIRCUITS 181 DOUBLE-CONVERSION AM RECEIVERS 205 NETRECEIVER GAIN 206 CHAPTER 6 SINGLE-SIDEBAND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION 214 SINGLE-SIDEBAND SYSTEMS 214 COMPARISON OF SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION TO CONVENTIONAL AM 217 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF SUPPRESSED-CARRIER AM 221 SINGLE-SIDEBAND GENERATION 222 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSMITTERS 229 INDEPENDENT SIDEBAND 237 SINGLE-SIDEBAND RECEIVERS 239 AMPLITUDE-COMPANDORING SINGLE SIDEBAND 242 SINGLE-SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER AND FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 244 DOUBLE-SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER AND QUADRATURE MULTIPLEXING 246 SINGLE-SIDEBAND MEASUREMENTS 247 CHAPTER 7 ANGLE MODULATION TRANSMISSION TH 12 73 14 1S 16 1 18 19 INTRODUCTION 254 ANGLE MODULATION 254 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 257 DEVIATION SENSITIVITY 258 FMAND PM WAVEFORMS 259 PHASE DEVIATION AND MODULATION INDEX 260 FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND PERCENT MODULATION 261 PHASE AND FREQUENCY MODULATORS AND DEMODULATORS 264 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF ANGLE-MODULATED WAVES 264 119 161 213 253ee eS 7-10 BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS OF ANGLE-MODULATED WAVES 268 7-11 DEVIATIONRATIO 270 7-12 COMMERCIAL BROADCAST-BAND FM_ 272 7-13 PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF AN ANGLE-MODULATED WAVE 274 7-14. AVERAGE POWER OF AN ANGLE-MODULATED WAVE 275 7-13 NOISEAND ANGLE MODULATION 277 7-16 PREEMPHASIS AND DEEMPHASIS 279 7-11 FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATORS 282 7-18 FREQUENCY UP-CONVERSION 290 7-19 DIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS 293 7-20 INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS 298 7-21 ANGLE MODULATION VERSUS AMPLITUDE MODULATION 301 CHAPTER 8 ANGLE MODULATION RECEPTION AND FM STEREO 307 8&1 INTRODUCTION 308 82 FMRECEIVERS 308 83 FMDEMODULATORS 310 84 PHASE-LOCKED-LOOP FM DEMODULATORS 315 85 QUADRATURE FM DEMODULATOR 315 8-6 FMNOISE SUPPRESSION 317 8-7 FREQUENCY VERSUS PHASE MODULATION 323 8-8 LINEAR INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT FM RECEIVERS 323 8-9 FMSTEREO BROADCASTING 328 8-10 TWO-WAY MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS SERVICES 335 8-11 TWO-WAY FM RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 337 CHAPTER 9 DIGITAL MODULATION 345 9-1 INTRODUCTION 346 9.2 INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE, BAUD, AND M-ARY ENCODING 347 9-3. AMPLITUDE-SHIFTKEYING 350 9-4 FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING 351 9-5 PHASE-SHIFTKEYING 358 9-6 QUADRATURE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION 377 97 BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY 385 98 CARRIER RECOVERY 386 9-9 CLOCK RECOVERY 388 9-10 DIFFERENTIAL PHASE-SHIFT KEYING 389 9-11 TRELLIS CODE MODULATION 390 9-12 PROBABILITY OF ERROR AND BITERROR RATE 394 9-13 ERROR PERFORMANCE 397 CHAPTER 10 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 405 10-1 INTRODUCTION 406 10-2 PULSEMODULATION 407 xii Contents10-3 PCM 407 10-4 PCMSAMPLING 409 10-5 SIGNAL-TO-QUANTIZATION NOISE RATIO 421 10-6 LINEAR VERSUS NONLINEAR PCM CODES 422 10-7 IDLECHANNEL NOISE 423 10-8 CODING METHODS 424 10-9 COMPANDING 424 10-10 VOCODERS 435 10-11 PCMLINESPEED 436 10-12. DELTAMODULATION PCM 437 10-13 ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION PCM 439 10-14 DIFFERENTIAL PCM 440 10-15 PULSETRANSMISSION 441 10-16 SIGNAL POWER IN BINARY DIGITAL SIGNALS 445 CHAPTER 11 DIGITAL T-CARRIERS AND MULTIPLEXING 451 11-1 INTRODUCTION 452 11-2 TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 452 11-3. TIDIGITALCARRIER 453 11-4 NORTH AMERICAN DIGITAL HIERARCHY 462 11-5 DIGITAL CARRIER LINEENCODING 466 11-6 TCARRIER SYSTEMS 470 11-7 BUROPEAN DIGITAL CARRIER SYSTEM 475 11-8 DIGITAL CARRIER FRAME SYNCHRONIZATION 477 11-9 BIT VERSUS WORD INTERLEAVING 478 11-10 STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 479 11-11 CODECS AND COMBO CHIPS 481 11-12. FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 491 11-13. AT&T'S FDM HIERARCHY 493 11-14 COMPOSITE BASEBAND SIGNAL 495 11-15 FORMATION OF AMASTERGROUP 497 1-16 WAVELENGTH-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 503 CHAPTER 12 METALLIC CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA 511 12-1 INTRODUCTION 512 12-2. METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES 512 12-3 TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 513 12-4 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 513 12-5 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES 514 12-6 METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES 517 12-7 METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 525 12-8 WAVE PROPAGATION ON A METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINE 531 12-9 TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES 533 12-10 INCIDENT AND REFLECTED WAVES 535 12-11 STANDING WAVES 536 12-12. TRANSMISSION-LINE INPUT IMPEDANCE 542 Contents 12413 1214 ‘TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY 550 MICROSTRIP AND STRIPLINE TRANSMISSION LINES 551CHAPTER 13 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA 557 13-1 INTRODUCTION 558 13-2 HISTORY OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS 558 13-3 OPTICAL FIBERS VERSUS METALLIC CABLE FACILITIES 559 13-4 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 561 13-5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 561 13-6 OPTICAL FIBER TYPES 563 13-7 LIGHTPROPAGATION 565 13-8 OPTICAL FIBER CONFIGURATIONS 574 13-9 OPTICAL FIBER CLASSIFICATIONS 576 13-10 LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES 579 13-11 LIGHTSOURCES 588 13-12 OPTICALSOURCES 589 13-13 LIGHT DETECTORS 595 13-14 LASERS 597 13-15 OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM LINK BUDGET 599 CHAPTER 14 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION 603 141 INTRODUCTION 604 14-2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND POLARIZATION 604 14.3 RAYS AND WAVEFRONTS 605 14-4 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 606 14.5 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF FREE SPACE 606 14-6 SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT AND THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW. 607 5 14-7 WAVE ATTENUATION AND ABSORPTION 609 14-8 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES 610 14.9 TERRESTRIAL PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 618 14.10 PROPAGATION TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 624 14-11 FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS 627 14.12 FADINGAND FADE MARGIN 628 CHAPTER 15 ANTENNAS AND WAVEGUIDES: 631 15-1 INTRODUCTION 632 15-2 BASICANTENNA OPERATION 632 15-3 ANTENNARECIPROCITY 634 15-4 ANTENNA COORDINATE SYSTEM AND RADIATION PATTERNS 635, 15-5 ANTENNAGAIN 639 15-6 CAPTURED POWER DENSITY, ANTENNA CAPTURE AREA, AND CAPTURED POWER 643 15-7 ANTENNAPOLARIZATION 645 15-8 ANTENNABEAMWIDTH 646 15-9 ANTENNABANDWIDTH 646 15-10 ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE 647 15-l1 BASIC ANTENNA 647 15-12. HALF-WAVE DIPOLE 648. xiv Contents15-13 GROUNDED ANTENNA 652 15-14 ANTENNALOADING 653 15-15 ANTENNAARRAYS 655 15-16 SPECIAL-PURPOSE ANTENNAS 657 15-17 UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS | 664 15-18 WAVEGUIDES 674 CHAPTER 16 TELEPHONE INSTRUMENTS AND SIGNALS 687 16-1 INTRODUCTION 688 162 THESUBSCRIBERLOOP 689 163 STANDARD TELEPHONE SET 689 164 BASIC TELEPHONE CALL PROCEDURES 693 16-5 CALLPROGRESS TONES AND SIGNALS 695, 16-6 CORDLESS TELEPHONES 701 16-7 CALLERID 703 16-8 ELECTRONIC TELEPHONES 705 16-9 PAGING SYSTEMS 706 CHAPTER 17. THE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT 703 17-1 INTRODUCTION 710 17-2 THELOCAL SUBSCRIBER LOOP 710 17-3. TELEPHONE MESSAGE-CHANNEL NOISE AND NOISE WEIGHTING 713 17-4 UNITS OF POWER MEASUREMENT 715 17-5 TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS AND PRIVATE-LINE CIRCUITS 719 17-6 VOICE-FREQUENCY CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 733 17-7 CROSSTALK 739 CHAPTER 18 THE PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK 743 18-1 INTRODUCTION 744 18-2 TELEPHONE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT 744 18-3 THE PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK 744 18-4 INSTRUMENTS, LOCAL LOOPS, TRUNK CIRCUITS, AND EXCHANGES | 745 18-5 LOCAL CENTRAL OFFICE TELEPHONE EXCHANGES 746 18-6 OPERATOR-ASSISTED LOCAL EXCHANGES 748 18-7 AUTOMATED CENTRAL OFFICE SWITCHES AND. EXCHANGES 750 18-8 NORTH AMERICAN TELEPHONE NUMBERING PLANAREAS 756 18:9 TELEPHONE SERVICE 758 18-10 NORTH AMERICAN TELEPHONE SWITCHING HIERARCHY 761 18-11 COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALING SYSTEM NO. 7 (SS7) AND ‘THE POSTDIVESTITURE NORTH AMERICAN SWITCHING HIERARCHY 765 Contents nvCHAPTER 19 CELLULAR TELEPHONE CONCEPTS 773 19-1 INTRODUCTION 774 19-2 MOBILE TELEPHONE SERVICE 774 19-3 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR TELEPHONE 775 19-4 CELLULAR TELEPHONE 776 19-5 FREQUENCY REUSE 779 196 INTERFERENCE 781 19-7 CELL SPLITTING, SECTORING, SEGMENTATION, AND DUALIZATION 784 19-8 CELLULAR SYSTEM TOPOLOGY 787 19.9 ROAMING AND HANDOFFS. 788 19-10 CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS 791 19-11 CELLULAR TELEPHONE CALL PROCESSING 792 | CHAPTER 20 CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEMS 795 20-1 INTRODUCTION 796 20-2 FIRST-GENERATION ANALOG CELLULAR TELEPHONE 796 20-3 PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 803 20-4 SECOND-GENERATION CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEMS, 806 20-5 N-AMPS 806 20-6 DIGITAL CELLULAR TELEPHONE 807 20-7 INTERIM STANDARD 95 (IS-95) 817 20-8 NORTH AMERICAN CELLULAR AND PCS SUMMARY 823 20-9 GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS 824 20-10 PERSONAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 826 - CHAPTER 21 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING 833 21-1 INTRODUCTION 834 21-2 HISTORY OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS 835, 21-3 DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE, PROTOCOLS, AND STANDARDS 837 21-4 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS FOR DATA, COMMUNICATIONS 840 21-5 LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 843 21-6 OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION 845, 21-7 DATACOMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS 851 21-8 SERIAL AND PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION 852 21-9 DATA COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 852 21-10 DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS 853 2I-l1 ALTERNATE PROTOCOL SUITES 869 CHAPTER 22 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS 871 22-1 INTRODUCTION 872 22-2 DATACOMMUNICATIONS CODES 872 22-3 BARCODES 878 22-4 ERROR CONTROL 882 22-5 ERROR DETECTION 883 xi Contents22-6 ERROR CORRECTION 887 22-7 CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION 890 228 DATACOMMUNICATIONS HARDWARE 893 229 DATACOMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS 894 22-10 LINECONTROL UNIT 896 22-11 SERIAL INTERFACES 906 22:12 DATACOMMUNICATIONS MODEMS 921 22-13 ITU-TMODEM RECOMMENDATIONS 928 CHAPTER 23 DATALINK PROTOCOLS AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS: 23-1 INTRODUCTION 936 23-2. DATA-LINK PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS 936 23.3 CHARACTER- AND BIT-ORIENTED DATA-LINK PROTOCOLS 942 23-4 ASYNCHRONOUS DATA-LINK PROTOCOLS 942 23-5 SYNCHRONOUS DATA-LINK PROTOCOLS. 944 23-6 | SYNCHRONOUS DATA-LINK CONTROL * 948 23-7 HIGH-LEVEL DATA-LINK CONTROL 961 23-8 PUBLIC SWITCHED DATANETWORKS 963 23-9 CCITT X.25 USER-TO-NETWORK INTERFACE PROTOCOL 965 23-10 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK 969 23-11 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE 977 23-12 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS 981 23-13 ETHERNET 987 CHAPTER 24 MICROWAVE RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND SYSTEM GAIN 939 24-1 INTRODUCTION 1000 24-2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE, RADIO. 1002 24.3 ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL MICROWAVE 1002 24-4 FREQUENCY VERSUS AMPLITUDE MODULATION 1003 24-5 FREQUENCY-MODULATED MICROWAVE RADIO SYSTEM 1003 24-6 FMMICROWAVE RADIO REPEATERS 1005 24-7 DIVERSITY 1006 24-8 PROTECTION SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS 1011 24.9 FM MICROWAVE RADIO STATIONS 1014 24-10 MICROWAVE REPEATER STATION 1015 24-11 LINE-OF-SIGHT PATH CHARACTERISTICS 1021 24-12 MICROWAVE RADIO SYSTEM GAIN 1025 CHAPTER 25 SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS 25-1 INTRODUCTION 1036 25-2 HISTORY OF SATELLITES 1036 25-3 KEPLER’SLAWS 1038 25-4 SATELLITE ORBITS 1040 25-5 GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES 1044 25-6 ANTENNALOOK ANGLES 1047 935 103525-1 SATELLITE CLASSIFICATIONS, SPACING, AND FREQUENCY ALLOCATION 1052 25-8 SATELLITE ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS: FOOTPRINTS 1055 25-9 SATELLITE SYSTEM LINK MODELS 1058 25-10 SATELLITE SYSTEM PARAMETERS 1060 25-11 SATELLITE SYSTEM LINK EQUATIONS 1069 25-12 LINKBUDGET 1070 CHAPTER 26 SATELLITE MULTIPLE ACCESSING ARRANGEMENTS 26-1 INTRODUCTION 1079 26-2 FDM/FM SATELLITE SYSTEMS 1080 26-3 MULTIPLEACCESSING 1081 26-4 CHANNELCAPACITY 1095 26-5 SATELLITE RADIO NAVIGATION 1095 APPENDIX A THE SMITH CHART ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS INDEX 1079 41109 1129 1141CH A P TT] Introduction to Electronic Communications CHAPTER OUTLINE 1-1 Introduction 1-5. The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum 12 Power Measurements (4B, dBm, and Bel) 1-6 Bandwidth and Information Capacity 13 Electronic Communications Systems 1-7 Noise Analysis, 1-4 Modulation and Demodulation OBJECTIVES Define the fundamental purpose of an electronic communications system Describe analog and digital signals Define and describe the basic power units dB and dBm Define a basic electronic communications system Explain the terms modulation and demodulation and why they are needed in an electronic communications system Describe the electromagnetic frequency spectrum Describe the basic classifications of radio transmission Define bandwidth and information capacity Define electrical noise and describe the most common types Describe the prominent sources of electrical noise Explain signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure and describe their significance in electronic communications systems 4-1 INTRODUCTION ‘The fundamental purpose of an electronic communications system is to transfer information from one place to another. Thus, electronic communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of information between two or more locations using 4‘electronic circuits. The original souree information can be in analog form, such as the hu- man voice or music, or in digital form, such as binary-coded numbers or alphanumeric codes. Analog signals are time-varying voltages or currents that are continuously changing, ‘such as sine and cosine waves. An analog signal contains an infinite number of values. Dig- ital signals are voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or levels. The most common form of digital signal is binary, which has two levels, All forms of information, however, ‘must be converted to electromagnetic energy before being propagated through an electronic ‘communications system. ‘Communications between human beings probably began in the form of hand gestures ‘and facial expressions, which gradually evolved into verbal grunts and groans. Verbal com- ‘munications using sound waves, however, was limited by how loud a person could yell. Long-distance communications probably began with smoke signals or tom-tom drums, and that using electricity began in 1837 when Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the first workable telegraph, Morse applied for a patent in 1838 and was finally granted it in 1848. He used electromagnetic induction to transfer information in the form of dots, dashes, and spaces between a simple transmitter and receiver using a transmission line consisting of a length of metallic wire. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A, Watson were the first to successfully transfer human conversation over a crude metallie-wire communica- tions system using a device they called the telephone. Tn 1894, Marchese Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmitted the first wireless ra~ dio signals through Earth’s atmosphere, and in 1906, Lee DeForest invented the triode Vac- ‘uum tube, witich provided the first practical means of amplifying electrical signals. Com- ‘mercial radio broadcasting began in 1920 when radio station KDKA began broadcasting ‘amplitude-modulated (AM) signals out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, In 1931, Major Edwin Howard Armstrong patented frequency modulation (FM). Commercial broadcasting of ‘monophonic FM began in 1935. Figure 1-1 shows an electronic communications time line listing some of the mote significant events that have occurred in the history of electronic ‘communications. 4-2 POWER MEASUREMENTS (dB, dBm, AND Bel) ‘The decibel (abbreviated dB) is a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of vir- tually anything, For example, decibels are used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes. ‘The Richter scale measures the intensity of an earthquake relative to a reference intensity, which is the weakest earthquake that can be recorded on a seismograph. Decibels are also Used to measure the intensity of acoustical signals in dB-SPL, where SPL means sound pressure level. Zero dB-SPL is the threshold of hearing. The sound of leaves rustling is 10 dB-SPL, and the sound produced by a jet engine is between 120 and 140 dB-SPL. The threshold of pain is approximately 120 dB-SPL. Tn the electronics communications field, the decibel originally defined only power ra- tios; however, as a matter of common usage, voltage or current ratios can also be expressed in decibels. The practical value of the decibel arises from its logarithmic nature, which per- mits an enormous range of power ratios to be expressed in terms of decibels without using excessively large or extremely small numbers. ‘The dB is used as a mere computational device, like logarithms themselves. In essence, the 4B is a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains and losses of elec tronic devices and circuits and for describing relationships between signals and noise. Deci- bels compare one signal level to another. The dB has become the basic yardstick for caleu- lating power reiationships and performing power measurements in electronic communications systems. 2 Chapter 11880; American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the fist practical slectrcal signal. 1897: Samuel Finley Breose Morse invented the telegraph. 1843: Alexander Bain invented the facsimile. 41881: Johann Philip Reis comploted the first nonworking telephone. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell released his paper “Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Feld” which ‘Concluded that light, electricity, and magnetism were related. 41865: Dr. Mahlon Loomis became the first person to communicate wireless through Earth's almosphere, : First tansatiantic telegraph cable installed. 41876: Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson Invent the telephone, 1877: Thomas Aiva Edison invents the phonograph, 1880: Heinrich Hertz discovers electromagnetic waves. 1887: Heinrich Hertz discovers radio waves. Marchese Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates wireless radio wave propagation, 4888: Heinrich Hertz detects and produces radio waves, Heinrich Hertz conclusively proved Maxwel's prediction that electricity ean travel in waves ‘through Earth's atmosphere. 1894: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi builds his frst radio equipment, @ devieo that rings @ bell rom, 30 feet away. 1895: Marchese Guglielmo Marcon! discovered ground-wvave radio signals, 11898: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio lik between England and France. 11900: American scientist Reginald A. Fessenden transmits first human speech through radio waves, 1901: Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the world's fst radio broadeast using continuous waves. ‘Marchese Gualeimo Marconi transmits telegraphic radio messages from Comwall, England, to Newfoundland First successful transatlantic transmission of radio signals. 11903: Valdemar Poulsen patents an arc transmission that generates continuous wave transmission of 100-KHz signal that is receivable 150 miles away. Pa, mae Chapter 1the absolute power ratio ccan be approximated as 23 dB = 104B + 1048 +348 10x 10x 2 = 200 2348 = 20¢B + 3dB = 1002 = 200 Power gain can be expressed in terms of a voltage ratio as Anej=10 vone| | (4a) where Ap power gain (B) E,,= output voltae (volts) E, = input volage (volts) RR, = output resistance (ohms) Ri, = input resistance (ohms) ‘When the input resistance equals the output resistance (R, = R), Equation 1-4a reduces to na) ~ 1010809( 22) (4) o ‘has = 10 toraa( 2)" (40) Applying the power rule for exponents gives f, : Ana) = 201080 ( £2) (14a) where Ayan) = power gain (4B) E, = output vottage (volts) E,= input voltage (wots) (B) = smote vue ein Voit) Equation 1-4d can be used to determine power gains in dB but only when the input ‘and output resistances are equal. However, Equation 1-4d can be used to represent the dB voltage gain of a device regardless of whether the input and output resistances are equal. Voltage gain in dB is expressed mathematically as E vas) = 20 tegao( 2) (5) where Ayan) = voltage gain (dB) ‘A dBm is a unit of measurement used to indicate the ratio of a power level with re- spect to a fixed reference level. With dBm, the reference level is | mW (i.e., dBm means decibel relative to 1 milliwatt). One milliwatt was chosen for the reference because it equals the average power produced by a telephone transmitter. The decibel was originally used to ‘express sound levels (acoustical power). It was later adapted to electrical units and defined as | mW of electrical power measured across a 600-ohm load and was intended to be used on telephone circuits for voice-frequency measurements. Today, the dBm is the measurement Introduction to Electronic Communications 7‘001 OdBm 0.002 345m 001 10dBm oa 2068 wd 30am 10 40.aBm 100 s0dBm 1000 6oaBm 10,000 oaBm 100,000 048m Table 1-4 dfim Values for Powers Equal to or Less Than One mW Power (P) ia Miliovatts “Yo iogan Pr0.002) 1 0aBm os = 348m 01 = 104Bm oot = 204Bm 0.001 =WdBm (0.0001 = 4)4Bm ‘6.00001 = 048m ‘6.000001 = 6aBm 10.0000001 = 148m 0.00000001 = 80d8m unit of choice for virtually all electromagnetic frequency bands from ultralow frequencies to light-wave frequencies terminated in a variety of impedances, such as 50-, 75-, 600-, 900-, 124-, and 300-ohm loads. ‘The dBm unit is expressed mathematically as dBm = 10 log a6, Ee '0.001 W where 0,001 is the reference power of | mW. Pi any power in watts, Tables 1-3 and 1-4 list power levels in both watts and dBm for power levels above and be- low I mW, respectively. As the tables show, a power level of 1 mW equates toO dBm, which ‘means that 1 mW is 0 dB above or below I mW. Negative dBm values indicate power lev- cls less than 1 mW, and positive dBm values indicate power levels above 1 mW. For ex- ample, a power level of 10 dBm indicates that the power is 10 dB above 1 mW, or 10 times 1 mW, which equates to 10 mW. A power level of 0.1 mW indicates a power level that is 10 4B below 1 mW, which equates to one-tenth of 1 mW. Example 1-3 Be aia. Solution Substituting into Equation 1-6 ttn = e285") 10 togo(200) = 23 dBm Chapter 4Example 1-4 Convert a power level of 23 dBm to an absolute power. Solution Substitute into Equation 1-6 and solve for P: sain = 1060 (gghrg) Take the antilog: ‘P= 200,001 W) ‘The dBm value can be approximated as: 23 dBm is a power level 23.4B above 0 dBm (1 mW) because 23 B is an absolute power ratio of 200 then 23 dBm = 200 1 mW 23 dBm = 200 mW ‘Signal power can be referenced to powers other than 1 milliwatt, For example, Bu references signal levels to 1 microwatt, dBW references signal levels to 1 watt, and dBkW references signals to I kilowatt. ‘The decibel originated as the Bel, named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell. The Bel is expressed mathematically as Pow e ~ ba = ee 22) ie From Equation 1-7, one can see that a Bel is one-tenth of a decibel. It ized that the Bel provided too much compression. For example, the Bel unit compressed absolute ratios ranging from 0.00000001 to 100,000,000 to a ridiculously low range of only 16 Bel (—8 Bel to +8 Bel). This made it difficult to relate Bel units to true magnitudes of large ratios and impossible to express small differences with any accuracy. For these rea- sons, the Bel was simply multiplied by 10, thus creating the decibel. 4-2-1 Power Levels, Gains, and Losses When power levels are given in watts and power gains are given as absolute values, the output power is determined by simply multiplying the input power times the power gains. Example 1-5 Given: A three-stage system comprised of two amplifies and one filter: The input power P,, = 0.1 mW. ‘The absolute power gains are 4p, = 100, Ap, = 40, and Ap, = 0.25. Determine (a) the input power in dBm, (b) output power (Pay) in watts and dBm, () the dB gain of each of the three stages, and (4) the overall gain in dB, Solution a. The input power in dBm is calculated by substituting into Equation 1-6 0001 Pean = 0 or) =104Bm introduction to Electronic Communications 3410 py Th output yomers spy input per lipid byte ies pom el Poa: = (0.1 mW)(100}40)(0.25) = 100 mW ‘Tocoover he output powers dBm, subtiieino Exton 1: 100 mW Pam) = 10r0g( 2028) Paaiase) = 20. dBm «Since ages one nd tw have pins get thn | he provide ampicatons Sag tres has a gain ns than oe and Ueeor represents 1s 1 the fl, The deel ale fr he Oe gis tre eine by extn ito Equation 3: Anan) = 101og(100) = 204B Argan) = 10 og(40) = 1648 An) = W0og(025) = 608 . The overall or total power gain in dB (Ay, en;) can be determined by simply adding the individual «dB power gains (Api) = 2048 + 16 4B + (~6 6B) 3008 ‘ory taking the log of the product of the three absolute power gains and then multiplying by 10: 10 log{(100)(40)(0.25)} 3048 “The output power in dBm is the input power in dBm plus the sum of the gains ofthe three stages: Ar ia5)) Powiaon) = Pram) + Apia) + Apgany + Ansan) 10 dBm + 204B + 16 4B + (~6 dB) , 204Bm ‘When power levels are given in dBm and power gains are given as dB values, the out- put power is determined by simply adding the individual gains to the input power. Example 1-6 Fora three-stage system with an input power P,, ~~ 20 dBm and power gains of the three stages as ‘Ap, = 13 4B, Ap, = 16 dB and Ay, = —6 4B , determine the output power (Pou) in dBm and wats. Solution The output power is simply the input power in dBm plus the sum of the three power sans in dB: 20 dBm + 13.4B + 16dB + (—6dB) =34Bm To convert dBm to watts, substitute into Equation 1-6: Pen aBm = 10t0g( 75 Poa im) Therefore, te 7) (Tr) ~«e( 7) w= (3) Chapter 1(1mwyi0™) 2mW ‘To combine two power levels given in watts, you simply add the two wattages to- gether. For example, if a signal with a power level of 1 mW is combined with another sig nal with a power level of 1 mW, the total combined poweris 1 mW + 1 mW = 2.mW. When powers are given in dBm, however, they cannot be combined through simple addition. For example, if a signal with a power level of 0 dBm (1 mW) is combined with another signal with a power level of 0 dBm (1 mW), the total combined power is obviously 2mW (3 dBm). However, ifthe two power levels are added in dBm, the result is 0 dBm + 0 dBm = 0 dBm. ‘When a signal is combined with another signal of equal power, the total power obviously doubles. Therefore, 0 dBm + 0 dBm must equal 3 dBm. Why? Because doubling power ‘equates to a 3-dB increase in power, and 0 dBm + 3 dB = 3 dBm. ‘To combine two or more power levels given in dBm, the dBm units must be converted ‘to watts, added together, and then converted back to dBm units, Table 1-5 shows a table that can be used to combine two power levels directly when they are given in dBm. The com- Dining term is added to the higher of the two power levels to determine the total combined power level. As shown in the table, the closer the two power levels are to each other, the higher the combining term. Table 1-5 Combining Powers in dBm 004 43 02-03 +39 0405 +28 06-07 +27 08-09 +26 10-42 +25 i344 +24 1316 +23 7419 +22 20-21 +21 22-24 +20 2527 +19 23-30 +18 3133 +17 3436 +16 37-40 +15 4143 +14 4447 +13 4a +12 52-56 +1 57-61 +10 62-66 +09 67.72 +08 73.19 +07 80-86 +06 37-96 +05 97-107 +04 108-122 +03 123145 +02 146-193, +01 19.4and up +00 jon to Electronic Communications 1413 Information source - Information (intaligencs) Physical facilty (metallic or ‘optical fiber cable) or froe- ‘space (Earth's almosphere) FIGURE 1-2 Simplified block diagram of an electronic communications system. Example 1-7 Determine the total power when a signal with a power level of 20 dBm is combined with a second signal with a power level of 21 dBm. Solution The dB difference in the two power levels is 1 dB. Therefore, from Table 1-5, the com- bining term is 2.5 dB and the total power is 21. dBm + 2.5 4B = 23.5 dBm ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS Figure 1-2 shows a simplified block diagram of an electronic communications system that includes a transmitter, a transmission medium, a receiver, and system noise. A transmittes is a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source in- formation to a form more suitable for transmission over a particular transmission medium, ‘The transmission medium or communications channel provides a means of transporting sig- nals between a transmitter and a receiver and can be as simple as a pair of copper wires or as complex as sophisticated microwave, satellite, or optical fiber communications systems. ‘System noise is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information signal. A receiver is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the transmission medium and then converts those signals back to their original form. 4-4 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 12 Because itis often impractical to propagate information signals over standard transmission media, itis often necessary to modulate the source information onto a higher-frequency analog signal called a carrier. In essence, the cartier signal carries the information through the system, The information signal modulates the carrier by changing either its amplitude, frequency, or phase. Modulation is simply the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in proportion with the information signal. ‘The two basic types of electronic communications systems are analog and digital. An analog communications system is a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog form (a continuously varying signal such as a sine wave). With analog communica~ tions systems, both the information and the carrier are analog signals. The term digital communications, however, covers a broad range of communica- tions techniques, including digital transmission and digital radio. Digital transmission is Chapter 1a true digital system where digital pulses (discrete levels such as +5 V and ground) are transferred between two or more points in a communications system. With digital trans- ‘mission, there is no analog carrier, and the original source information may be in digital or analog form. If its in analog form, it must be converted to digital pulses prior to trans- mission and converted back to analog form at the receive end. Digital transmission sys- ‘tems require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver, such as a metallic wire or an optical fiber cable. Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or ‘more points in a communications system. With digital radio, the modulating signal and the demodulated signal are digital pulses. The digital pulses could originate from a digital transmission system, from a digital source such as a computer, or be a binary-encoded ana log signal. In digital radio systems, digital pulses modulate an analog carrier. Therefore, the transmission medium may be a physical facility or free space (.c., the Earth's atmosphere). ‘Analog communications systems were the first to be developed: however, in recent years digital communications systems have become more popular. Equation 1-8 is the general expression for a time-varying sine wave of voltage such ‘as a high-frequency carrier signal. Ifthe information signal is analog and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, amplitude modulation (AM) is produced. Ifthe frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency modulation (FM) is produced, and, ifthe phase (6) is varied proportional to the informa- tion signal, phase modulation (PM) is produced. If the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied pro- portional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. Ifthe frequency (f)is varied proportional to the information sig- nal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and, if the phase (8) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced. If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are forms of digital modulation and are de- scribed in detail in Chapter 9, v() = VsinQnft +), (8) where (f) = time-varying sine wave of voltage V = peak amplitude (volts) J = frequency (hertz) 6 = phase shift (radians). ‘Asummary of the various modulation techniques is shown here: ‘Modulating signal Modulation performed Analog aM eM a | Moe Yainct4 Ol Digital ASK PSK PSK ep ‘QAM Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called a modulator. A carrier that has been acted on by an information signal is called a modulated wave or modulated sig- nal. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation and conyerts the modulated carrier back to the original information (i.e., removes the information from the carrier). Demodu- lation is performed in a receiver by a circuit called a demodulator. luction ta Electronic Communications 1315 14 There are two reasons why modulation is necessary in electronic communica- tions: (1) It is extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signals from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic energy, and (2) information signals often occupy the same frequency band and, if signals from two or more sources are transmitted at the same time, they would interfere with each other. For example, all commercial FM stations broadcast voice and music signals that occupy the audio-frequeney band from approx- imately 300 Hz to 15 KHz. To avoid interfering with each other, each station converts its information to a different frequency band of channel. The term channel is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service. A standard ‘yoice-band channel occupies approximately a 3-kHz bandwidth and is used for trans- mission of voice-quality signals; commercial AM broadcast channels occupy approxi mately a 10-KH7z frequency band, and 30 MHz or more of bandwidth is required for mi- crowave and satellite radio channels. Figure 1-3 is the simplified block diagram for an analog electronic communica- tions system showing the relationship among the modulating signal, the high-frequency carrier, and the modulated wave. The information signal (sometimes called the intelli- gence signal) combines with the carrier in the modulator to produce the modulated ‘wave. The information can be in analog or digital form, and the modulator can perform either analog or digital modulation. Information signals are up-converted from low fre- quencies to high frequencies in the transmitter and down-converted from high fre- ‘quencies to low frequencies in the receiver. The process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies (o another location in the total frequency spectrum is called ‘frequency translation. Frequency translation is an intricate part of electronic commu- nications because information signals may be up- and down-converted many times as they are transported through the system called a channel. The modulated signal is trans~ ported to the receiver over a transmission system. In the receiver, the modulated signal is amplified, down-converted in frequency, and then demodulated to reproduce the original source information. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM ‘The purpose of an electronic communications system is to communicate information be- ‘tween two or more locations commonly called stations. This is accomplished by convert- ing the original information into electromagnetic energy and then transmitting it to one or more receive stations where it is converted back to its original form, Electromagnetic en- ergy can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire, as emitted radio waves through free space, or as light waves down an optical fiber. Electromagnetic energy is dis- tributed throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies. Frequency is simply the number of times a periodic motion, such as a sine wave of voltage or current, occurs in a given period of time. Each complete alternation of the wave- form is called a cycle. The basic unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), and one hertz. equals one cycle per second (1 Hz = 1 cps). In electronics it is common to use metric prefixes to rep- resent higher frequencies. For example, kHz (kilohert2) is used for thousands of hertz, and MHz (megahertz) is used for millions of hertz, 4-5-1 Transmission Frequencies ‘The total electromagnetic frequency spectrum showing the approximate locations of vari- cous services is shown in Figure 1-4. The useful electromagnetic frequency spectrum ex- tends from approximately 10 kHz to several billions of hertz. The lowest frequencies are used only for special applications, such as communicating in water. Chapter 41Optea! fer band Oe pesckege enleeetee Tarot averowave, Gomi Coenio AM Ty gutta pared Viable Uravilet —Xrays— rays avs SPSS Sp SN opp di PRR PB is | a 40° 10° 107 10% 10" 10% 10% 107 10 10° 10°° 10" 1012 401* 10'* 10" 1078 1017 10"* 10! 108 10% 108 + Frequency 2) ——> FIGURE 1-4 Electromagnetic frequency spectrum, The electromagnetic frequency spectrum is divided into subsections, or bands each band having a different name and boundary. The International Telecommmunications Union (TU) is an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services within the overall frequency spectrum. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (ECC) assigns frequencies and communications services for free-space radio propagation. For example, the commercial FM broadcast band has been assigned the 88-MHZz to 108-MHz band, The exact frequencies assigned a specific transmitter operating in the various classes of services are constantly being updated and altered to meet the world’s communications needs. ‘The total usable radio-frequency (RF) spectrum is divided into narrower frequency bands, which are given descriptive names and band numbers, and several of these bands are further broken down into various types of services. The ITU's band designations are listed in Table 1-6, The ITU band designations are summarized as follows _ Extremely low frequencies. Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution signals (60 Hz) and loy- frequency telemetry signals. Voice frequencies. Voice frequencies (VFs) are signals in the 300-Hz. to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies generally associated with human speech. Standard telephone channels have a 300-Hz to 3000-Hz bandwidth and are often called voice- «frequency or voice-band channels. Very low frequencies, Very low frequencies (VLFs) are signals in the 3-kHz to 30-kHz range, which include the upper end of the human hearing range. VLPs are used for some specialized government and military systems, such as submarine ‘communications. /Low frequencies. Low frequencies (LES) are signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and are used primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation. ‘Medium frequencies. Medium frequencies (MFs) are signals in the 300-kHz to 3-MHz fange and are used primarily for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 KHz to 1605 kHz). High frequencies. High frequencies (HFs) are signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are often referred to as short waves. Most two-way radio communica- tions use this range, and Voice of America and Radio Free Europe broadcast within the HF band, Amateur radio and citizens band (CB) radio also use signals in the HF range. ~Very high frequencies. Very high frequencies (VHFs) are signals in the 30-MHz to 300-MHz range and are used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communica- tions, commercial FM broadcasting (88 MHz to 108 MHz), and commercial televi- sion broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 (54 MHz to 216 MHz). Chapter 1‘Table 1-8. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Band Designations ‘Band Number Frequency Range Designations 2 30 Hz-300 Ha ELF (extremely low frequencies) 3 (03 kH2-3 kHz VE (voice frequencies) 4 3 2-30 ka, VLE (very low frequencies) 5 30 kHz-300 kHz LLF Glow frequencies) 6 03. MH2-3 MH MF (medium frequencies) 7 3 MH2-30MHz LE (high frequencies) 8 30 Miz-300 MH VHP (very high frequencies) ° 300 MH-3 GHz ‘UBF (alteaigh frequencies) 10 3 GH-30GHy, SHE (supeshigh frequencies) nL 30GHz-200 GHz EHF (extremely high frequencies) 2 03 TH23 THz Infrared light B 3 TH2-30 THe Infrared ight 4 30 TH2-300 THz Infrared ight 15 03 Pliz-3 PH bl ight 16 3 PH:-30 PHz Ultraviolet light 7 30PH2-300 PH Xnys 18 03 EH2-3 EH Gamma mys 19 3 EH2-30 Elle Cosmic rays “10°, hertz (H2); 10°, kloherz (kH2); 10°, megahera (M Ha}; 10°, eizaher (GHz); 10", terahertz (THz); 10°, petahert (PH2); 10", exaherz (EH2). Ultrahigh frequencies. Ultrahigh frequencies (HFS) are signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHzrange and are used by commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile communications services, cellular telephones, certain radar and naviga- tion systems, and microwave and satellite radio systems. Generally, frequencies above 1 GHz are considered microwave frequencies, which includes the upper end of the UHF range. Superhigh frequencies. Superhigh frequencies (SHFs) are signals in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range and include the majority of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio communications systems. Extremely high frequencies. Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) are signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and are seldom used for radio communications except in very sophisticated, expensive, and specialized applications. Infrared. Infrared frequencies are signals in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz range and are ~ not generally referred to as radio waves, Infrared refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat. Infrared signals are used in heat-seeking guidance systems, electronic photography, and astronomy. Visible light. Visible light includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the visible range of humans (0.3 PHz to 3 PHz). Light-wave communications is used with optical fiber systems, which in recent years have become a primary transmission ‘medium for electronic communications systems. Ultraviolet rays, X rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays have little application to elec- ‘tronic communications and, therefore, will not be described. ‘When dealing with radio waves, itis common to use the units of wavelength rather than frequency. Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occu- pies in space (ie, the distance between similar points in a repetitive wave). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the veloc- ity of propagation (the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic energy in free space is Introduction to Electronic Communications 17assumed to be the speed of light, 3 x 10° m/s). The relationship among frequency, veloc- ity, and wavelength is expressed mathematically as wavelength = (1-9) where 2. = wavelength (meters per cycle) velocity of light (300,000,000 meters per second) frequency (hertz) The total electromagnetic wavelength spectrum showing the various services wit band is shown in Figure 1-5. Example 1-8 Determine the wavelength in meters for the following frequencies: 1 k#z, 100 kHz, and 10 MHz, Solution Substituting into Equation 1-9, 7 (1-10) + where = wavelength (inches per cycle) velocity of light (11.8 x 10° inches per second) frequency (hertz) 1-5-2 Classification of Transmitters For licensing purposes in the United States, radio transmitters are classified according to their bandwidth, modulation scheme, and type of information. The emission classifications are identified by a three-symbol code containing a combination of letters and numbers as 10 10 107 107 10 10" 10? 10? 10% 10% 10% 107 10h ach 10% 301 107 10° 20% 10! 10™ 107 90" Wvelngt lneemeters) 30" 10-1 FIGURE 1-5 Electromagnetic wavelength spectrum, Chapter 1‘Teble 1-7 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Emission Classifications First ‘Unmodilated ‘Uamodilated caer i i Double sideband, fall cartier (DSBFC) Independent sideband, fll carrer (ISBFC) ‘Vestigial sideband, fll cartier (VSB) Single-sdcband, fll carir (SSBFC) ‘Single-sideband, suppressed carer (SSBSC) ‘Single-sdcband, reduced cartier (SSBRC) bets i Frequency modulation (direct FM) ‘Phase modulation (indirect FM) AM and FM simultaneously or sequenced i Shi cie son sck see eeeqe cnt oe « Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) PPulse-width modulation WM) Pulse-postion modulation (PPM) ‘Unmodilaed pases (binary dats) ‘Angle modulated ducing pulses ‘Any combination of pulse-modulation category ‘Any combination of two or more ofthe above forms of modulation Cates not otherwise covered ‘No modulating signal Digitally keyed eaier Digitally keyed tone ‘Analog (sound or video) ‘Two or more digital channels ‘Two ot more analog Analog and digital ‘Telegraph, manual ‘elography, automatic (teletype) Facsimile Dat, telemetry ‘Telephony (sound broadcasting) Television (video broadcasting) [No information transmitted ‘Any combination of second leter shown in Table 1-7. The first symbol isa letter that designates the type of modulation of the ‘main carrier. The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of emission, and the third symbol is another letter that describes the type of information being transmitted. For exam- pile, the designation A3E describes a double-sideband, full-carrer, amplitude-modulated sig- nal carrying voice or music telephony information. 4-6 BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY 1-6-1 Bandwidth ‘The two most significant limitations on the performance of a communications system are noise and bandwidth. Noise is discussed later in this chapter. The bandwidth of an infor- ‘mation signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained Sptroduction to Electronic Communications 19