Extension – Concept, functions, philosophy, principle and process of extension and its

application in the development

ORIGIN-
The common use of the term university extension was first reported in Britain
in 1840.
• Mr. William `Sewell of U.K used the word extension in his report entitled
“Suggestions for the extension of the university ” in the year 1850.
• The first practical steps were taken in 1867-68 when Mr. James Stuart -A
fellow of Trinity college Cambridge used to deliver lectures to women's
association and working men’s clubs, in north U.K. The Cambridge
University formally adopted the system in 1873.followed by London university
in 1876
• By the 1880,s the work was being referred as extension movement.

• Vorhees (1894) was the first to use the word extension

• The term Agricultural Extension was adopted in USA when the Smith Lever Act
of 1914 was passed.
• The term Extension education has been used in USA since the beginning of
the 20th Century to indicate that the target group for university teaching should
not be restricted to students on campus.
• MEANING
• The dictionary (Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary ) meaning of the word extension
is “The art of extending or the state of being extended.”

• Extension education is the extension of results of research to the persons who

are in need of it.
EDUCATION
It can be defined as the process of bringing desirable changes into the
behaviors of an individual.
It can also be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge
and habits through instruction or study.

When learning is progressing towards goals that have been established in

accordance with a philosophy which has been defined for, and is understood by the
learner , it is called education.
• The behavioural changes should be acceptable socially, culturally and
economically; and must result in a change in knowledge ,skill, attitude and
understanding.
 Types of Education
• There are different types of education like ; child education ,adult education,
technical education , education in arts and crafts, education in humanities and
social sciences and many others .
Broadly, the education may be classified as INFORMAL, FORMAL and
NON- FORMAL.
1. The informal education is the life long process by which every person acquires
knowledge, skills, attitude and insights from daily experiences and exposure to
environment.

2. Formal education is highly institutionalized, uniform and subject oriented, full time,
sequential, hierarchically structured, class room type, fixed curriculum, leading to
certificates, degree and diplomas etc.
3. Non- Formal Education is flexible, environment and learner-oriented, diversified in
content and methods , non-authoritarian, based on learner participation, mobilized local
resources, organized , systematic educational activity carried on outside the frame
work of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular sub-
groups in the population including adults and children, enriches human and
environment potential .
• It includes agricultural extension, farmers training programmes, adult literacy
programmes, occupational skill training, various community programmes of
health, nutrition and family planning etc.
 Definition.
 Extension Education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge
to the rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner, and to help
them to take decisions within their specific local conditions.
 Also Extension Education involves two way channel of knowledge and experience
 Philosophy of Extension
 Philosophy
It is made up of two Greek words;
Phil- to love
Sophous- Knowledge
So broadly speaking, Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom or knowledge of things and their
causes (both theoretical and practical).
It is also defined as moral of wisdom.
 Extension EDUCATION
 Mildred Hurton has described following four principles which make the philosophy of
extension education:
  (i) The individual is supreme in a democracy.
 (ii) The Home is the fundamental unit in a civilization.
 (iii) The family is the fundamental unit in a civilization.
 (iv) The foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the partnership of man
and land.
 Principles of extension education;
A principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action in a consistent
manner (Matews,1962).
A principle is a sufficiently proven or tested observation and has substantial truth in it.
Some main principles of Extension Education are discussed below;
1.Principle of interests and needs;
In order to carry out extension work effectively, an extension worker must
begin with the interests and needs of the farmers. Sometimes, the farmers may be interested
to know about the plant protection measures in apple while the extension worker may be
interested in advising the farmers about the fertilizer application in maize crop, this may
create problem. Therefore, an extension worker should first identify the interests and needs of
the farmers which require immediate attention and can be fulfilled with the available
resources.
2. Principle of grass root approach;
To be successful, extension work must start from where the people are.
They should be approached at the grass root level, that is, a start from below. The programme
must be base on the sitation,needs,interest and problems of the people. The things must
spring from below (i.e. the people at the village level) and spread like grass. the establishment
of three tier system viz., Village Panchayat at the Village Level, Block Samiti at Block Level
and Zila Parishad at district level ,followed by State Legislatures and Parliament satisfies this
principle.
3. Principle of cultural differences;
Extension education takes into consideration the culture, tradition, ,customs,
beliefs, taboos etc of the local people. The field extension worker should know the culture,
aspirations and attitude of the rural people .Different Cultures require different approaches
.For example, it may be very difficult to motivate Punjab farmers for tobacco cultivation and
Muslim farmers for piggery.
4. Principle of cultural change;
Culture is dynamic in nature. Changed ways must be learnt.An extension
worker who works personally with the villagers must have the knowledge of what the
villagers know and what they think. With an attitude of mutual respect and receptiveness, he
should consider the limitations,taboos,and the cultural values related to each phase of his
programme,before it is introduced so that an acceptable approach may be followed .
5 Principle of whole family approach;
Extension is family directed. All the family have to be developed equally by
involving all of them because each member of the family has great influence in decision
making. there is much work in the field for the men and at home for the women. Cases are
there when the farmer could not adopt a promising variety of maize as there wives did not
like the Colour of chapatti prepared from this variety of maize. young house wives could not
adopt smokeless chulha as they were discouraged by their mother-in-law to do so. Had they
been involved and persuaded, the situation might have been different.
6. Principle of Co-operation and Participation;
Co-operation and participation of the people is of fundamental
importance for the success of any development Programme.People become dynamic if they
are permitted to take decisions concerning their own affairs, to exercise responsibility and to
carry projects in their own villages.For example, Joint Forest Management programme
emphasized on the peoples’ participation for the development of forest. So, people must feel
that is their own programme.
7. Principle of applied science and democratic approach:
Extension education is not a one-way process. The problems of the people are taken
to the scientists concerned for solution and further research. The extension worker must
translate the scientific findings /technical information in such a way that the farm families
can voluntarily and easily adopt them to satisfy their own needs.
Extension operates through discussion and suggestions. Facts about a situation are
shared with the people. All possible alternative solutions are placed before the participants
and ultimately the farmers are free to decide their own course of action the methods to be
adopted in their local situation with their own resources and available govt. assistance. No
technology or idea should be imposed on them.
8.Principle of learning by doing;
In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by
doing and direct participation.
9.Principle of trained specialists;
An extension worker is supposed to be a ’Jack of all trades but master of
none’ .So the trained specialists should be helpful in this regard
10.Principle of Leadership;
The involvement of leader in extension programmes is one of the most important
factor which determines the success or failure of the programmes.

11.Principle of adaptability in the use of extension teaching methods;

 There are different people and groups in the village which differ in age, education,sex,
economic status, knowledge, level of understanding etc. So, no single extension teaching
methods effective under all situations.
12.Principle of Satisfaction;
Satisfaction of people is very essential in extension work. the people will act
with trust and conviction when they get full satisfaction from the end product of any
Programme.
13. Principle of Evaluation;
It is necessary to see whether or not the extension work is proceeding in the
right direction. If not it is essential to take correct measures. Therefore its effectiveness
should be measured in terms of the changes in the people. Such evaluation would help in
improving the quality of programmes in future.

LEARNING & TEACHING IN EXTENSION

Extension is an educational process for bringing about the maximum number of desirable
changes among the people, which involves both learning & teaching & needs some tools or
methods commonly known as extension-teaching methods. It is, therefore, necessary here to
understand what is meant by learning, teaching & extension methods.
'Learning' is the process by which an individual, through his own activity, attains a change in
his behaviour. It is an active process on the part of the learner. The essential role of an
extension worker is to create effective 'learning situations'. An effective learning situation
requires the following essential elements:

1. An instructor (an extension worker, e.g. an extension officer or a village-level worker).

2. Learners (the farmers, the farm women & the youth).
3. Subject-matter (the recommended improved practices, such as the seeds of high-yielding
varieties, fertilisers, balanced diet, etc.)
4. Teaching material, such as a flannel-board, a black-board, charts, models, samples, slides,
film strips, etc.
5. Physical facilities, such as sitting accomodation, good visibility, etc.

The extension worker should skillfully manipulate the elements of the learning situation &
provide satisfactory learning experiences for the people. The farmer, the farmer women or the
farm youth are the focal points in the learning situation. The main aim of an extension worker
is to bring about a change in this behaviour of the people with the help of a judicious
combination & use of different elements. all the teaching should be carried out according to
the needs & resources of the local community or group.
'Teaching' is the process of arranging situations in which the things to be learnt are brought to
the notice of the learners, their interest is developed & desire aroused, i.e. they are stimulated
to action.
for example, if we want to teach the farmers the use & advantages of chemical fertilisers, we
do this by conducting demonstrations on their fields, showing them how the fertilisers are
applied, & compare the yield of the fertilised crop with that of the crop to which no fertilisers
has ben applied. After seeing the beneficial effect of a fertilisers, the farmer is convinced &
motivated to action & starts using fertilisers regularly.
 Extension-teaching methods. The extension-teaching methods are the tools &
techniques used to create situations in which communication can take place between the rural
people & the extension workers. They are the methods of extending new knowledge & skills
to the rural people by drawing their attention towards them, arousing their interest & helping
them to have a sucessful experience of the new practice.
A proper understanding of these methods & their selection for a particular type of work are
necessary.

Classification of extension teaching methods.

(A) ACCORDING TO USE.

One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their use & nature of contact.
In other words, whether they are used for contacting people individually, in groups or in
masses. Based upon the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group & mass-
contact methods.
Individual-contact methods.

Extension methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-face or person-to-
person contact between the rural people & the extension workers. These methods are very
effective in teaching new skills & creating goodwill between farmers & the extension
workers.
Group-contact methods.

Under this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group which usually
consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are usually formed around a common interest.
These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the people & provide an opportunity
for the exchange of ideas, for discussions on problems & technical recommendations &
finally for deciding the future course of action.
Mass or community-contact methods.

An extension worker has to approach a large number of people for disseminating a new
informaton & helping them to use it. this can be done through mass-contact methods
conveniently. These methods are more useful for making people aware of the new
agricultural technology quickly.
Important extension-teaching methods under these 3 categories are listed in the following
chart.

Chart 1. Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their use

Individual
Group contacts Mass contacts
contacts
Farm & home Method demonstration & result
Bulletins
visits demonstration
National demonstration leader-training
Office calls Leaflets
meetings
Telephone calls Conferences & discussion meetings & Circular letters & radio
 workshops
Personal letters Field trips Television,exhibitions,fairs,posters

(B) ACCORDING TO FORM.

Extension-teaching methods are also classified according to their forms, such as written,
spoken & audio-visual. Some of the important methods under each of these 3 categories are
given in Chart 2.

Chart 2. Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their form

Written Spoken Objective or visual
General & special
Bulletins Result demonstration
meetings
Leaflets,folders,News articles Farm & home visits Demonstration posters
Personal letters Official calls Motion-picture or movies, charts
Circular letters Telephone calls, radio Slides & film-strips,models,exhibits

A brief description of some of the extension methods which are commonly used by extension
workers is given below.
Farm & home visits.

Farm & home visits constitute the direct or face-to-face contact by an extension worker with
the farmer or the members of his family. During these visits, information is exchanged or
discussed. The visits may be to get acquainted with the problems of the farmers, or to
organisational purposes. Such visits provide an opportunity for a two-way communication.
Result demonstration.

Result demonstration is an educational test to prove the advantages of recommended practices

& to demonstrate their applicability to the local condition. It is conducted by a farmer under
the direct supervision of an extension worker. It is designed to teach others, in addition to the
person who conducts the demonstration. It helps the farmers to learn by seeing & doing. This
method can be used to show the supoeriority of practices, such as the use of fertilisers,
insecticides & pesticides & high yielding varieties of seeds.
Method demonstration.

It is used to show the technique of doing things or carrying out new practices, e.g. preparing a
nursery-bed, treating seed with insecticides & fungicides, line-sowing, taking a soil sample,
grafting fruit trees, etc. This method is usually used for groups of people.
National demonstrations.

National demonstrations are the "first-line demonstrations," conducted by researchers on the

farmers' fields to show how production can be increased per unit of area & per unit of time.
These demonstrations usually include the system of multiple cropping & the use of high-
yielding varieties, along with the best package of practices. They were first initiated on a
modest scale in 1965 & have now become a part of the agricultural production programme in
the country.
Group discussions.

All the farmers cannot be contacted by extension workers individually because of their large
number. It is convenient & feasible to contact them in groups. This method is commonly
known as group discussion. It is used to encourage & stimulate the people to learn more about
the problems that concern the community through discussion. It is a good method of
involving the local people in developing local leadership & in deciding on a plan of action in
a democratic way.
Exhibitions.

An exhibition is a systematic display of information, actual specimens, models, posters,

photographs, and charts, etc in a logical sequence. It is organised for arousing the interest of
the visitors in the things displayed. It is one of the best media for reaching a large number of
people, especially illiterate & semi-illiterate people. Exhibitions are used for a wide range of
topics, such as planning a model village, demonstrating improved irrigation practices, soil
conservation methods, showing high-yielding varieties of seeds & plants, new agricultural
implements & the best products of vilage industries.
General meetings.

These are usually held for passing on certain information to the people for future action.
Extension workers give lectures to the people on certain pre-selected items of work, such as
the celebration of Van mahotsav, a national festival.
Campaigns.

Campaigns are used to focus the attention of the people on a particular problem, e.g. rat
control, village sanitation & plant protection, the production of rabi crops & family planning.
Through this method, the maximum number of farmers can be reached in the shortest possible
time. It builds up community confidence & involves the people emotionally in a programme.
Tours & field days.

Conducted tours for farmers are used to convince them & to provide them with an
opportunity of seeing the results of new practices, demonstration skills, new implements etc.
& to give them an idea regarding the suitability & application of these things in their own
area. Such tours may also be arranged to enable the rural people to visit places & institutions
connected with the problems of rural life, such as research institutions, training institutions,
agricultural universities, model vilages, areas of advanced developments, leading private
farms, exhibitions, & agricultural & cattle fairs.
Printed matter(literature).

Newspapers, magazines, bulletins,leaflets, folders, pamphlets & wall news-sheets are another
set of mass media for communicating information to a large number of literate people. They
are used for communicating general & specific information on a programme of technology or
a practice.Small folders, leaflets & pamphlets are used to give specific recommendations
about a practice, such as the use of fertilisers, vegetable cultivation, green-manuring & the
growing of individual crops, e.g. wheat, barley, gram & sugarcane.
Radio.

It is a mass medium of communication & can reach a large number of people at any given
time involving the least expense. Extension workers use the radio for communicating
information on new methods & techniques, giving timely information about the control of
croppests & diseases, weather, market news, etc. For this purpose, talks, group discussions,
folk-songs, dialogues & dramas are usually organised. There are 38 stations of All-India
Radio broadcasting regular rural programmes.
Television

It is one of the most powerful media of communication. It has come into vogue only in the
recent years. It combines both audio & visual impact & is very suitable for the dissemination
of agricultural information. It is more useful in teaching how to do a specific job.
A beginning has ben made in India for using this medium for development programmes since
1967, & it is expected that its use will become more extensive in the coming years.
Motion-pictures(movies).

Movies are an effective tool for arousing interest among the people, because they involve
seeing, hearing, & action. They are the most suitable medium for drawing bigger audience. a
film show can be followed by a discussion with the villagers.

VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids are the tools of teaching through the sense of sight. They are supporting materials
& they alone cannot generate learning. They should be considered only a tool that helps to do
a job in a better way.
Visual aids are of different types. The following are the more commonly used ones in India:

i. Posters
ii. Flannel-graphs
iii. Flash cards
iv. Puppets
v. Slides & film-strips
vi. Models
vii. Bulletin boards
viii. photographs
ix. Black-boards
x. Cultural programmes

Posters.

A good poster creates awareness & interest among the people. It inspires & takes people
towards action. It consists of 3 main parts. The first usually announces the purpose or the
approach, the second sets out conditions, & the third recommends action. A poster should be
bold enough to attract attention of the people, & should communicate only one idea at a time.
It should have simple letters which are clear & forceful. The size of a poster should not be
less than 50*75 cm.
Flannel-graphs.
Flannel-graphs serve as a good teaching aid. When a piece of sandpaper is fixed to the back
of a picture, a photograph, a letter, etc. They can be made to adhere easily to a piece of thick
flannel cloth, fixed on a board. They are used as an aid for group methods like informal talks
or lectures.
Flash cards.

Flash cards are a set of small compact cards approximately 30 to 45 cm. In size, & are used to
bring home an idea, such as the benefits of a smokeless chulha, the cultivation of hybrid
maize, compost-making & other practices. Pictures on the theme are drawn on these cards in
a logical sequence which are flashed before the audience. Upon seeing them, the villagers are
able to follow a story more easily.
Puppets.

Puppets are very popular & especially suitable for village situations. Puppet shows can be
effectively organised to gather the rural people. For a puppet show, a short story, brief scenes
& quick dialogues are necessary. Such shows can teach a lesson about health, literacy,
agriculture or home-making.
Slides.

A slide is a transparent picture or photograph in an individual mount. For viewing the image,
the picture is projected through a slide-projector which brings the enlarged image into focus
on a screen. Slides are excellent aids of illustrating talks & showing people concrete activities
& aspects of development. They can be effectively used to show different situations &
methods of carrying out an activity. They can be arranged in a series for giving an illustrated
talk on improved agricultural practices, cultivation of crops, etc.
Film-strips.

They are a series of black-and-white or coloured pictures depicting a single idea, & instead of
being individually mounted are printed on a single length of strip of 35-mm film. Such strips
can be shown to an audience of about a 100 people. The additional advantage in using the
film-strips is that the film can be stopped anytime during the show to explain or discuss a
difficult or interesting point.
Models.

Models create a sense of realisation in a person. Models of new farm equipments, compost
pits & sanitation devices & animals are mostly prepared for those people who are not in a
position to see them in the actual form. They are used to create interest, promote
understanding & influence the people to adopt a certain practice.
Bulletin-boards.

A bulletin-board can serve the purpose of making announcements, displaying events of short
duration & photographs of local activities. The information should be written in simple
language.
Photographs.

They are a very simple visual aid. Good photographs show some action & catch the feelings
& emotions of the people. They are so arranged that they tell a story. They are displayed on a
bulletin-board at a common meeting-place where a large number of people can see them.
They should be clear & bold in composition with proper captions.
Black-boards.
 They provide a writing & drawing surface for chalk. They are usually used in schools,
colleges & meeting places. They make possible the use of sketches, drawings, words,
symbols of a combination of them to emphasise a point. Black-boards are most useful in
group-teaching methods.
Cultural programmes.

Local cultural programmes, such as folk-songs & dramas, are used as an effective medium of
communicating the message of development programmes. Dramatization of a theme or story
creates a lively interest among the audience. Folk-songs & dances related to the subjects of
local interest & importance, when acted on the stage, bring them home more forcefully.

For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is not enough to know these methods &
their techniques. What is more important is the appropriate selection of a method or
combination of methods for a particular situation. In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new
idea several times by different methods or a combination of methods, he is likely to accept it
more quickly. Farmers learn about new practices through several stages. These stages are
known as: (1) the awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but lacks
the complete information; (2) the interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea &
wants to know more about it; (3) the evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea
to his present situation & evaluates it; (4) the trial stage- when he applies the new idea or
practice on a small scale in order to determine its utility under his own situation; and (5)
adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice. Thus, it is the
cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea repeatedly that results in action.

Programme-planning.

The first step in any systematic attempt to promote rural development is to prepare useful
programmes based on peoples needs. The development of such programmes, which
harmonize with the local needs as the people see them & with the national interests with
which the country as a whole is concerned, is an important responsibility of extension
personnel at all levels-national,state,district,block & village.
Programme planning is the process of making decisions about the direction & intensity of
extension-education efforts of extension-service to bring about social, economic &
technological changes.

Principle of extension programme-planning. The planning of an extension programme is

done on the basis of certain well recognised principles which should be clearly understood &
followed by extension workers. The main principles are:

i. The programme-planning should be based upon a careful analysis of a factual

situation.
ii. In a good programme-planning, problems for action are selected on the basis of
recognised needs.
iii. A good programme-planning determines objectives & solutions which are feasible &
offer satisfaction.
iv. The programme should be permanent & flexible to meet a long-term situation, short-
time changes, & emergencies.
v. A sound programme should have both balance & emphasis.
vi. A good programme has a definite plan of work.
vii. Programme-planning is a continuous process.
viii. Programme-planning is a co-ordinating process.
ix. Programme-planning should be educational & directed towards bringing about
improvement in the ability of the people to solve their own problems individually and
collectively.
x. A good programme-planning provides for the evaluation of results.

The programme-planning process.

The steps involved in this process are as follows:

1. Collection of facts. Sound plans are based on availability of relevant & reliable facts. This
includes facts about the village people, physical conditions, existing farm & home practices,
trends & outlook. Besides, other facts about customs, traditions, rural institutions, peoples'
organisations operating in the area, etc. should be collected. The tools & techniques for
collecting data include systematic observations, a questionnaire, interviews & surveys,
existing governmental records, census reports, reports of the Planning Commission, Central
Bureau of Statistics, & the past experiences of people.
2. Analysis of the situation. After collecting facts, they are analysed & interpreted to find out
the problems & needs of the people.
3. Identification of problems. As a result of the analysis of facts the important gaps between
'what is' & 'what should be' are identified & the problems leading to such a situation are
located. These gaps represent the peoples needs.
4. Determination of objectives. Once the needs & problems of the people have been
identified, they are stated in terms of objectives & goals. The objectives represent a forecast
of the changes in the behaviour of the people & the situation to be brought about. The
objectives may be long-term as well as short-term, & must be stated clearly.
5. Developing the plan of work. In order to achieve the stated objectives & goals, the means
& methods attaining each objective are selected & the action plan, i.e. the calendar of
activities is developed. It includes the technical content, who should do what, & the time-
limit within the work will be completed. The plan of work may be seasonal, short-term,
annual or long-term.
6. Execution of the plan of work. Once the action plan has been developed, arrangement for
supplying the necessary inputs, credits, teaching aids, extension literature etc. has to be made
& the specific action has to be initiated. The execution of the plan of work is to be done
through extension methods for stimulating individuals & groups to think, act & participate
effectively. People should be involved at every step to ensure the success of the programme.
7. Evaluation. It is done to measure the degree of success of the programme in terms of the
objectives & goals set forth. This is basically done to determine the changes in the behaviour
of the people as a result of the extension programme. The evaluation is done not only of the
physical achievements but also of the methods & techniques used & of the other steps in the
programme-planning process, so that the strong & weak points may be identified & necessary
changes made.
8. Reconsideration. The systematic & periodic evaluation of the programme will reveal the
weak & strong points of the programme. Based on these points the programme is
reconsidered & the necessary adjustments & changes are made in order to make it more
meaningful & sound.

Programme-planning is not the end-product of extension activities but it is an educational

tool for helping people to identify their own problems & make timely & judicious decisions.
From the above mentioned cycle, it is clear that the planning of an extension programme
comprises a logical series of consecutive steps. The first 4 steps form the programme-phase.
The steps 5-7 form the action-phase. The step 8, i.e. reconsideration, joins the 2 phases
together, where it leads to the fact-collecting step, thus beginning once more the never ending
or continuous process of planning the extension programme.
The procedure followed for planning extension programmes, including agricultural
development programme, is as follows:
A state government indicates to the districts & blocks the tentative outlays proposed in their
respective areas under the various heads & the financial & other assistance that may be
expected. The blocks prepare their respective annual plans, taking into account the special
local problems & the local contributions & the state finances available. These are then
consolidated districtwise, on the basis of which the state plan is formulated. The plans are
prepared by the panchayat samities for the blocks & the zila parishads for the districts where
the panchayati raj is in force. Where this set-up has not yet been introduced, the plans are
prepared by the block development committee & the district development committee for the
block & the district respectively.
The outlay of the state plans are finally approved by the Planning Commission

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