Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

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Construction and Building Materials

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Compressive and direct tensile behavior of concrete containing

Forta-Ferro fiber and calcium aluminate cement subjected
to sulfuric acid attack with optimized design
Javad Dashti, Mahdi Nematzadeh ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

Effect of Forta-Ferro fibers and calcium aluminate cement was investigated under acidic attack.

Concrete compressive and direct tensile behaviors were studied in acidic environment.

Optimum volume fraction of Forta-Ferro fibers is 0.4% to control concrete degradation induced by acid attack.

Calcium aluminate cement is adequately capable of improving mechanical properties of concrete under acid attack.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, the applications of Forta-Ferro (FF) fiber as a synthetic fiber type and calcium aluminate
Received 30 December 2019 cement (CAC) as aluminous cement were investigated. FF fibers with three disparate volume fractions
Received in revised form 3 March 2020 of 0, 0.4, and 0.7%, and CAC replacing the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by 0 and 100% were incorpo-
Accepted 3 April 2020
rated in the mix design. After the immersion of concrete specimens in 5% sulfuric acid solution at inter-
vals of 0 and 45 days, the influence of adding FF fibers and CAC to the concrete mix on the mechanical
properties, including compressive strength, initial and secant elastic moduli, strain at peak stress, ulti-
Keywords:
mate strain, compressive stress-strain curve, direct tensile strength and its corresponding strain, as well
Forta-Ferro fibers
Calcium aluminate cement
as the tensile stress-strain curve were investigated. The results show that the addition of FF fibers to the
Acidic environment concrete mixture resulted in an increase in the compressive/tensile strength by 8/11% and 38/22% for the
Mechanical properties concrete in the acidic and non-acidic environments, respectively. In addition, replacing OPC with CAC in
Direct tensile strength the concrete mix significantly increased the compressive and tensile strength by approximately 70%. The
Model acidic environment notably decreased the compressive and tensile strength up to approximately 30% and
Optimization 20%, respectively, especially for CAC specimens. Stress-strain models were also proposed via empirical
Prediction equations to capture the compressive and tensile behavior of the concrete containing FF fibers under
Stress-strain behavior
the acidic medium. Finally, by applying the response surface method (RSM), an optimal solution was rec-
ommended for design parameters through maximizing the compressive and tensile strength of concrete
containing FF fiber and CAC exposed to an acidic environment.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction acids formed from the oxidation of sulfur compounds in the back-
fill, as well as acids in groundwater and chemical wastewater, can
In recent decades, the strength and durability of designed con- attack concrete members and thus affect their mechanical and
crete structures, particularly infrastructural systems, have been physical properties [1,2]. In fact, sulfuric acid reacts with calcium
impaired by numerous environmental factors such as acid attacks. hydroxide, which is generated during the hydration process, to
Besides, one of the most serious issues regarding the mechanical produce gypsum (CaSO42H2O). On the other hand, several
and physical properties of concrete structures is exposure to acidic researchers have pointed out that the reaction has a secondary role
media that affects the performance, lifetime, and maintenance cost in the concrete erosion procedure, in which the reaction between
of vital infrastructures. Former investigations have shown that water, tricalcium aluminate (C3A), and gypsum produces expansive
ettringite (C6AS3H32). Such volume expansion increases inner pres-
⇑ Corresponding author. sure in the concrete voids, leading to crack formation, and conse-
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Nematzadeh).
quently, intensifying corrosion [3,4]. As corrosion continues, the

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2 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

Nomenclature and Notation

CAC calcium aluminate cement Vf fiber volume fraction

ITZ interfacial transition zone rt concrete tensile stress
LVDT linear variable differential transformer b slope of the inflection point at descending branch of the
NSC normal-strength concrete concrete stress-strain curve
OPC ordinary Portland Cement e concrete compressive strain
PE polyethylene e0c concrete compressive strain at peak stress
PP polypropylene e0cf strain at peak stress of fibrous concrete
SSD saturated surface dry e0co strain at peak stress of plain concrete
df diameter of fiber ecu ultimate compressive strain of concrete
UTM universal testing machine et concrete tensile strain
Eif initial modulus of elasticity of fibrous concrete Ecf secant modulus of elasticity of fibrous concrete
0
fc compressive strength of concrete etu ultimate tensile strain of concrete
0
f cf compressive strength of fibrous concrete et0 strain at ultimate tensile strength of concrete
Lf length of fiber ft ultimate tensile strength of concrete
If reinforcement index by fiber volume content rc concrete compressive stress

cracked face takes a white and soft look. The corroded concrete is Other methods developed to mitigate the harmful effects of acid
then unable to maintain its durability and mechanical strength due attack embrace using cement substitutes such as CAC in order to
to additional cracking and spalling until it is entirely destroyed improve the concrete sulfuric acid resistance [11,12]. CAC is a ver-
[4,5]. satile special cement employed in high-performance practices,
One of the common methods for the enhancement of mechan- such as chemical attack resistance, high initial strength, fireproof-
ical properties of concrete under acid attack and corrosion is to ing, as well as abrasion and spalling resistance at low ambient tem-
use fibers in the concrete volume [3,6]. Fibers are widely utilized peratures [13–15]. Furthermore, per a mix design similar to OPC,
in acidic environments due to increasing ductility capacity as well using CAC provides much higher strength and durability for con-
as mechanical and physical properties of concrete [3,7]. The fibers crete, demonstrating significant resistance in the acidic media
prevent the growth and propagation of micro- and macro-cracks [12,16]. Ann and Cho [17] evaluated the corrosion resistance of
through the bridging action, thus inhibiting acid ingress into con- concrete containing CAC exposed to the acidic environment. To
crete. The fiber type and material are also affected by the acid assess the concrete properties, CAC was blended with OPC as a bin-
attack-induced corrosion, in that the steel fibers in the proximity der by as much as 5 to 15%. Their results showed that increasing
of the acidic environment are always at risk of corrosion. Such a CAC as a binder significantly decreased the initial setting time of
case results in reduced mechanical and physical properties of con- the fresh concrete. In addition, the corrosion resistance of concrete
crete, depending on the degree of fiber corrosion [8]. Therefore, with CAC was remarkably increased compared to that of OPC.
synthetic fibers, such as FF fibers with high resistance to acids, Nematzadeh et al. [12] inspected the compressive behavior of con-
can be used to resist the acid attacks. Since the implementation crete containing refractory brick fines with CAC and PVA fibers
of FF fibers in the concrete construction industry requires further exposed to the acidic environment. Their results indicated that
scrutiny, the mechanical and physical properties of concrete con- the specimens with CAC and PVA fibers had decent mechanical
taining this fiber type, which are key factors in the design and con- properties as regards to corrosion control under acid attack. In con-
struction of concrete structures in the acidic environments, were trast, the specimens with refractory brick fines demonstrated
investigated in this study. In this regard, Behfarnia and Farshadfar unsatisfactory performance. Li et al. [18] explored the corrosion
[9] examined the influence of polypropylene fibers on the durabil- resistance of mortar specimens containing Portland cement; CAC;
ity of self-compacting concrete exposed to magnesium sulfate a combined state of Portland cement, CAC, and gypsum; a com-
attack (5 and 10%). It was revealed that the use of polypropylene bined state of Portland cement, slag, and ash; finally a combined
fibers tapered the mass loss in the specimens, though the effect state of Portland cement, CAC, slag, and gypsum after exposure
on the volume expansion was marginal. Kim et al. [10] assessed to sea water for 30, 60, 90, and 180 days. It was concluded that
the performance of concrete reinforced with steel and synthetic the compressive strength of all the specimens increased up to
fibers exposed to chemical erosion. The test results showed that 90 days exposure to the acidic environment, and as the exposure
the steel-reinforced concrete had better strength and durability time increased to 180 days, this parameter declined. In addition,
under acidic media, compared to concrete reinforced with it was found that the compressive strength of the mortar contain-
polypropylene and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). In their study, Nemat- ing CAC immersed in sea water was greater than that of the corre-
zadeh and Fallah [3] characterized the effect of steel and synthetic sponding mortar immersed in tap water. On the other hand, the
fibers with pozzolans in high strength concrete subjected to an mortar containing a combination of Portland cement, CAC, slag,
acidic environment. The results confirmed that the reduction in and gypsum demonstrated higher resistance to the corrosive
durability and resistance of high-strength concrete under sulfuric environment.
acid attack depends on the properties and the percentage of fibers Despite several investigations on the improvement of concrete
used in the volume of concrete. In the study of Hwang et al. [8], the performance under acid attacks [1,18–23], the use of corrosion-
corrosion risk of steel fibers in a mortar under chloride attack was resistant concretes in the construction industry needs further
investigated by taking into account the corrosion rate of steel research regarding their mechanical properties, which are key
fibers. It was observed that the corrosion resistance of steel fibers aspects in the design and manufacturing of special infrastructure
in the concrete was slightly greater than that of steel bars. In addi- and structures. In this study, the incorporation of CAC and FF fibers
tion, chloride ion transfer in the concrete containing steel fibers in controlling and enhancing concrete strength in the acidic med-
increased with increasing porosity in concrete, which suggests that ium was deliberated for the first time as the prime objective.
the attacking ions can easily penetrate concrete and chemically Hence, the effect of introducing FF fiber and CAC to the concrete
degrade steel fibers. blend on the mechanical properties, including compressive
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 3

strength, initial and secant elastic moduli, strain at peak stress, 2.1.3. Fiber
ultimate strain, compressive stress-strain curve, direct tensile FF fibers with a length of 54 mm and the aspect ratio of 159
strength and its corresponding strain, as well as the tensile were used in 3 vol fractions of 0, 0.4 and, 0.7%. Table 2 reports
stress-strain curve was investigated. In addition, using the the geometric shape and properties of the fibers.
obtained experimental results, explicit equations were presented
to predict the mechanical properties of concrete specimens with 2.2. Concrete mix design and specimen preparation
FF fiber and CAC under sulfuric acid attack. The stress-strain mod-
els were then presented to predict the compressive and tensile The mix proportions are presented in Table 3 for one cubic
behavior of concrete. Finally, by applying the response surface meter of concrete volume. As shown in Table 3, the ratio of the
method (RSM), an optimal solution was recommended for design water-to-cementitious materials used for all mixtures was 0.43.
parameters through maximizing the compressive and tensile It is also noted that the superplasticizer was added by the weight
strength of concrete with FF fiber and CAC during the immersion of total cementitious materials, and its water content was included
in the acidic medium. in the water-to-cement ratio. The normal-strength concrete (NSC)
with a design compressive strength of 40 MPa was prepared for the
reference specimens. Because of the properties of CAC relative to
OPC, which significantly increase the compressive strength of con-
2. Experimental program crete, the strength obtained for this type of cement was considered
to be 70 MPa.
2.1. Materials To make the concrete, aggregates comprising of sand and gravel
were blended in the mixer for 1 min. The cement (ordinary Port-
2.1.1. Aggregates land cement and calcium aluminate cement) was then incorpo-
In this study, coarse aggregate with a specific gravity of 2.68 in rated into the mixture and stirred for another 1 min. Afterward,
saturated surface dry (SSD) state, a maximum nominal grain size of a mixture of superplasticizer and water, which also contained the
12.5 mm, and water absorption of 0.47% were used. Fine aggregate water needed to bring the aggregates to SSD condition, was grad-
with a fineness modulus of 2.6, a specific gravity of 2.58 in SSD ually added and mixed for 3 min. Finally, FF fibers were dispersed
state, a maximum grain size of 4.75 mm, and the water absorption over the mixture, and the mixing process continued for another
of 1.73% was also utilized. 2 min. It should be noted that the fibers were added slowly to pre-
vent the balling incidence while the mechanical mixer was rotat-
ing. Once mixes were prepared, the slump test was carried out
2.1.2. Cement and superplasticizer according to ASTM C143 [25] to determine the workability of the
Type II Portland cement with relative resistance to sulfates was fresh concrete. Table 3 lists the obtained slump values. After pour-
used in a series of specimens in compliance with ASTM C150 [24]. ing fresh concrete into the mold, a vibration table was used to
For other series, CAC (IRC-40) was utilized, which is produced in increase density and decrease air bubbles of the compressive cylin-
Iran. Table 1 presents the chemical constituents along with the drical and tensile dog-bone specimens. The specimens were
physical and mechanical properties of both cement types. A removed from the mold after 24 h and cured for at least 28 days,
polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer with a specific gravity of conforming to ASTM C192 [26].
1.09 and solid content of 42% was utilized by weight of the total Notation of the mix designs in this study was based on the test
cementitious materials to reduce water consumption in concrete, variables (cement type and fiber volume fraction), where OPC and
obtain proper workability for the experiments, as well as to CAC respectively stand for mixes made with ordinary Portland
achieve a better distribution of aggregates, cement, and fibers. cement and calcium aluminate cement. Moreover, the numbers
The water content of the superplasticizer was 58%, which was 0, 0.4, and 0.7 denote fiber volume fraction adopted in the mix
included in the mixing scheme. designs. The notation of specimens is likewise, except that AC at
the end of the labels indicates the acid exposure of the specimens.

Table 1 2.3. Exposure to sulfuric acid

Chemical constituents along with physical and mechanical properties of the
cementitious materials.
After the curing process and before performing the axial com-
Items Chemical properties (%) pression and direct tension tests, a group of specimens were trans-
Portland cement Calcium aluminate cement ferred to a 5% sulfuric acid medium with pH = 1. An appropriate
SiO2 21.75 4–5 volume of sulfuric acid was added to the solution every week to
Al2O3 5.1 37–40 maintain pH while preserving the acid content. The specimens
Fe2O3 4.0 15–18 were removed after 45 days of immersion in the sulfuric acid tank
CaO 64.0 37–39
and rinsed with tap water to remove the loose materials. After sur-
MgO 1.85 <1
SO3 2.0 – face drying at room temperature for 30 min, the specimens were
Na2O 0.55 – subjected to axial compression and direct tension tests.
K2O 0.55 –
TiO2 – <4 2.4. Specimen details and test Setup
Loss on ignition 1.5 –
Insoluble Residue 0.35 –
Free CaO 0.7 – 2.4.1. Compression test
Physical properties
To carry out the compression test, a total of 48 cylindrical spec-
Density (gr/cm3) 3.15 3.2 imens were divided into twelve groups, six of which were exposed
Specific surface (m2/gr) 0.305 3.1 to acid, and the other six were in the non-acidic state. The four
Mechanical properties specimens in each group were identical. The specimens with diam-
Compressive strength (MPa) 14.5 (1 day) 55–70 (1 day) eter and height 100 mm and 200 mm, respectively, were tested via
41 (7 days) – a compressive concrete crushing jack with a loading capacity of
50 (28 days) –
2000 kN at a rate of 0.25 MPa/s in accordance with ASTM C39
4 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

Table 2
Geometric shape and properties of Forta-Ferro fibers.

Type of Shape of fiber Length of fiber Diameter of Aspect Density (g/ Tensile Elastic Color Picture of forta-ferro
fiber (mm) fiber (mm) ratio cm3) strength (MPa) modulus (GPa) fibers
Forta- Fibrillated and 54 0.34 159 0.91 570–660 4.7 Gray
ferro twisted bundle
(FF)

Table 3
Mix design of concrete specimens.

Specimen label Water Cement Sand Gravel Fiber volume Super plasticizer (%) Slump (mm) Water/Cement
fraction (%)
kg/m3
OPC-0 214.3 500 688.4 916.3 0 0.53 90 0.43
OPC-0.4 213.5 500 689.1 916.3 0.4 0.84 105 0.43
OPC-0.7 213.4 500 689.3 916.3 0.7 1.16 105 0.43
CAC-0 214.6 500 694.6 916.3 0 0.32 95 0.43
CAC-0.4 214.3 500 694.9 916.3 0.4 0.53 105 0.43
CAC-0.7 214.0 500 695.2 916.3 0.7 0.74 105 0.43

[27]. Two linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) posi- 3. Experimental results and discussion
tioned symmetrically opposite to each other to measure the axial
strains were used to obtain the compressive stress-strain curve 3.1. Compressive strength
of the specimens. The LVDTs were mounted on two steel rings,
designed as far as possible from the surface to prevent confinement The results of the compressive strength test of concrete speci-
of the specimens. Fig. 1 illustrates the placement of specimens and mens are given in Table 4. It is discerned that for concretes con-
the mechanism of the compression test. taining OPC and CAC, the addition of FF fibers up to the volume
fraction of 0.4% results in increased compressive strength. Such
an increase is as much as 8.2% for the OPC concrete with 0.4% FF
2.4.2. Direct tensile test
fibers, as compared to plain concrete (with no fibers). However,
To perform this test, similar to the compressive strength test, 24
the specimens with 0.7% FF fibers experience a decrease in the
dog-bone specimens, also termed as the dumbbell specimens, were
compressive strength by 10.6% compared to plain concrete. As
considered in twelve groups with two identical specimens in each
for the CAC concrete, adding FF fibers by 0.4 and 0.7% of concrete
group. The section dimension of the end parts was 100  100 mm,
volume leads to a 3.9% increase and a 23.2% decrease, respectively,
and that of the middle part was 100  50 mm, and the total length
in the compressive strength compared to plain concrete. This
was 500 mm [28]. Two LVDTs were positioned symmetrically
increase in strength is attributed to restraining and retarding the
opposite to each other to record the tensile strain of concrete spec-
crack expansion, and reducing the stress concentration at the crack
imens. Tensile testing of dumbbell specimens was performed via a
tip by the fibers [29]. Although there are quite a lot of micro-cracks
universal testing machine (UTM) with a maximum loading capac-
in the concrete volume, the fibers bridge across the micro-cracks,
ity of 250 kN at a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min. Fig. 2 depicts an
and thus, increase the compressive strength of concrete. Also, the
overview of the test setup and the equipment required for the
results of specimens with FF fibers, compared to plain concrete,
direct tensile test on the dumbbell specimen.

Fig. 1. Test Setup and specimen size for compression testing of cylindrical concrete specimens.
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 5

Fig. 2. Test Setup and specimen size for direct tensile test of dumbbell concrete specimens.

Table 4
Results of the compressive and tensile strength tests on specimens.

Specimens ID V f (%) If 0
f c (MPa) e0c (mm/mm) ecu (mm/mm) Ei (MPa) Ec (MPa) f t (MPa) etu (mm/mm) Toughness index

OPC-0 0 0 47.30 0.002050 0.003730 35,152 32,708 2.43 0.000120 1.9

OPC-0.4 0.4 0.65 51.20 0.002280 0.022280 35,370 31,743 2.70 0.000145 2.0
OPC-0.7 0.7 1.11 42.27 0.002410 0.030180 30,002 26,875 2.39 0.000125 3.7
CAC-0 0 0 79.75 0.002120 0.004130 56,097 52,129 4.18 0.000155 2.2
CAC-0.4 0.4 0.65 82.90 0.002340 0.022500 56,486 50,709 4.31 0.000175 3.5
CAC-0.7 0.7 1.11 61.23 0.002510 0.031610 47,656 43,118 3.54 0.000140 3.2
OPC-0-AC 0 0 35.65 0.002090 0.004700 32,056 28,469 2.06 0.000090 2.1
OPC-0.4-AC 0.4 0.65 46.75 0.002350 0.028640 32,347 30,606 2.52 0.000130 3.7
OPC-0.7-AC 0.7 1.11 42.03 0.002580 0.033480 28,395 26,738 2.34 0.000120 4.4
CAC-0-AC 0 0 53.30 0.002040 0.004550 45,834 41,197 3.39 0.000110 2.5
CAC-0.4-AC 0.4 0.65 73.30 0.002280 0.022650 50,979 46,333 3.92 0.000150 3.3
CAC-0.7-AC 0.7 1.11 47.57 0.002460 0.031930 38,727 34,967 3.32 0.000128 3.5

prove that higher fiber volume fractions produce lower compres- specimens containing FF fibers had better resistance to sulfuric
sive strengths, which stems from fiber accumulation and void for- acid attacks. On the other hand, the lower reduction in the com-
mation in the fibrous concrete. pressive strength of specimens with FF fibers is connected with
After immersing the specimens in the 5% sulfuric acid solution the more effective bridging action across the cracks induced by
for 45 days, the compressive strength of the specimens was sig- the inner pressures due to the volume expansion of cement paste
nificantly reduced. The reason can be associated with the gener- during reaction with sulfuric acid. It is worth noting that the
ation of gypsum and ettringite and the ensuing expansion, porosity of concrete containing 0.7% FF fibers is higher than that
coupled with the cement paste dissolution in the acid, which of plain concrete in the non-acidic state, as observed in other
gives rise to the softening of the cement matrix, and hence, studies [30,31] for synthetic fibers. As gypsum and ettringite fill
reduces the compressive strength of specimens. The decrease in this porosity in an acidic environment (especially for OPC-
the compressive strength after 45 days of immersion in sulfuric containing specimens), and together with higher fiber-matrix
acid for OPC-containing specimens with 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF fibers interlocking, proper integrity is generated in the concrete struc-
was 24.6, 8.7, and 0.6%, respectively, with respect to the corre- ture. Hence, the specimens in the OPC-0.7-AC group demon-
sponding reference specimens. Moreover, it is found from the strated suitable performance in controlling the compressive
results reported in Table 4 that as the volume fraction of FF fibers strength reduction caused by the acid attack.
in the OPC concrete increases, the compressive strength decreases Besides, the compressive strength reduction in the specimens
up to 45 days of immersion. The corresponding reduction in spec- containing CAC was much higher than those with OPC. To justify
imens containing CAC, for the same volume fractions, was respec- this observation, it is worth mentioning that the factor initializing
tively 33.2, 11.6, and 22.3%, relative to reference specimens. the gypsum and ettringite production process in concrete is one of
Therefore, since the highest compressive strength reduction the hydration products, calcium hydroxide, formed when cement
occurred in the specimens without fibers, it can be said that the reacts with water. During the reaction of this material with sulfuric
6 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

acid, ettringite and gypsum are produced, and this material is pro- polynomial equation regression was implemented to deliver cor-
duced more in OPC than CAC [12,15,32]. Therefore, it can be con- rect and reliable conditions. In this regard, in research conducted
cluded that the ability of CAC to produce gypsum and ettringite by Song and Hwang [33] under test conditions, a second-order
is much less the OPC. This ability of ordinary cement in producing polynomial regression was utilized to obtain a relation for concrete
greater amounts of ettringite and gypsum compared with refrac- compressive strength in terms of fiber volume. Fig. 3 displays the
tory cement has allowed concrete to better fill its porosity, and sig- empirical equations along with the experimental data of compres-
nificantly block acid penetration and limit further reduction of sive strength, highlighting a good fit between the experimental
compressive strength. In general, by changing the cement type results and those of prediction curves.
from OPC to CAC, an increase in the compressive strength was
noticeable. In the non-acidic medium, the compressive strength
of specimens for volume fractions of 0, 0.4, and 0.7% increased by 3.2. Strain at peak stress
68.6, 61.9, and 44.6%, respectively. The corresponding increase
for the same fiber volume fractions in the acidic environment Strain at peak stress is another mechanical property of concrete
was 49.5, 56.8, and 13.2%, respectively. material and one of the parameters affecting the stress-strain curve
Using the regression analysis of experimental results, the com- of concrete in the nonlinear analyses of concrete beams. The
pressive strength of the specimens with FF fibers is presented in results of compressive strain at peak stress are listed in Table 4
terms of compressive strength of plain concrete and fiber reinforc- for all specimens. Based on research by others [34,35], the strain
ing index as Eqs. (1)–(4) based on the proposed categories. Eqs. (1) at peak stress of the concrete increases with increasing compres-
and (2) are for the OPC-containing specimens in the non-acidic and sive strength. Hence, considering that increasing the volume frac-
acidic media, respectively. tion of fibers in the mix reduced the increasing trend of the
0 0
compressive strength, to the extent that using the highest volume
f cf ¼ f c  24:51If 2 þ 21:30If ð1Þ fraction of fibers even decreased the compressive strength of con-
crete relative to plain concrete, the variation of strain at peak stress
0 0
f cf ¼ f c  26:97If 2 þ 34:66If ð2Þ was expected to be similar to that of the compressive strength.
However, the strain at peak stress values of the concrete containing
Likewise, Eqs. (3) and (4) relate to the CAC-containing speci- fibers showed a different trend of variation, and thus, it is under-
mens in the non-acidic and acidic media, in order. stood that this parameter in the fibrous concrete depends on the
0 0 volume fraction and type of fibers. In the non-acidic state, the
f cf ¼ f c  49:69If 2 þ 35:35If ð3Þ
strain at peak stress of the OPC concrete experienced an increase
0 0 of 11.2 and 17.6%, respectively, by adding 0.4 and 0.7% FF fibers
f cf ¼ f c  84:21If 2 þ 84:07If ð4Þ
as compared to plain concrete (with no fiber). The comparable val-
0 0 ues were 10.4 and 18.4% for specimens containing CAC. The results
In these equations, f cf
and fc
are respectively the compressive
strength of fibrous and plain concrete in MPa, and If is the fiber indicate that adding FF fibers to the concrete mixes containing OPC
and CAC increased the strain at peak stress, with the underlying
reinforcing index, which is the product of the fiber volume fraction

 reason attributed to the arresting and delaying crack propagation
L
and the fiber aspect ratio df . It should be noted that given that through the bridging action of fibers [29]. In addition, after 45 days
f

the specimens made with 0.4% FF fibers had the best performance of immersion in 5% sulfuric acid solution, the OPC concrete with
in all groups, and that If took three values, the second-order 0.4 and 0.7% FF fiber addition experienced 12.4 and 23.4%,

Fig. 3. Prediction curves and experimental data for the compressive strength of concrete specimens.
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 7

respectively, increase in the strain at peak stress compared to plain Similarly, Eqs. (7) and (8) belong to the CAC-containing speci-
concrete. Such an increase was as much as 11.8 and 20.6% for the mens in the non-acidic and acidic media, in order,
CAC concrete in the acidic medium. It is clear from Table 4 that
e0cf ¼ e0c0 þ 0:0004If ð7Þ
the strain at peak stress of OPC and CAC specimens after 45 days
of immersion in the acid solution increased and decreased, respec-
tively, compared to the corresponding reference specimens (with- e0cf ¼ e0c0 þ 0:0003If ð8Þ
out acid exposure). At 45 days of immersion in acidic medium, the where e0cf and e0c0 signify the compressive strain of fiber-reinforced
strain at peak stress in specimens with OPC and 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF
and plain concrete, respectively. Fig. 4 exhibits the test results along
fiber respectively increased by 2, 3.1, and 7.1%, compared to the
with the prediction model for the strain at peak stress, with a rela-
corresponding reference specimens. However, for the correspond-
tively good fit between them.
ing specimens with CAC, the strain at peak stress decreased by 3.8,
2.6, and 2%, respectively, relative to corresponding reference con-
3.3. Elastic modulus
crete. It is recognized that the presence of CAC in lieu of OPC had
the ability to make the concrete more ductile in the non-acidic
The results of the initial and secant elastic moduli are presented
medium, while this was not the case in the acidic medium. The
in Table 4 for all concrete specimens. It is clear that the initial and
higher ability of OPC than CAC in making the concrete more ductile
secant elastic moduli have almost similar variation trends among
affirms that the presence of filler particles was quite effective, such
the different concrete specimens. In the non-acidic state, for the
that the concrete ductility relatively increases and relatively
OPC and CAC concrete, raising the volume fraction of the FF fibers
decreases in the acidic environment in specimens with OPC and
decreased the initial and secant elastic moduli. This is due to the
CAC, respectively.
inactivation of fibers’ bridging action in the elastic range where
By applying the linear regression analysis of the test results, the
concrete has no cracks. In addition, incorporating higher volume
empirical relations for strain at peak stress are presented by Eqs.
fractions of FF fibers generates voids, reduces the strength, and
(5)–(8) for concrete specimens in different groups.
thus lowers the concrete elastic modulus, compared to plain
Eqs. (5) and (6) respectively belong to the OPC-containing spec-
concrete (without fiber). The maximum decline in the initial and
imens in the non-acidic and acidic media.
secant elastic moduli occurred by adding 0.7% FF fibers to OPC con-
crete by 14.7 and 17.8%, respectively, compared to plain concrete.
e0cf ¼ e0c0 þ 0:0004If ð5Þ
The corresponding values were 15 and 17.3% for the CAC concrete.
Subsequent to the immersion of specimens in the 5% sulfuric
e0cf ¼ e0c0 þ 0:0006If ð6Þ
acid solution for 45 days, the elastic modulus of the specimens

Fig. 4. Prediction curves and experimental data for strain at peak stress of concrete specimens.
8 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

was significantly reduced with a maximum drop of 21%. The expansion, as well as maintaining the integrity of concrete compo-
decrease in the elastic modulus in the acidic medium is a conse- nents by the fibers.
quence of the weakening of aggregate–paste interfacial transition Eqs. (9) and (10) were proposed for the initial and secant elastic
zone (ITZ) due to the cement paste dissolution in the acid. In addi- moduli of the OPC concrete, respectively, and Eqs. (11) and (12) for
tion, the production of ettringite and gypsum with the ensuing those of the CAC concrete, respectively,
expansion give rise to the softening of the cement matrix, and thus, 0 0:5
Eif =ðf cf Þ ¼ 697:21If þ 5246 R2 ¼ 0:87 ð9Þ
reduce the elastic modulus. According to Table 4, the addition of FF
fibers at a volume fraction of 0.4 and 0.7% to OPC and CAC con- 0 0:5
cretes lowers the elastic modulus of concrete immersed in sulfuric
Ecf =ðf cf Þ ¼ 590:78If þ 4777:8 R2 ¼ 0:99 ð10Þ
acid solution. Moreover, the highest elastic modulus reduction due
0 0:5
to acid attack was observed in the specimen without fibers, thus a Eif =ðf cf Þ ¼ 518:28If þ 6311:6 R2 ¼ 0:81 ð11Þ
better performance of concrete containing FF fibers in an acidic
environment can be concluded. The decrease in the secant elastic 0 0:5
Ecf =ðf cf Þ ¼ 531:53If þ 5759:8 R2 ¼ 0:84 ð12Þ
modulus of OPC-containing specimens with 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF
fibers in the acidic medium was 13, 3.6, and 0.5% respectively, rel- in which Eif and Ecf are the initial and secant elastic moduli of
ative to the corresponding reference specimens (without acid fibrous concrete in MPa, respectively. Fig. 5 shows the linear regres-
exposure). Such a decrease in the CAC-containing specimens was sion curves along with the experimental data of the elastic modu-
21, 8.6 and 18.9%, respectively. The lower elastic modulus reduc- lus. It is critical to note that the data pertaining to both acidic and
tion of the concrete specimen containing FF fibers is attributed to non-acidic states (six points) in the two categories of OPC and
a more efficient bridging action across the cracks formed due to CAC were included in these curves. Fig. (5-a) and (5-c) cover the
internal pressures resulting from the volume expansion of the specimens containing OPC and Fig. (5-b) and (5-d) are associated
cement paste during reaction with sulfuric acid. Consequently, it with specimens containing CAC.
can be inferred that by adding FF fibers to the concrete mixture,
the elastic modulus of the acid-exposed specimens is significantly 3.4. Toughness index
improved compared to the corresponding non-fibrous specimens.
The reason for this is the restraining of the width of cracks formed Toughness is defined as the ability to absorb energy during
by the generation of ettringite and gypsum and the subsequent deformation, obtained as the area under the stress-strain curve.

Fig. 5. Prediction curves and experimental data for the initial and secant elastic moduli of concrete specimens; a) Initial modulus of specimens with OPC; b) Initial modulus of
specimens with CAC; c) Secant modulus of specimens with OPC; d) Secant modulus of specimens with CAC.
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 9

A proper approach to determine the ductility quantity is to use the both acidic and non-acidic media. Replacing CAC with OPC signifi-
toughness index. In this study, the toughness index of concrete cantly changed the stress-strain curve behavior, such that after the
specimens is defined as the ratio of the area under the stress- substitution, the compressive strength and the elastic modulus
strain curve extending to 3 times as much as the strain at the peak improved in both acidic and non-acidic states.
stress (3e0c ) to the area under the stress-strain curve up to the strain In the current study, based upon the relationship proposed by
at the peak stress (e0c ) [35]. Table 4 presents the toughness index Carreira and Chu [36] for plain concrete, a new model was pre-
values for concrete specimens. It is found out that in the non- sented to predict the stress-strain curve of fibrous concrete as
acidic environment, the addition of FF fibers increased the tough- follows,
ness index of concrete. Hence, it can be said that the concrete spec-

imens with FF fibers have a higher energy-absorption capacity b e0e
relative to the plain concrete. The toughness index rose by 5.3 rc ¼ 0
f cf
cf

b ð13Þ
and 94.7% for OPC concrete, respectively, by adding 0.4 and 0.7% b  1 þ e0e
cf

FF fibers. The corresponding increase in the toughness index for

where rc and e are the stress and strain of the concrete under axial
the CAC concrete was 59.1 and 45.5%, respectively. In addition,
compression, respectively. b is a parameter that takes the effect of
the substitution of CAC for OPC improved the toughness index at
the fibers on the ascending and descending branches of the
0 and 0.4% of FF fibers, while it reduced the toughness index at
stress-strain curve into account and can be determined through
0.7% of fibers.
the following equation.
The toughness index increased for most of the specimens when
they were exposed to the acidic environment. However, such an b ¼ 3:33 V f 2  5:33 V f þ 4 ð14Þ
increase was more pronounced for specimens made with OPC than
those with CAC (up to 85 and 14% increase for OPC and CAC, in According to Eq. (14), b is obtained for concrete specimens with
order). Thus, in the sulfuric acidic environment, the concrete spec- 0, 0.4, and 0.7% fibers as 4, 2.4, and 1.9, respectively. By substitut-
imens with OPC had a better performance compared with those ing the obtained equations for compressive strength, strain at peak
with CAC. Additionally, the toughness index behaved differently stress, and b into Eq. (13), the proposed stress-strain curve is deter-
in the acidic environment when CAC was replaced for OPC at dif- mined for concrete with FF fibers. Moreover, in order to verify the
ferent fiber percentages. It experienced a 19% increase, a 10.8% proposed model, its results were compared with the experimental
decrease, and a 20.5% decrease at 0, 0.4 and 0.7% of FF fiber vol- findings of the stress-strain curve of fibrous and non-fibrous con-
umes, respectively. Furthermore, the results in Table 4 indicate crete in Fig. 6. It is perceived that the suggested model can predict
that in the acidic environment, the addition of FF fibers to the con- the experimental results with high accuracy.
crete containing OPC leads to a more significant increase in the
toughness index relative to the addition of FF fibers in the concrete 3.6. Direct tensile strength
containing CAC. The toughness increase in the concrete containing
OPC is a result of the ability of Portland cement in producing The results of the direct tensile test are given in Table 4. Accord-
greater amounts of ettringite and gypsum relative to the ability ing to this table, the tensile strength variations are consistent with
of refractory cement in doing so, which in turn fill the pores on those of the compressive strength. In this regard, the addition of FF
the concrete surface and prevent further penetration of acid into fibers by 0.4% of concrete volume increases the tensile strength of
the concrete. OPC and CAC concrete by 11.1 and 3.1%, respectively. Further, com-
paring the results of FF fiber-reinforced concrete with plain con-
crete (without fibers) reveals that utilizing fibers at high volume
3.5. Compressive stress-strain curve fractions in OPC and CAC concrete lowers the tensile strength,
which is due to fiber accumulation and void formation in the
Fig. 6 depicts the compressive stress-strain curve for all speci- fibrous concrete. Such a trend indicates that the addition of FF
mens obtained from the compressive strength test. The trend of fibers by 0.4% led to a better tensile strength behavior of specimens
changes in the elastic modulus, compressive strength, and strain compared to the addition of fibers by 0.7%. In the concrete contain-
at peak stress under sulfuric acid attack can be evaluated via this ing the highest volume fraction of fibers, higher porosity, lower
figure. As shown, exposure to the acidic medium significantly integrity of the concrete, and fiber aggregation lead to the growth
decreases the compressive strength and elastic modulus, while it and propagation of tensile cracks, and in this situation, with further
increases the strain at peak stress, as noted earlier. It is also found penetration of acid inside the concrete, the specimen experiences
that the shape of the stress-strain curve for plain concrete exposed greater damage and corrosion, leading to greater reduction in the
to acid differs from that without acid exposure. In this sense, the tensile strength.
slope of the ascending and descending branches declines with Exposure to acidic medium basically decreased the tensile
the immersion of specimens in the acid solution. On the other strength of the specimens. The reduction for OPC concrete with
hand, the compressive stress-strain curve of the concrete without 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF fibers compared to reference specimens (with-
fibers becomes flatter after exposure to acid. The failure strain of out acid immersion) was respectively 15.2, 6.7, and 2.1% after
plain concrete exposed to acid also increased. In addition, the being immersed in the acid. The corresponding values for CAC con-
stress-strain curves of the fibrous concrete are nearly identical crete were 18.9, 9, and 6.2%, respectively. The findings indicate that
with and without exposure to acid; however, the compressive in the acidic medium, increasing the volume fraction of FF fibers in
strength and elastic modulus decreased under acid effect, and OPC and CAC concretes reduced the downward trend of the tensile
the strain at peak stress improved to a certain extent. strength. In addition, specimens OPC-0.4-AC and OPC-0.7-AC saw
Fig. 6 also shows that adding FF fibers up to 0.7% by concrete an increase in tensile strength by 22.3 and 13.6%, compared to
volume (as the maximum fiber volume fraction) increased the OPC-0-AC. Also, specimens CAC-0.4-AC and CAC-0.7-AC saw an
length of the descending branch in the stress-strain curve for spec- increment of 15.6%, and 2.1%, respectively, in tensile strength,
imens exposed to acidic and non-acidic media, implying an compared to CAC-0-AC.
increase in their ultimate strain. Increasing the fiber volume frac- The results also showcase that the presence of CAC in lieu of
tion from 0.4 to 0.7% in the concrete mix lowered the compressive OPC significantly enhanced the tensile strength, similar to the case
strength and elastic modulus but raised the strain at peak stress in with the compressive strength. Such enhancement for volume frac-
10 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

Fig. 6. Experimental compressive stress-strain curves of concrete specimens vs. the proposed model.

tions of 0, 0.4, and 0.7% of FF fibers in the non-acidic medium was 0 0:5
f t ¼ 0:363 f c R2 ¼ 0:87 ð15Þ
72, 59.6, and 48.1%, respectively. The corresponding values in the
acidic state were 64.6, 55.6 and 41.9%, respectively. 0 0:5
f t ¼ 0:465 f c R2 ¼ 0:96 ð16Þ
The tensile strength of concrete obtained by the direct tension
test can be expressed in terms of its compressive strength, which in which f t is the tensile strength of concrete and R2 is the coeffi-
is shown based on the cement type, i.e., OPC and CAC herein, cient of determination. These equations hold for non-fibrous and
through Eqs. (15) and (16), respectively, FF fiber-reinforced concrete, as well as for specimens with and
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 11

Fig. 7. Experimental tensile stress-strain curves for concrete specimens compared to the proposed model.
12 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999

without exposure to acid attacks. They prove that the effect of fibers ever, adding 0.4% FF fibers to concrete improves the ductility.
and acid on the direct tensile strength of concrete specimens is The maximum increase in the ultimate tensile strain occurred with
comparable to their effect on the compressive strength, such that the addition of 0.4% FF fibers in both acidic and non-acidic states. In
qffiffiffiffiffiffi
0 addition, using CAC instead of OPC considerably changed the
the value of f t = f c is almost constant for all specimens. However,
qffiffiffiffiffiffi stress-strain curve behavior, such that after the substitution, the
0
the cement type results in different values for f t = f c given the dis- tensile strength and ultimate tensile strain of the specimens under
tinct mechanical properties of CAC and OPC. It should be noted that acidic and non-acidic media increased. As the FF fiber volume frac-
qffiffiffiffiffiffi tion increased, the tensile stress-strain curves of the specimens
0
the f t = f c ratio was recommended to be 0.34 in the research con- under acidic and non-acidic media became closer and then
ducted by Kim and Taha [37]. coincided.
In this study, given that the concrete specimens with FF fibers
3.7. Ultimate tensile strain lacked residual tensile strength, Eq. (17) was proposed to specify
the tensile stress-strain curve of these specimens,
The ultimate tensile strain of all specimens is reported in "     #
et et 2
Table 4. The findings reveal that in the non-acidic medium, incor- rt ¼ ft 2  ; 06 et 6 et0 ð17Þ
porating FF fibers by 0.4% of concrete volume increased the ulti- et0 et0
mate tensile strain in OPC and CAC concrete by 20.8 and 4.2%,
respectively. In addition, by adding 0.7% FF fibers to the OPC and where rt and et are the stress and strain of concrete in direct ten-
CAC concrete, the ultimate tensile strain increased by 4.2 and sion, respectively, and et0 is the strain corresponding to the tensile
9.7%, respectively, compared to plain concrete (without fibers). strength (f t ). The tensile stress-strain curve obtained from the pro-
These results demonstrate that in the concretes containing OPC posed model is presented in Fig. 7. As it is seen, the results of the
and CAC, adding FF fibers to the mix always increased the tensile proposed model are in relatively good accord with those of the
strain, which is attributed to the arrest of cracks and reduction of experiment.
stress concentration at the crack tips. The results also highlight
that the replacement of CAC for OPC significantly enhanced the 4. Optimization
tensile strain, on account of improved tensile strength. The amount
of strain increase was 29.2, 20.7, and 12% for 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF The aim of optimization is to find the best solution, considering
fiber inclusion in the non-acidic environment, respectively. the economic constraints and requisites of the research. There
A significant decrease in the tensile strain was observed after might be several solutions for research, for which an objective
the specimens were subjected to acidic medium. The reduction function, whose selection depends on the nature of the problem,
in the tensile strain after immersion in the acid solution for OPC is defined to compare the existing solutions and choose the opti-
concrete specimens with 0, 0.4, and 0.7% FF fibers was respectively mal one. Response surface method (RSM) and neural network
25, 10.3, and 4%, compared to the corresponding reference speci- method (NNM) are practiced as two of the paramount methods
mens (without acid immersion). The equivalent values for CAC of optimization and data analysis. Among the two approaches
concrete specimens were 29, 14.3, and 8.6%, respectively. Thereby, mentioned, RSM features convenience in yielding the response
the results signify that as the volume fraction of FF fibers increased, equations in terms of several parameters and also provides accu-
the tensile strain decreased for the OPC and CAC specimens in the rate data analysis to provide optimal variable values, due to which
acidic medium. Moreover, CAC substitution for OPC in the acidic it has garnered the researchers’ attention [38,39]. In this study, the
environment improved the concrete tensile strain by as much as multi-objective simultaneous optimization technique using RSM
22.2, 15.4, and 6.7%, respectively, for FF fiber volume fractions of was executed as a basis for finding the best solution. Design-
0, 0.4, and 0.7%. Expert [40] commercial software was thus implemented for this
purpose. The independent variable in this study is the FF fiber vol-
3.8. Tensile stress-strain curve ume fraction (Vf) with three levels of 0, 0.4 and 0.7%. Given that the
parameter If was introduced in the previous sections for both com-
Fig. 7 illustrates the tensile stress-strain curve for all specimens. pressive and tensile strength as an independent variable in their
It can be seen from the figure that the addition of 0.7% FF fibers to theoretical relationships and since this parameter is directly
concrete linearizes the curves of specimens under acidic and non- derived from Vf, it was not necessary to obtain a new equation
acidic environments, indicating a decrease in the ductility. How- for optimizing the value of Vf. Hence, using the Design-Expert

Table 5
Results obtained by optimizing FF fiber volume fraction in the acidic and non-acidic states.

Cement type Acid attack Factors and responses Target Optimum solution
OPC No Compressive strength (MPa) Maximum 50.14
Tensile strength (MPa) Maximum 2.58
Volume fraction (%) Minimum 0.11
Desirability (%) Maximum 81.2
CAC No Compressive strength (MPa) Maximum 81.64
Tensile strength (MPa) Maximum 4.25
Volume fraction (%) Minimum 0.04
Desirability (%) Maximum 94.0
OPC Yes Compressive strength (MPa) Maximum 46.07
Tensile strength (MPa) Maximum 2.49
Volume fraction (%) Minimum 0.32
Desirability (%) Maximum 78.3
CAC Yes Compressive strength (MPa) Maximum 69.85
Tensile strength (MPa) Maximum 3.81
Volume fraction (%) Minimum 0.18
Desirability (%) Maximum 78.4
 J. Dashti, M. Nematzadeh / Construction and Building Materials 253 (2020) 118999 13

software, the optimal values were achieved for Vf, which are given concrete increased the length of the descending branch of the
in Table 5. It should be noted that in order to gain higher compres- stress-strain curve of specimens in both acidic and non-acidic
sive and tensile strength as well as to improve the economic con- states.
ditions of the project, the objective in developing the model should 6. Incorporating FF fibers in concrete at low (0.4%) and high (0.7%)
be maximizing the compressive and tensile strength, while concur- volume fractions increased and decreased the tensile strength
rently minimizing the FF fiber volume fraction, so as to minimize of specimens, respectively. The presence of CAC rather than
the cost. OPC in the mix design significantly increased the tensile
Considering Table 5, it is understood that the optimal volume strength (up to 70%), which was quite noticeable in all plain
fraction of FF fibers in terms of the compressive and tensile and fibrous specimens in the acidic and the non-acidic media.
strength of specimens with OPC and CAC in the non-acidic environ- However, the acidic environment decreased the tensile strength
ment is 0.11 and 0.04%, respectively. The corresponding values are of concrete. Increasing the amount of fiber played a particularly
0.32 and 0.18% in the acidic medium, respectively. important role in controlling the downward trend of tensile
strength.
5. Conclusions 7. The ultimate tensile strain improvement due to FF fiber inclu-
sion in the OPC and CAC specimens with a fiber volume fraction
Fiber usage in the concrete volume and the modification of of 0.4% was higher than that in specimens with a fiber volume
cement type to improve the mechanical properties of concrete fraction of 0.7%. Further, the acidic environment generally
under acid attacks can be promising approaches for structures reduced (up to 30%) the ultimate tensile strain of the OPC and
exposed to the acidic media. Research on the effect of a combina- CAC specimens. However, the rise in the fiber volume fraction
tion of these two approaches on the properties of concrete in the lowered this drop. Substituting CAC for OPC improved the ten-
acidic environments is of high significance, for which little infor- sile strain of concrete specimens in the acidic and non-acidic
mation is available in the literature. Therefore, in this study, the states.
use of CAC and synthetic FF fibers was considered with the goal 8. The models proposed in this study could efficiently predict the
of controlling and enhancing the compressive and direct tensile experimental compressive and tensile stress-strain curves of
strength of concrete in the acidic medium. In addition, an optimal the specimens with FF fibers and CAC exposed to acid.
solution for the design parameters was proposed by maximizing 9. The optimal amount of FF fiber volume fraction for OPC and CAC
the mechanical properties of concrete containing FF fibers and concretes, at which the compressive and tensile strengths are
CAC immersed in the acidic medium. Based on the experiments maximized and the cost is minimized, was 0.11 and 0.04% for
conducted in this study, the following results were obtained. the non-acidic state, and 0.32 and 0.18% for the acidic state,
1. For concrete containing OPC and CAC, the addition of FF fibers respectively.
to the concrete mixture at a low volume (0.4%) increased the
compressive strength of concrete, while a higher volume addi- CRediT authorship contribution statement
tion (0.7%) led to the opposite effect. In addition, replacing
OPC with CAC in the concrete mixture significantly increased Javad Dashti: Data curation, Investigation, Software, Visualiza-
the compressive strength (by approximately 70%) in the acidic tion, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Project administration,
and non-acidic media. The acidic environment notably Resources. Mahdi Nematzadeh: Supervision, Conceptualization,
decreased (up to 30%) the compressive strength, especially for Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing.
CAC specimens. The increase in the amount of FF fibers
restrained such a decrease. References
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