HUMAN EXISTENCE AND ETHICS For example, some cultures may accept certain acts
and behaviors that are unacceptable to other
ETHICS cultures
Is the moral code that guides how an individual should
behave. As a branch of knowledge, it deals with moral Ethical relativism
principles. acknowledges societal diversity, that every society has a
the individual's search for meaning while dealing with unique moral design and culture; and people's beliefs are
human problems which may be logical (problems of greatly influenced by culture.
reasoning), epistemological (problems of the truth), The challenge to each society is the preservation of
cosmological (problems of universe), ethical (problems of its cultural uniqueness and acknowledgment of
morality), aesthetical (problems of art and beauty), or cultural differences.
scientific problems (problems of science) (Timbreza, 1993).
Ethical Pragmatism
HUMAN BEINGS It is more of a theory on knowledge, truth, and meaning
are logical beings but human existence is rather than morality.
inexplicable. At the moment a person is born, he or she Pragmatism is a philosophical approach or
begins to suffer and will continue to suffer until death movement that began in the 1870s.
(Timbreza, 1993). The term was coined by Charles Sanders Peirce and
further developed by William James.
LIFE It is considered as America's most distinctive and
is a perpetual process of making sense of the major contribution to the field of philosophy.
absurdity of one's existence. Making sense of the meaning of Although the language of moral interest may appear
human existence throughout history has brought about many in many of the writings of Peirce and James, is
developments in the study of ethics. interesting that a pragmatic conception of good and
truth can be applied in the medical context
SCHOOLS OF ETHICS especially in terms of decision making and moral
ETHICS reasoning.
deals with a diverse prescription of universal
concepts and principles that serve as foundation of moral Ethical Utilitarianism
beliefs. this school of ethics states that the rightness or
Some may agree that there is no such universal or wrongness of actions is determined by their consequences
absolute ethical principle that would apply to all, as Founded by two English Philosophers Jeremy
elaborated on by ethical relativism. Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-
Some may say that the standards of right or wrong are 1873),
always relative depending on cultural and social factors. The principle of utility formulated by Mill states
that :"actions are good insofar as they tend to
MORALITY promote happiness, bad as they tend to produce
ethics can be connected to morality unhappiness. The utility or usefulness of an action is
morality can be viewed in different perspectives - as law, determined by the extent to which it promotes
as an inner conviction, as love, as personal growth, and happiness rather than its reverse."
as social transformation. (Donal Harrington)
ABORTION
nuances between ethics and morality as illustrated by James Abortion is considered illegal in the Philippines.
Gustafson (1974). Article II, Section 12 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states
ETHICS MORALITY that:
Theoretical prescriptions Based on principles practiced The state recognizes the sanctity of life and shall
/critiques by a particular community protect and strengthen the family as a basic
The nature of the good Fundamental convictions of autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect
The nature of human person human agent the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from
TOR Character of moral agent conception (Article II, Section 12).
Criteria of judgment Use of norms S1281
Situational analysis Abortion
can be direct, induced, or even caused by natural
Ethical Relativism, also known as moral relativism, cases or accidents.
school of ethics anchored on the principle that morality is abortion becomes necessary when the life of the
relative to the norms of a particular culture. It is a theory mother is at stake.
based on norms relative to a particular culture or society. The debate on this issue continuous one because of opposing
perspectives.
anti-abortion groups, abortion is the ultimate violation of life people can now "intervene" in the biological process and
for it is the act of killing an individual that is not yet able to "control" bad or defective genes.
speak for himself or herself. 3. Stem-cell therapy is a form of genetic engineering that
support abortion, they believe that pregnant women, makes use of stem cells to treat or prevent diseases. It has
especially victims of rape, should be given the chance to been the subject of controversy because of how stem cells
decide for themselves. are sourced.
With these opposing views, it is important to look at abortion 4. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is popularly known as laboratory
as an ethical issue that requires deeper understanding. fertilization. In the past, this technology became the subject
of controversies because of many religious groups opposing
EUTHANASIA (MERCY KILLING) the procedure as they perceive it to be a deviation from
Euthanasia natural process of fertilization.
is the practice of ending a life intentionally, usually in
situations when the individual is terminally ill, to relieve him KEY POINTS
or her of pain and suffering.
Also known as mercy killing, euthanasia is regarded Ethics is the moral code that guides how an individual
as a merciful release of an individual from an incurable should behave.
sickness. Ethics deals with a diverse prescription of universal
Herbert Hendin (2004) also describes euthanasia as the concepts and principles that serve as foundation of moral
process of inducing the painless death of a person who is beliefs.
severely debilitated for reasons assumed to be merciful, Diversity, decision making, compliance, and governance
either through voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary are some of the concerns that need to be considered
means. when doing an ethical review in the context of the health
care profession.
Voluntary euthanasia Professional ethics covers the accepted behavior of
is when an individual gives consent to subject individuals in the workplace setting.
himself or herself to a painless death.
Non-voluntary euthanasia
is conducted when the permission of the patient to
perform the process is unavailable, like in the case of patient
in a deep comatose, or neonates born with significant and
major birth defects.
Involuntary euthanasia
is when the individual does not give his or her
consent.
To this day, euthanasia, as an ethical issue, remains to be
controversial because it is the act of taking away a life in a
way that is perceived to be against the society's accepted
moral standards.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering
is a controversial ethical issue because it involves
genetic manipulations that are perceived to be against moral
standards set by the society.
Through genetic engineering, humans are seen to be
acting as their own gods because of procedures that enable
them to manipulate the genetic make-up of organisms.
The following are some procedures involved in genetic
engineering:
1. Genetic Screening is a procedure whose main purpose is
to screen, choose, and select the genes for proper detection
of any genetic disease and other chromosomal malformations
(Ciabal, 2003).Genetic screening is usually done for the early
diagnosis of diseases.
2. Genetic interventions are techniques such as genetic
control, therapy, and surgery.According to Ciabal (2003),
