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A short review on the surficial impacts of underground mining

Article  in  Scientific Research and Essays · December 2010

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Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 5(21), pp. 3206-3212, 4 November, 2010
Available online at [Link]
ISSN 1992-2248 ©2010 Academic Journals

Review

A short review on the surficial impacts of underground

mining
Ay en Ok an Altun, I ik Yilmaz* and Mustafa Yildirim
Cumhuriyet University, Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 58140, Sivas, Turkey.
Accepted 13 October, 2010

Subsidence in terrains is one of the most serious geological hazards because they can effect slopes
and damage engineering structures, settlement areas, natural lakes, and allow infiltration of
contaminant into the groundwater. Causes of underground mining activities such as subsidence, slope
deformation, etc. are very important problems in most countries and these types of impacts are very
well known in coal, metal and other types of mining. The main aim of this article is to provide technical
documentation of environmental impacts related to underground mining, to discuss significant impacts
on the environment and land-use during and/or after underground mining projects. Identification,
measuring and mitigation of the effect of underground mining activities for practitioners is also aimed
in this short review article. This short review article will also be important in order to better understand
the nature and magnitude of displacements that can affect surface infrastructure.

Key words: Underground mining, subsidence, collapse, slope deformation, surface

INTRODUCTION

When the extraction coal, oil, shale and other minerals or long and 250 to 400 m wide. However shortwall mining is
geological materials by surface mining is impossible, similar to longwall mining. Panels in shortwall mining are
underground mining methods are used. In underground 50 to 100 m wide and more than a half-kilometer long. As
mining, geological materials completely enclose the explained by Hustrulid and Bullock (2001), longwall
working environment. Underground mining is one of the mining applies to thin-bedded deposits of uniform thick-
most important mining activities in the world and it has ness and large horizontal extend. Longwall mining applies
been found as very large terrestrial areas in different parts to both hard and soft rock as the working area along the
of the world. Underground mining (soft rock) refers to a mining face can be artificially supported where the
group of underground mining techniques used to extract hanging wall tends to collapse. The longwall mining
coal, oil shale and other minerals or geological materials method extracts ore along a straight front having a large
from rocks, and this technique also differs greatly from longitudinal extension.
surface mining techniques. Shortwall, longwall, room and Room-and-pillar (Figure 2) is designed for flat-bedded
pillar, blast, etc. are the few methods in underground deposits of limited thickness such as copper, shale, coal,
mining activity. Removal of the material by underground salt and potash, limestone, and dolomite. This method is
mining can create environmental problems and safety used to recover the maximum amount of ore and miners
hazards. aim to leave the smallest possible pillars. Classic room
Longwall mining (Figure 1) is a kind of underground and pillar mining applies to flat deposits having moderate
mining where a long wall of material is mined in a single to thick beds and to inclined deposits with thicker beds.
slice (typically 1 to 2 m thick). The longwall panel (the Mining the ore body creates large open stops where
block of material that is being mined) is typically 3 to 4 km trackless machine can travel on the flat floor. Ore bodies
with large vertical heights are mined in horizontal slices
starting at the top and benching down in steps (Hustrulid
and Bullock, 2001).
*Corresponding author. E-mail: iyilmaz@[Link]. Tel: Blast mining is an older practice of mining that uses
+90 346 219 1010. Fax: +90 346 219 1171.
 Altun et al. 3207

Figure 1. Longwall method in underground mining (Hamrin, 1980).

Figure 2. Room-and-pillar method in underground mining (Hamrin, 1980).

3208 Sci. Res. Essays

explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal seam, imperceptibly or it may occur quite suddenly. Cover
after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle collapse may affect areas as small as a few square
cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. meters or as large as 1000 of square kilometers. Sub-
This process consists of a series of operations that sidence in terrain is one of the most serious geological
begins with "cutting" the coal bed so that it will break hazards because they can damage engineering
easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining structures, settlement areas, natural lakes and allow
accounts for less than 5% of total underground production infiltration of contaminant into the groundwater.
in the U.S. today. Soliman (1998) defines subsidence as a natural and/or
Surface subsidence and slope deformation due to man-made phenomena which is associated with a variety
underground mining activities is an old problem, and the of processes including compaction of natural sediments,
increase in use of long wall mining and further housing ground water dewatering, wetting, melting of permafrost,
development into the abandoned mine lands in the liquefaction and crustal deformation, withdrawal of
suburban areas further accelerated the public concerns petroleum and geothermal fluids, and mining of coal,
about surface subsidence and slope deformation due to limestone, salt, sulfur and metallic ores. Subsidence has
underground mining. always been a consequence of underground mining to at
Subsidence or collapse can be defined as the vertical least some extent, beginning when the first rock fell on
ground movement and have serious effects on buildings, top of a person working underground for the purpose of
services and communications. Sinking and/or lowering of extracting a mineral resource (Blodgett and Kuipers,
a land surface, which may occur gradually or suddenly, 2002).
affects areas from few square meters to square Subsidence on the surface is generally a result of cavity
kilometers. Collapse, subsidence and difficult engineering creation. Blodgett and Kuipers (2002) also reported that
conditions sourced from underground mining activities another mining-related phenomenon is the withdrawal of
constitute very important problems in many countries in water to facilitate underground mining. Water withdrawal
the world. Collapse and subsidence may occur in the also causes the formation of cavities (which were once
course of time or suddenly and catastrophically. Planning filled with water) and, like cavities directly created by
and precautions in such hazardous areas is very mining, may result in subsidence as the hydro-geological
important and has a priority. Remediation and con- properties of the associated strata are changed.
struction of the special building is needed at a higher cost. As quoted from Betournay (2002), shallow stopes are
So, legislation for very special construction regulations put defined as the underground metal mine openings closest
the contractors or owners to a higher expense. to surface, usually within 30 m, situated at or very near
The aim of this article is to provide technical overburden bodies of water or infrastructure. The natural
documentation of environmental impacts related to tectonic ground stresses may not be sufficient to prevent
underground mining, to discuss significant impacts on the gravity failures or in the case of intense regional mining
environment and land use during and/or after activity, the rock mass may be destressed. When the rock
underground mining projects. This short review article will mass is poorly jointed, and of high quality, extensive
also be important in order to better understand the nature lateral stope dimensions, or very thin pillars can be stable
and magnitude of displacements that can affect surface in the short term.
infrastructure. Movements of the rock mass at the periphery of shallow
stopes can be sudden and massive, piecewise and
continuous, or gradual over long periods of time, and may
SURFACE IMPACT OF THE UNDERGROUND MINING not ever reach surface because of re-equilibration, lack of
METHODS space for the failure material to enter (preventing the
failure to continue) or changes in geology or stope
However, the main impacts of underground mining configuration. When rock material has poor self-support
activities on the surface are subsidence and slope capabilities, failure to surface by exceeding rock strength
deformation. These activities have also other impacts on is possible. Rock mass instabilities fundamentally
the groundwater and surface water, spring, lakes and originate with geological discontinuities (joints and faults)
rivers accompany. and rock fabric (bedding, foliation, etc.).
However, surface impact from underground mining
activity is very well known and reasonably well understood
Subsidence as a result of the effect of underground mining activities.
Many hazards, undesired structural and environmental
Cavity collapse has led to extensive cracking and problems on the surface are being addressed in many
subsidence at the ground surface. Subsidence can be countries. Many case studies are reported related to the
regarded as the vertical component of ground movement impact of the underground mining activities such as
and have serious effects on buildings, services and Crane (1929), Allen (1934), Rice (1934), Hedley et al.
communications. Subsidence as the sinking or lowering (1979), Commission d' Enquete Mine Belmoral (1981),
of the land surface may occur gradually, almost Robertson and Kirsten (1984), CANMET Contract (1984,
 Altun et al. 3209

1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990,1991), Betournay et al. The least positive area of the subsidence trough is its
(1987), Betournay and Labrie (1988), Whittaker and slope, on which deformations caused by the rock move-
Reddish (1989), Charette and Betournay (1992), Charette ments into the centre of the mined out area show the
and Hamel (1993), Wang et al. (1995), Betournay (1994, most. The subsidence slope has a characteristic shape
1995), Betournay and Wang (1997), Perski and Jura and its parts are generally labeled (from the slope crest)
(2003), Marschalko et al. (2008 a, b, c), Marschalko et al. as convex portion, point of inflection and concave portion
(2009), Marschalko and Treslin (2009), and modified from (Figure 3.). At the localization of the slope deformation in
Betournay (2002). the point of the subsidence slope, two critical situations
can appear in dependence on their mutual surface areas.
If the landslide takes up a larger area than the subsidence
Slope deformation slope, deformations characteristic for the convex portion,
point of inflection as well as the concave portion of the
A mining landslide refers to a mountain landslide that is subsidence slope will show. In the opposite case, the
caused by the deformation and destruction of the upper overall slope deformation is situated in one part of the
stratum (soil) under the influence of underground mining subsidence slope (Marschalko et al., 2008; Marschalko
(Li, 2003; Song et al., 2003). and Treslin, 2009).
Tang (2009) reported that the formation of a mining Subsidence occurrences due to underground mining
landslide depends on three factors; sloping ground, and their development cause a negative impact on the
underground mining and a weak intercalated bed (face) in stability conditions of surficial area as the slope move-
the upper stratum. The topographic and geologic ment. Direction and size of movement and the surface
circumstance that has sensitive influence in a mining deformation caused by this movement can be clearly
landslide mainly includes: specified in case of this slope movement action. As stated
by Marschalko and Treslin (2009), in cases of mutual
(a) A mountain with a steep gradient. action for the purposes of identification of a terrain defor-
(b) A slope stacked with slack material. mation cause, it is necessary to separate the individual
(c) A layer with a weak intercalated bed. influences which can be achieved by the correlation of
(d) A geologic circumstance with an ancient slide. changes in the terrain deformation and the overall deve-
lopment of a subsidence trough with slope deformation
The influence that is caused by underground mining movement measurements.
mainly includes (Tang, 2009):

(a) Cracking caused by mining formed on the ground DISCUSSION

surface.
(b) Loss of the pedestal body of the mountain. In both the underground and surface mining, if a void is
(c) Changes in the stress field, and geological and excavated in a rock continuum, the load formerly applied
mechanical properties of the upper stratum. on the rock in the opening will be transferred either to the
(d) A change in the hydrologic circumstance of the upper rock surrounding the opening or to the supports (pillars)
stratum. within the opening or both, and finally to the ground
surface, hence resulting in a macroscopically non-uniform
Mining activities (ground and/or underground) are one of deformation of the surface in the horizontal or vertical
the most important factors which affect and change the direction. If the uneven deformation or subsidence (that
engineering geological conditions. Subsidence in the is, differential subsidence on the top of the mined-out
surface through underground mining area may cause area) cannot be effectively controlled, then it will cause
settlement, slope movements, discontinuous deforma- damage and even a disaster such as deformation or even
tions and changes in hydro-geological conditions. The cracking of buildings, particularly tall buildings. This
slope deformations may be triggered by occurrence of a means that the failure of a building is to a great extent
subsidence trough undermined area. Changes of controlled by the presence of differential subsidence
gradient, state of stress in slope, physical and mechanical rather than the absolute magnitude of subsidence (Li et
properties of the slope material, ground water levels, etc. al., 2006).
causes the slope deformations. The underground mining process has a large negative
The mining activities may cause a relative increase in influence on the environment of the whole undermined
the groundwater level (terrain surface depression) which area. If after mining out of the seam, large depressions
usually causes saturation of the slope material, and and reactivation of extensive slope deformations (blocks
stability of the slope is worsened. In certain cases the and landslides) on the surface occurs, several villages,
terrain depression can lead to the formation of undrained highways and railways in endangered area may be
depressions (lakes or small lakes). affected (Malgot and Baliak, 2004).
3210 Sci. Res. Essays

Figure 3. Schematic representation of influenced slope deformation by the subsidence (Marschalko et al., 2008;
Marschalko and Treslin, 2009).

The displacement and deformations of rock mass due world and considerable achievements have been
to underground mining has often resulted in major obtained. However, due to its difficulties and complicated
disasters throughout the world, frequently inflicting heavy nature, research into overburden movements has been
losses of life and damage to property. And these thus far incomplete as compared to that of surface
disasters have motivated the development of rock mass subsidence. Since surface subsidence is a manifestation
mechanics. The prediction of displacement of rock mass of the results of overburden, movement must be fully
and their surface effects is an important problem of the understood in order to establish the mathematical
rock mass mechanics in the excavation activities prediction models of surface subsidence (Rao, 2004).
especially the coal and metal mining in mountainous Underground mining raises a number of environmental
areas (Li et al., 2006). challenges including subsidence, slope deformation,
Mine subsidence can be a problem with underground water pollution, etc. That’s’ why steps should be taken in
mining, whereby the ground level lowers as a result of modern mining operations to minimize impacts on all
material having been mined beneath. A thorough under- aspects of the environment. By carefully pre-planning
standing of subsistence patterns in a particular region projects, implementing subsidence and slope deformation
allows the effects of underground mining on the surface control measures, monitoring the effects of mining and
to be quantified. The mining industry uses a range of rehabilitating mined areas, the mine industry minimizes
engineering techniques to design the layout and dimen- the impact of its activities on the neighboring community.
sions of its underground mine workings so that surface Presentation of engineering geological data in the form
subsidence can be anticipated and controlled. This of a hazard map is a useful tool in urban planning. In
ensures the safe, maximum recovery of mine resource order to avoid the problems related to the subsurface and
while providing protection to other land users. thus save property and money, detailed geo-scientific
When underground mining involves total extraction, it data should be collected and used in urban development
induces overburden strata movements. If not properly plans. The main topic providing the integrated information
planned, it causes surface subsidence and affects for urban development is engineering geology.
surface environmental conditions. Total extraction usually Engineering geological maps contain information mainly
refers to long wall mining, and bord and pillar mining with on the physical - mechanical properties of soils, shallow
pillar extraction. Surface subsidence has long been a groundwater levels, potential hazardous processes, etc.
subject of intensive research for scientists all over the The systematized information provided by the engineering
 Altun et al. 3211

geological map is used for: Pillars Phase II, Le Groupe Conseil Roche Ltée.
CANMET Contract 15sq 23440-5-9017 23440-5-9017 (1986).
Sampling, field testing and modelling of a surface crown pillar at Les
(a) Evaluation and planning of urban areas according to Mines Selbaie, Joutel, Québec, Mirza Engineering.
the engineering conditions. CANMET Contract 01ss 23440-7-9153 23440-7-9153 (1987). Seismic
(b) Elaboration of project planning documents for characterization of discontinuities and anomalous rock quality within
construction. mine surface crown pillars using attenuation and velocity imaging,
Queen's University.
(c) Selection of the optimum range of engineering CANMET Contract 03sq 23440-8-9063 23440-8-9063 (1988). The
geological investigations in particular areas of determination of surface crown pillar mechanical and structural
construction. properties, Trow Engineering.
(d) Selection of a suitable foundation type and CANMET Contract 01sq 23440-8-9074 23440-8-9074 (1990). Crown
pillars stability back analysis, Golder Associates.
construction design. CANMET Contract 01sq 23440-9-9194 23440-9-9194 (1991). Stability
(e) Prognosis of changes of engineering geological condi- of the overburden hanging wall, Gays River Mine, Nova Scotia,
tions and prediction of hazardous geological phenomena. Westminer Canada Ltd.
Charette F, Betournay MC (1992). Preliminary geomechanique
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from severe collapse and destruction of properties and p. 81.
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susceptibility level should be first assessed (Yilmaz and excavation in pillar and surface lentiles A-1, 2, and 3, Selbaie Mines,
Yavuzer, 2005; Yilmaz and Bagci, 2006; Yilmaz, 2008; CANMET Report MRL 93-059 (CL), Energy, Mines and Resources,
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exploration before construction. Applications. Stockholm Atlas Copco, p. 40
(b) Fill the cavities close to the foundation. Hedley DGF, Herget G, Miles P, Yu YS (1979). Case history of
CANMET's rock mechanics research at the Kidd Creek Mine,
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Canada, pp. 110.
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