SHORT-SEASON, HIGH-ALTITUDE GARDENING BULLETIN 867

Growing tree fruits in

short-season gardens
by Stephen L. Love, Esmaeil Fallahi, and Kathy Noble

INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS Commercial tree fruit production is commonly located in areas with at least
150 frost-free days and a USDA hardiness zone of at least 5. These regions
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
provide optimal growing conditions for most tree fruit crops. Idaho’s cool-
APPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hardiness and Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 season, high-altitude regions do not have the luxury of these ideal condi-
Adapted Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 tions. As a result, producing homegrown fruit in Idaho’s harsher climates can
Management Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 be challenging, but not impossible.
APRICOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The main tool in successful tree fruit production is selection of appropriate
Bloom Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 crops and varieties. Plant breeding has produced many tree-fruit varieties
Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 that will grow in harsh climates. Selecting the right variety can mean the dif-
Pollination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
ference between success and frustration.
CHERRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
PEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Even with adapted varieties, tree fruit production can be demanding.
PLUMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Learning and practicing some simple management techniques will help your
OTHER TREE FRUITS AND NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
TREE FRUIT CARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 plants survive and produce consistently.
Planting and Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Tree fruits specifically adapted to Idaho’s harsher climates include apples,
Winter Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Spring Frost Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 pears, pie cherries, plums, and some late-blooming apricots. Varieties of each
Protection from Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 fruit crop vary widely in winter hardiness and timing of fruit maturity.
Protection from Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Hardiness and early maturity are both critical for consistent production in
Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 short-season areas. Caring for fruit trees in harsh climates, even fully adapt-
Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ed varieties, brings unique challenges, and knowing the proper maintenance
procedures will help bring fresh fruit to the table.
YOU ARE A SHORT-SEASON,
HIGH-ALTITUDE GARDENER IF:
You live in Idaho at an elevation above 4,500 feet, OR
Your USDA hardiness zone is 4 or lower, OR
You have a frost-free growing season of 110 days or less
Table 1: Some apple varieties adapted to Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions.

VARIETY HARVEST TIME COLOR USES AND QUALITY

Earligold August Yellow Fresh, cooking; high quality

Haralred Late September Red Fresh, cooking, cider
Haralson Late September Red-striped Cooking; tart
Hazen September Red Fresh, cooking; mild flavor
Honeycrisp Late fall Red striped All-around; stores well
Honeygold Early October Yellow Fresh, cooking
Liberty September Dark red Scab resistant; good fresh, fair for cooking
Lodi (Transparent) July Yellow Cooking; fair quality
McIntosh September Red blush All-around; tart
Northern Spy Early October Yellow-striped red All-around; high quality
Spartan Early October Red All-around; high quality
State Fair August Red striped Fresh; excellent quality
Sweet Sixteen September Red striped Fresh, cooking; high quality
Wealthy September Red striped Cooking; high quality

APPLES ADAPTED VARIETIES

A number of apple varieties have proven themselves adapt-
HARDINESS AND MATURITY
able to Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude climates. In addi-
In most of Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions, apple
tion to those listed here (table 1), with a little work you can
trees will be consistently hardy if you plant appropriate vari-
find other good varieties. New varieties are constantly being
eties. But there is another important consideration: the root-
developed, and some may be worth considering if they can
stock. Trees sold in any commercial nursery are made up of
survive in USDA hardiness zone 3 and mature relatively early.
two parts, the rootstock (the root part of the tree) and the
Varieties developed specifically for cold climates are usually
variety or scion (the top of the tree). The “bump” usually
more dependably hardy.
located about 8 to 12 inches above the ground is called the
“bud union” and is the point where the chosen variety was
MANAGEMENT ISSUES
grafted onto the rootstock.
Slow bearing—Apples trees have some specific characteris-
Just like the chosen variety, some rootstocks can withstand tics that influence their management in short-season, high-
frigid winters, while others cannot. The best rootstocks for altitude climates. First of all, they are often slow to bear fruit.
Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions are of Russian der- This can be an especially difficult problem in short-season cli-
ivation, including the dwarfing rootstock Bud 9 and the stan- mates where the trees may take longer to reach bearing size.
dard rootstock Antanovka. Bud 9 is desirable not only for its If given proper care, apple trees should begin to bear decent
hardiness, but because it produces dwarf trees (10-12 feet quantities of fruit in 4 to 6 years. Use of dwarfing rootstocks
tall) that can be easily managed in a small space. However, can result in earlier bearing. Trees on Bud 9 rootstock will
trees grafted onto Bud 9 can droop and may need the sup- bear fruit as early as the third year after planting. If apple
port of a pole or trellis. trees are growing rapidly at the end of several years, but not
bearing fruit, it can be an indication of too much nitrogen fer-
When you purchase an apple tree, ask your local nurseryman
tilizer, improper or excessive pruning, or poor training.
to identify the rootstock and explain its characteristics. When
the rootstock identity cannot be confirmed, you can follow When slow bearing occurs, try eliminating fertilizer applica-
this rule of thumb: Dwarfing rootstocks are typically less tions until the tree begins to bear. If the tree is in a lawn area,
hardy than those that produce semi-dwarf or standard trees. avoid fertilizing the grass around the tree. Another trick to
So, in a harsh climate, if rootstock identity is unknown, your encourage bud formation and fruit production is to bend the
best option is to find room in the yard for a full-size tree. branches downward. Do this by pulling the major branches
downward to form a 90 degree angle from the trunk and tie
Even among varieties hardy enough to survive the winter,
them (under tension) in place using ground stakes.
many will not properly mature in short-season climates.
Consequently, it is important to choose varieties that will Lastly, avoid excessive pruning because it encourages growth
mature and give high-quality fruit under conditions of cool of immature, nonbearing wood. Information on pruning and
temperatures and short growing seasons. In most cases, training techniques for home orchards can be found in other
apples should mature by early October and definitely before University of Idaho Extension publications.
temperatures consistently fall into the low to mid 20s.

2 SHORT-SEASON, HIGH-ALTITUDE GARDENING

Alternate bearing—Another common problem in harsh cli-
mates is alternate bearing. This problem is typified by heavy
bloom, fruit set, and fruit yield in one year followed by very
light fruit production the next year. Alternate bearing is caused
by poor flower initiation (buds for next year’s fruit) during a
heavy crop year. This problem is common in harsh climates
because bloom loss due to spring frost can eliminate fruit in
one year and trigger the alternating cycle to begin the next.
It takes conscious, consistent effort to interrupt alternate
bearing using fruit-thinning techniques during the heavy-
bearing years. Thin by hand during heavy-bearing years by
removing all apples in each cluster except one and spacing
the remaining apples about 4 to 6 inches apart along each
branch. Do this within 4 to 6 weeks of full bloom. If you wait
too long, the intended effect of encouraging the tree to bear
fruit the next year will be reduced.
Be careful when thinning not to break off or damage the
small fruit-bearing branches. Sometimes more than half of
the fruit will be removed during thinning. This may seem
wasteful, but the tree will make up for lost numbers by grow-
ing bigger, better-quality apples.
Late-flowering apricots are adapted to Idaho climates.
Poor pollination—Some apple varieties do not bear well
when growing alone because they have problems with self-
BLOOM PROTECTION
pollination. They need a tree of a second, “pollenizer,” variety
Apricots will produce more consistently if planted in a pro-
close by. This problem can be aggravated in a harsh climate
tected area. Urban gardeners will have more success than
when cold, wet spring weather reduces the presence of bees
those living in outlying locales. When damaging frost is immi-
and other insect pollinators. The solution is to plant a self-
nent, you can protect one or a few blooming apricot trees
fertile variety or to plant two compatible varieties that can
growing near a house by providing a source of heat under-
help pollinate each other. When selecting an apple variety, be
neath the tree. Warm air will rise through the branches and
sure to ask your nurseryman about the need for a pollenizer.
ward off cold air. Heat sources include space heaters, ignited
charcoal briquettes, and heat lamps. This technique will work
APRICOTS well on a calm night with radiation-type frost, but not as well
VARIETIES when cold temperatures are accompanied by wind.
Apricots are usually hardy throughout Idaho’s zone 3 and 4
regions, but that does not mean all gardeners in these areas THINNING
will be successful in growing a consistent crop of fruit. It is important to thin apricots when fruit set is excessively
Apricots bloom very early, and the most difficult aspect of heavy. This is not designed to prevent alternate bearing as in
apricot production in Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude apples. Instead, it allows the remaining fruit to grow larger
regions is the loss of blossoms due to spring frost. and develop better quality. Also, too much fruit on a tree pre-
Consequently, choosing varieties that are hardy, but also late- disposes the fall-forming flower buds to be sensitive to winter
blooming, is essential (table 2). Even the hardiest varieties injury.
may not bear every year in Idaho’s zone 3 or 4 areas.

Table 2. Apricot varieties for Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions.

VARIETY HARVEST TIME FRUIT SIZE NOTES

Chinese (Mormon) Early July Small-medium Good for frost-prone areas

Debbie’s Gold Late July Medium Consistent producer in Alberta
Harcot July Medium-large Late blooming and frost hardy
Harlayne Late July Medium Late blooming, hardy
Moongold Late July Large Frost-resistant bloom, hardy
Perfection July Large Late bloom, hardy
Sungold Late July Large Late bloom, hardy
Westcot July Large Dependable cold-climate producer

GROWING TREE FRUITS 3

 Thin by removing all but one fruit in large clusters. Try to
achieve a density equal to a single fruit every 2 to 4 inches
along each branch. Fruit should be thinned when they are
about half grown and after fruit drop (also known as “June
drop”), which occurs naturally as part of the growth cycle.

POLLINATION
Most apricots are at least partially self-fertile. However,
many varieties will produce a heavier crop if a second variety
is present to act as a pollenizer.

CHERRIES
The only types of cherry sufficiently hardy for the short-sea-
son, high-altitude regions of Idaho are pie (sour) cherries
Ripening cherries must be protected from birds. (table 3). They are hardy anywhere in Idaho, including zone 3
locations. Sour cherries do not have flavor suitable for fresh
consumption, but are outstanding for canning and freezing.
Though winter hardy, tart cherries bloom very early in spring,
and loss of flowers due to frost damage is common in cold,
short-season areas.
Pie cherries are self-fertile and can bear well with only one
tree present. The trees are naturally small and are suitable for
small yards. Pie cherries well cared for should begin bearing in
2 to 3 years, even in cold climates.

PEARS
Winter-hardy pear varieties will survive and consistently bear
fruit in all but the very coldest of Idaho’s short-season, high-
altitude regions. However, many pear varieties, though hardy,
will not ripen where the growing season is short.
Consequently, early ripening varieties are essential for consis-
tent production (table 4).
Most pear varieties are self-infertile and need a second, poll-
enizer, variety, of similar hardiness and blooming period,
planted nearby. This makes pears suitable only for larger yards.

PLUMS
Plums are classified into three groups: European, Japanese,
Early maturing pear varieties are a must in short-season regions of Idaho. and hybrids with native plums (table 5). The European vari-
eties are preferred by most homeowners because of their
large, blue, late-maturing, prune-type fruit. As a group, they
are moderately hardy. Early ripening European varieties are
essential to ensure harvest before cold temperatures occur in
the fall.
Japanese varieties come in various colors, including red and
yellow. The fruits are smaller than the European varieties, and
the trees are generally less hardy.
The third type includes hybrids with native plums. As a group,
these are the hardiest plums, but they have the least consis-
tent quality.
Selection of the hardiest varieties will allow production of any
of the three types in Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude cli-
mates. However, in the coldest mountain valleys, the hybrid
European plums are usually large and dark blue. varieties will give the most consistent production.

4 SHORT-SEASON, HIGH-ALTITUDE GARDENING

Many plums are self-infertile and need a pollenizer variety OTHER TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
planted nearby. Generally, the European varieties are self-fer- Most other tree fruits are not adapted to the short-season,
tile. The hybrids and Japanese varieties are generally self- high-altitude regions of Idaho. This is also true of nut crops.
infertile, but there are exceptions. Be sure to determine the Only black walnuts and butternuts (similar to black walnut)
need for a pollenizer before making a purchase, especially if will consistently survive the winter cold. Hazelnuts, Persian
you have room for only one tree. Plums require very little in walnuts, and almonds will survive and produce only in the
the way of special management to produce in short-season warmest regions of Idaho.
climates.

Table 3. Cherry varieties for Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions.

VARIETY HARVEST TIME FRUIT SIZE NOTES

Meteor Early summer Medium-large Small tree, very hardy (-50°F)

Montmorency Early summer Medium-large Small tree, hardy (-40°F)
Northstar Early summer Large Small tree, very hardy (-40°F)

Table 4. Pear varieties for Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions.

VARIETY HARVEST TIME COLOR NOTES

Clapp’s Favorite August Red blush Not suitable for storage

Flemish Beauty Late September Red blush Medium-size, good-quality fruit; very hardy
Gourmet Late September Green Round, crisp, and sweet fruit; hardy
Honeysweet Late August Tan Rich flavor, partially self-fertile
John September Yellow Small fruit, fair quality, extremely hardy
Luscious Late September Yellow Large, sweet, and juicy fruit; hardy
Moonglow Late August Red blush Bartlett type, very hardy
Parker Mid-September Yellow/red blush Large fruit, moderately hardy
Sauvignac September Yellow Medium-size, juicy fruit; one of the hardiest
Summercrisp August Yellow blushed red Good storability, good pollenizer
Ure September Red blush Small, good-quality fruit; extremely hardy

Table 5. Plum varieties for Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions.

VARIETY HARVEST TIME COLOR NOTES

European
Mount Royal Late August Purple skin, yellow flesh Self-fertile, very hardy
Stanley Late September Purple skin, yellow flesh Self-fertile, hardy
Italian September Purple skin, yellow flesh Productive, hardy
Ember August Yellow skin with reddish blush Medium-sized fruit
Underwood August Red skin, yellow flesh Hardy, vigorous tree with large fruits

Japanese
Methley August Purple skin, red flesh Sweet, hardy
Satsuma Early September Red skin, red flesh Sweet, hardy

Hybrid
Alderman Late August Burgundy skin, yellow flesh, Sweet, hardy
Pembina Late August Red skin, yellow flesh Large fruit, sweet, hardy
Sapalta Late August Purple skin, red flesh Excellent quality, very hardy
Tecumseth Mid-August Red skin, yellow flesh Good quality, hardy
Toka August Reddish-orange skin, yellow flesh Very hardy

GROWING TREE FRUITS 5

 WINTER PROTECTION
In high-altitude locations, bright sunlight causes alternate
day/night temperature fluctuations that can cause stress in
the bark and trunks of young fruit trees and make them crack.
During the first 2 to 3 years after planting, the trunks of
young trees should be wrapped with burlap or white tree
wrap fabric to lessen the tendency for damage.

SPRING FROST PROTECTION

Spring frost is a serious barrier to tree fruit production in
Idaho’s short-season, high-altitude regions. The damage from
frost becomes more serious as the blooms get closer to being
fully open. Open blooms will be damaged or killed at temper-
atures of 28°F or colder.
For home production, where the number and size of fruit
trees is limited, it is possible to protect the flowers by placing
Spring frosts are a constant danger to fruit blossoms.
space heaters, containers of charcoal briquettes, or heat
lamps around the base of the trees when frost is forecast.
Occasionally, gardeners will bravely attempt to grow some of
Overhead irrigation applied during freezing temperatures can
the marginally adapted fruit crops, such as peaches and
also provide protection, but may be difficult to apply to a
sweet cherries. Peaches will survive some winters in urban
full-size tree. In addition, the weight of the ice can damage
zone 4 locations, but they bear fruit inconsistently even fol-
weak trunks and branches. If you irrigate to provide frost pro-
lowing mild winters. The flower buds may be damaged or
tection, leave the water running into the following morning
killed by subzero temperatures, and the trees will often die
until all evidence of ice is gone.
when temperatures fall below -15°F. The hardiest varieties
available in the local nursery trade are Reliance and Polly.
PROTECTION FROM WILDLIFE
Sweet cherry trees can survive even the harshest of Idaho’s In many of Idaho’s high desert or mountainous regions,
climates. However, the flower buds are killed by winter tem- wildlife move into the outskirts of communities to spend the
peratures of about -10°F, and successful fruit set is rare. You winter. Rabbits and rodents can be the most destructive of
can grow a nice cherry tree for shade and hope for the occa- these visitors due to their tendency to chew away the bark
sional cherry to eat. around the base of young trees. These girdled trees subse-
quently die. Trees can be protected by wrapping the base of
TREE FRUIT CARE the trunk with metal screening or other nonchewable materi-
al that blocks access to the trunk.
PLANTING AND ESTABLISHMENT
When selecting a tree for planting in short-season climates, Deer can also damage young trees as they browse on the
the most important factor is size. Buy trees that are afford- buds and young branches. Moose damage trees severely by
ably large up to a trunk diameter of 1 inch (measured 6 inches breaking branches and trunks. If you have deer or moose in
above the ground). Smaller trees will have fewer transplanti- your area, you may find a sturdy fence 8 to 10 feet high is
ng problems, but may take longer to reach bearing size. Trees required to protect your trees. Spray-on deer repellent mate-
that are larger than 1 inch may suffer more from the shock of rials have generally proven ineffective.
transplanting.
PROTECTION FROM WIND
Trees will establish quicker and reach bearing size sooner if
Spring and summer winds cause blossom drop, leaf burn, and
they do not have competition from other plants, especially
fruit injury. Consistent winds also alter growth, making the
grass. Because slow growth is one of the biggest issues for
trees “heavy” on one side. In winter, winds desiccate branches
trees planted in short-season climates, it is important to capi-
and buds and lessen the hardiness of the trees. For this rea-
talize on every advantage. Competition can best be eliminat-
son, fruit trees should be planted where they are protected
ed by maintaining a mulch zone 5 to 6 feet in diameter
from prevailing winds by buildings or other landscape plants.
around young trees and increasingly wide as the trees grow to
In some cases, it may be worthwhile to establish a windbreak
mature size.
that includes evergreens prior to planting fruit trees. The fruit
Be aware, however, that mulching trees provides habitat for trees should be planted at least 40 or 50 feet from a wind-
mice and voles, which can girdle the trunk when they feed on break to avoid shade and competition from tree roots.
the bark. If you choose to mulch, you will need to monitor
rodents and take action to eliminate them through the use of
traps or baits.

6 SHORT-SEASON, HIGH-ALTITUDE GARDENING

Rabbits damage young trees by chewing the bark.

FERTILIZATION
Proper fertilization of fruit trees is more important in short-
season areas than in warmer regions. Excessive or improperly
scheduled fertilizer applications can cause the trees to delay
winter acclimatization. Because many fruit trees are already
marginally adapted, this can result in losses of trees or in
reductions in their fruit-bearing capacity. A good practice is to
apply fertilizer, especially those containing nitrogen, in early
spring through the first of July and avoid late-summer appli-
cations.
During the first few years after planting, it is best to fertilize
trees with a complete fertilizer such as a 10-5-5 formulation.
Established trees are more self-sufficient and need fertilizer Proper irrigation is critical to growing good fruit.
that contains only nitrogen. A typical fertilizer rate for fruit
trees is 1 ⁄ 10 pound of actual nitrogen per inch of diameter of
the trunk as measured 1 foot above the ground. (For a 10-5-5
and increasing moisture retention, both of which make iron
fertilizer, which is 10% nitrogen, that would mean applying 1
less available to plants. This is especially true in soils with pH
pound of product per inch of trunk diameter).
of 7.5 or above. If the deficiencies become pronounced and
However, many variables influence decisions to apply fertiliz- affect tree health, it may be necessary to begin a spring and
er. If a tree is located in a lawn area that is frequently fertil- summer regime of foliar applications (dilute solutions
ized, no additional fertilizer will be needed or desired. If a tree sprayed on the leaves) of fertilizer products that contain iron,
is growing rapidly, has a tendency to sucker, is slow to bear, zinc, and boron. To work properly, these applications must be
or has been severely pruned, you could cut back on—or elimi- frequent (every few weeks), consistent, and made over a peri-
nate—fertilizer applications for a year or two. In short-season od of years.
climates, too much fertilizer is a more common problem for
fruit trees than too little. IRRIGATION
Fruit trees need consistent, but not excessive, irrigation to
Iron chlorosis—In regions with alkaline soils, micronutrient
produce good quality fruit. They should be watered about
deficiencies appear on many fruit tree species. These deficien-
every 10 days to 2 weeks with enough water to wet the soil
cies usually express themselves on the youngest leaves at the
to a depth of 2 to 3 feet. In cool areas with loam and silt
ends of branches as light-yellow leaves with dark-green veins.
loam soils, you may not need to irrigate as frequently. The
We often call this problem “iron chlorosis.”
object is to keep the soil moist, but not waterlogged.
Iron chlorosis is a difficult problem to manage, especially in Continue to irrigate, as needed, until late fall. It was once
high-desert soils. These soils cannot be easily amended to thought that water stressing plants in the fall increased their
adjust pH. Planting a tree in a lawn or applying a heavy layer cold hardiness. That practice actually weakens the trees and
of mulch aggravates the problem by slowing soil warming increases winter damage.

GROWING TREE FRUITS 7

 Find more gardening resources and publications online at
[Link]/[Link]

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Stephen L. Love is a Community Horticulture Specialist in the University of Idaho
Department of Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences at the Aberdeen Research and
Extension Center. Esmaeil Fallahi is a Pomologist in the University of Idaho Department
of Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences, Southwest Idaho Research and Extension
Center—Parma. Kathy Noble is a Landscape Architect with Katherine Noble and
Associates, Hailey, Idaho.

PHOTO CREDITS
Apple, rabbit, and sprinkler photos courtesy of Stephen L. Love. All other photos from
HAAP Media Ltd. ([Link]).

Issued in furtherance of cooperative extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Charlotte V. Eberlein, Director of University of Idaho Extension, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844. The University of
Idaho provides equal opportunity in education and employment on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, sexual orientation, age, disabili-
ty, or status as a disabled veteran or Vietnam-era veteran, as required by state and federal laws.

Published April 2009 © 2009 by the University of Idaho. All rights reserved.