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A cross cultural investigation into adoption of

user controls in cyberstalking protection
A case study of Nigeria and the United Kingdom

Akinduko A.1, Ariwa E. 2, Gibson M. 3

13
University of Bedfordshire, UK
2
University of Roehampton, UK
Email: 1aoakinduko@[Link]; 2ezzyariwa@[Link]

Abstract: Cyberstalking has been identified as a The anonymity of the internet has been a hindrance
major threat to users of technology, most importantly to apprehending perpetrators of cyberstalking as
social and electronic media tools. The utilisation of stalkers with advanced technological knowledge
available user controls which are aimed at protecting are able to create a fake identity online or hide their
users from cyberstalking have not been fully explored IP address using proxy settings. This makes their
in literatures from a cultural point of view. This
paper aims to address this issue by using two distinct identity unknown and difficult to trace their
cultural group to understand and investigate the location. This has been a challenge for security
adoption of user controls in cyberstalking protection. operatives and investigators in apprehending
The Hofstede Cultural index and a few other cultural cyberstalkers (Ge, Peng and Chen, 2014).
models will be used in comparing the two selected
cultural group. Pittaro (2007) established that the trends and the
effects of cyberstalking are as fatal as those of
Keywords: Nigeria; United Kingdom; Cyberstalking; traditional stalking with the only difference being
Cross-Cultural; User-controls the mode of perpetration.
I. INTRODUCTION This research is focussed on the cross cultural
Cyberstalking has been defined as a form of attack adoption of user controls in cyberstalking
that utilizes electronic communications and the protection. The focus area of this research is
internet to monitor, contact and threaten victims. Nigeria and the United Kingdom. The two
The act of communication in cyberstalking is countries have been initially selected based on the
persistent and unwanted by the victim, making the classification of Nigeria as a developing country
victim uncomfortable, and can be achieved through and the United Kingdom as a developed country;
phone calls, text messages, electronic mails or and cultural differences. Both countries have more
through chat rooms (Sánchez, Muñoz-Fernández than fifty million citizens as active internet users,
and Ortega-Ruíz, 2015). The motive of the stalker therefore posed with the possibility of becoming
may range from obsession (Grodzinsky and Tavani, victims of cyberstalking.
2002), personal enjoyment or physical encounter
with the victim (Mazari, 2013). II. CYBERSTALKING
There is no globally agreed standard definition of
The British crime survey 2006 estimates about five cyberstalking. In this section, definitions from a
million people experience stalking annually, with few authors and researchers will be highlighted and
the figure increasing. The 2011 ECHO pilot survey a definition to be used throughout this research will
which evaluated 353 respondents reported about be arrived at.
30% having symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) associated with the effect of Al-Khateeb & Epiphaniou (2016) defined
cyberstalking (Maple et al., 2011). These incidents cyberstalking as the form of internet harassment
have been shown to affect victims psychologically that targets adults only. In contrast to this
and physically. Recent technological advancements definition, teenagers have been known to be
such as smart phones and global internet access victims of cyberstalking and not just adults.
have made it easier for cyberstalker to identify Cyberstalking has also been defined as a particular
potential targets online. form of stalking that involves the use of internet
and other forms of electronic tools to monitor,

978-1-5090-3989-0/17/$31.00

©2017 IEEE 181
contact and threaten victims (Sánchez, Muñoz- frustrate the victim. This can result in situations
Fernández and Ortega-Ruíz, 2015). Miller (2012) where the ex-partner impersonates the victim (e.g.
described cyberstalking as a form of stalking that on social networks) which would allow them to
utilises the internet in gathering information about intercept messages aimed at the victim and
victims and threatening victims. therefore potentially lead to enhanced knowledge
This research has been able to formulate a of the victim or blackmail. The computer literacy
definition for cyberstalking which has been arrived of stalkers in this category ranges from low to high
at by a careful comparison between existing depending on what they aim to achieve. The
definitions available. “Cyberstalking is the intimate stalker may be able to carry out fraudulent
repeated and deliberate use of the internet and transactions in the name of the victim based on the
electronic communication tools to frighten, level of information they possess about the victim.
intimidate or harass someone”. • Collective stalkers: The term collective
describes a combined effort of two or more
III. CYBERSTALKER individual to achieve a certain task. Collective
A cyberstalker can be described as an individual cyberstalking is observed when two or more
that utilises the internet and/or other electronic cyberstalkers target a particular victim or group of
communication tools to harass, threaten and victims. The technical or computer knowledge of
intimidate others. the collective stalkers range from high to very high,
A cyberstalker is mostly described as an attacker in in which an average member of the group possess a
a cyberstalking investigation with varying motive very good knowledge of computer skills and
for their actions (Kao et al., 2008). Cyberstalkers technical skills. Tools used in this form of stalking
may act alone or as part of a group. involve spamming, mail bombing, identity theft
and using video tools published online to harass the
IV. CYBERSTALKING VICTIM victim (McCormick, 2014). The collective stalker
The term victim is used to describe someone that is is also able to gather valuable information about the
currently or in the past experiencing cyberstalking victim, and release this publicly to embarrass or
activities targeted towards them. This can be an threaten the victim. This kind of attack is targeted
individual or group of people. at celebrities, politicians and in general, famous
people who have a lot to lose in an event of
V. TYPES OF CYBERSTALKER blackmail.
• Vindictive stalker: This form of attack is
more intense as the attacker often include physical VI. TECHNOLOGIES UTILISED BY
(offline) stalking to implement their threats. CYBERSTALKER
Vindictive stalkers may be dangerous and have • Electronic mail: D’Ovido & Doyle (2003)
criminal records. Vindictive stalkers have been reported that over 79% of reported cyberstalking
shown to have good knowledge of the computer incidents are perpetrated using email. Advanced
and the use of the different computer techniques to stalkers with interest in gaining control of user’s
victimise their targets. Methods widely utilised by computers and electronic devices normally take
vindictive stalkers are spamming, mail bombing advantage of emails to attack the victims. There
and identity theft (Pittaro, 2007; Mc Farlane & may be differing trends in the form of attack today
Bocij, 2003; Paulett et al., 2009). as the report has been published over thirteen years
• Composed stalker: Composed stalkers are ago. Spam emails are sent to unsuspecting victims
aimed at causing a victim discomfort and not sometimes with malicious code embedded in the
necessarily interested in inflicting harm on victims. email or link to download and run a specific
The level of computer literacy for a composed software that installs malware such as worms or
stalker is medium to high. Most of the attackers in Trojans on the user’s computer which may create
this category are sane and with no criminal records, back access to the operating system. Depending on
showing the attack are directed towards victims for the malware, the attacker may be able to record
the single purpose of annoying, irritating and passwords and gain access to files on the victim’s
causing distress to victims (McCormick, 2014). computer. This can be achieved as well using spoof
• Intimate stalker: An intimate stalker emails deceiving victims that mail is sent from a
utilises different forms of electronic recognised authority (Ellison & Aknediz, 2000).
communications and the internet to contact victims. An identity fraud can be committed or credit card
This can be through social networking websites, information of victims used for transaction online.
chat rooms, emails, or phone calls and text The use of victim’s pictures and details on website
messaging. An intimate stalker is more interested in (pornographic) can cause trauma for victims and
establishing a relationship with the victim and lead to blackmail and stress on the victims. Mail
might become angry when the victim refuses. An bombing is also used to send unwanted messages to
ex-lover or partner can also become a stalker in this flood victim’s mail box. This causes discomfort for
category, in an effort to exact revenge or to the victim (Gregorie, 2006).

182
 • Social networking websites/Applications: This has also given attackers an idea of the exact
Cyberstalkers with little or high technical skills are location where victims are and can be used to
able to utilise the social networking websites or analyse the way victims behave.
mobile application to attack victims. This involve • Facial Recognition: Facial recognition is a
creating profile online (mostly fake) and using such tool that can be used to link pictures to the profile
to contact and attack victims who are not aware of of the owner. Attackers can use this tool to recover
their true identity. Unsuspecting users share victim’s public profile from the internet and search
personal information (includes contact number, for victims just by having a picture of the victim. It
work details, house location) and pictures online saves the attacker the time spent in searching for
which can be used to trace them and inflict more names and address as the pictures can be linked
attack on them. In cases of investigation after a directly to all their profile (Webb 2014).
reported attack, highly technical cyberstalkers are • Computer system attack: Highly technical
able to hide the identity and delete digital forensic stalkers can use controlled attacks to take over the
evidences which can be used in prosecuting computer and devices of victims and traumatise
offenders in the court of law (Dewing, 2012; them. This can be done by using Trojans or worms
Seopressor, 2015). to create (undetected) access pathway on the
• Online chat rooms: Chat rooms are places victim’s computer. Private and embarrassing
where users meet others and chat. Chat rooms are pictures or conversations of victims can be
designed mainly for strangers to meet and be retrieved from their devices and published online.
friends. Attackers creates profile online and contact This can also be used as a means to blackmail and
victims in chat rooms and over time this progress to cause trauma for victims.
exchanging personal information and meeting
offline. Attackers then take advantage of this and VII. EFFECTS OF CYBERSTALKING ON
gather more information about victims which are VICTIMS
used in coordinated attacks on the victims. Cyberstalking victims have been linked to mental
Attackers can sometimes be interested in retrieving health illnesses and symptoms of stress observed in
secret information from victims which can be victims. The ECHO survey 2011 reported that
embarrassing to them if the information is leaked about 30% of respondents have symptoms of Post-
outside (Joseph, 2003). The present trend is chat Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Victims of
rooms available in social networking websites like cyberstalking also have been observed to suffer
[Link]; [Link], [Link] and most from anxiety and insecurity, living in constant fear
popular one been [Link] messenger. for their lives and that of their family member.
• World Wide Web: The internet is a ready
tool for attackers to search victims, learn new skills Victims of cyber stalking have been shown to
and gain new ways of attacking victims. Pittaro experience fear and distress during the process. The
(2007) describes the internet as a breeding ground way men react is more different than women, with
for criminals and further classified the internet as a 46.3% of men more worried about blackmail or
weapon harnessed by cyberstalkers. The internet damage to reputation, while women fear personal
has made it very easy for stalkers to gather details injury to themselves or close relations (Maple et al.,
about victim’s place of work and activities to the 2011).
point of killing victims. An example of this is the In addition to the use of privacy controls, incidents
October 15, 1999 killing of Boyer by Youens, an involving cyberstalking may be controlled by the
obsessed boyfriend in New Hampshire, after victim changing mobile numbers, or moving
gathering all information about her from the houses and jobs where feasible; as their details
internet and contacting Docusearch (an online have been compromised and life been perceived as
information gathering company) under false at risk (Aboujaoude et al., 2015; al-Khateeb and
pretence. This case and others have established the Epiphaniou, 2016). Changing houses, email
role of internet in aiding cyberstalking activities contacts, phone numbers and other compromised
(Pittaro, 2007; Spence-Diehl, 2003). details will make the victims lose connection with
• Global positioning satellite (GPS): The
global positioning system is a tool installed on some important contacts. This may impact on their
some electronic devices such as smart phones, personal business activity or social life or lead to
computers and portable devices. This tool enables increased feelings of isolation.
the users to share their exact location and it also Haron & Yusof (2010) describes the consequences
allows third party to see user’s activities or location of cyberstalking on victims as psychological and
history. Cyberstalkers have annexed this behavioural. This has specific consequences such
technology to gather information about most visited as depression, isolation, anxiety and insecurity;
and work places of victims (Chik, 2008). Social with victims losing the ability to trust in the future
networking websites have allowed users to tag their and been overly cautious when sharing personal
location on pictures and messages posted online. information.



183
A major consequence of cyberstalking is murder IX. THE CULTURAL GROUP “Nigeria and
and risk of physical injury. Victims that have direct the United Kingdom”
contact with their attackers have been killed
(Pittaro, 2007), and some have been physically The Nigerian Communications Commission in
attacked, with wounds and other form of injury September 2015, confirmed the number of active
inflicted. The extreme part is when victims are internet users in the country to be about 97.21
being traumatised to the point of committing million. This has been a significant growth from
suicide (al-Khateeb and Epiphaniou, 2016). This 200,000 active internet users recorded in the
results from the prolonged feeling of depression country in the year 2000 (Nigeria Internet Usage,
and helplessness. Population, and Telecommunications Reports,
2016).
The growth in the use of internet and the social
VIII. PRIVACY IN ONLINE SOCIAL networking websites that avail people the ability to
MEDIA share pictures, meet new people and express
The need for privacy in the online environment is themselves online is not limited to Nigeria alone.
very important as it can protect users from a The United Kingdom has 91% of its population
number of attacks, such as social engineering, (total population of 64,767,115 as at 2015) as
identity theft, cyberstalking, and computer system active internet users; and 58.67% (30,000,000) as
attacks. Privacy online is majorly affected by the active subscribers on Facebook, a social website;
ability of users to recognise the controls available and Nigeria having fifteen million subscribers
for them and the developers of social networking (European Union Internet Usage and Population
websites making privacy features less concealing Stats, 2016; "Africa Internet Stats Users Facebook
and more exhaustive to cover the needs of users. and 2015 Population Statistics").
Furnell and Botha (2011) in a study on privacy in The increase in the number of internet users in
social networking websites reviewed the privacy Nigeria and the United Kingdom has led to a
settings of Facebook and LinkedIn, which are significant increase in the number of social website
example of social networking website and subscribers with Facebook having an active
professional networking websites. The main focus subscriber of over billion users (Al-Saggaf and
of the paper is realising that users are sometimes Nielsen, 2014). There has also been a recorded
unaware of the privacy features available to them increase of 832.5% in total number of world
and the ease of navigating through this features. internet users between the year 2000 and 2015
The result revealed that the two networking (World Internet Users Statistics and 2015 World
websites have different privacy features with Population Stats, 2016).
LinkedIn having unique features that allow users to The statistics above have shown the extent at which
see who has viewed their profile and Facebook not people are connected online, and utilise the use of
having such. Also, the ease at which users are able social websites to share, connect and meet new
to access privacy features in the selected friends. The awareness of the risk involved in
networking website were evaluated and it was exposing personal contents and sharing online need
observed that the available privacy settings does to be made known to users (Haron & Yusof, 2010).
not fully satisfy the need of users. Users are unable Identified risks associated with the misuse of the
to select particular audience for their posts from internet or failure to utilize available privacy tools
their friend list. A user with a Facebook and available for users’ protection online include
LinkedIn profile might make an undeliberate identity theft, online fraud, cyberbullying and
disclosure about every part of their lives, making it cyberstalking.
perfect and easy for a stalker or an identity thief.
Furthermore, the controls available on LinkedIn X. CULTURAL PERCEPTION OF
does not avail users the choice of selecting CYBERSTALKING
particular audience for their profile.
The use of privacy settings and how to control the The use of privacy settings in preventing
information available about users online is a major cyberstalking incidents is a major focus of this
part of ensuring privacy. This includes the research; and cultural perception of users’ needs to
recognition and awareness of public information be analysed to have an understanding of how
available about users and the use of real names on different users perceive privacy and why. Tsoi &
online profiles. The use of real names on Chen (2011) reported that the way different
networking websites should be on a need-to-know individuals interact with computing system is a
basis and precautions must be taken as to control reflection of their cultural norms and values.
the set of people users give permission to access
their profile (al-Khateeb et al., 2015).

184
The level of privacy required by individuals have Index comparison ([Link],
been shown to vary based on the personality of the 2016).
person involved, their cultural background, the
social factors they are exposed to and the The dimensions in the Hofstede index has a great
geophysical environment they currently live in implication on the attitude of the public towards
(Kaya & Weber, 2003). Individuals have also been use of privacy settings.
observed to change in their perception of privacy as
they relocate from one cultural area to another.
This may be a total deviation from previously • Power distance: This emphasizes on the
achieved privacy techniques of users and adopted level of inequality in the society and how this
to fit into the new cultural area (Harris et al., 1995). interprets to the public making decisions for
This factor will also be considered in the themselves. Nigeria has a score of “80” against the
experiments to be carried out as part of this United Kingdom score of “35”. This score
research (Experiment Three of the data gathering); interprets that the Nigerian public are more
at understanding the changes observed in user’s dependent on a higher authority on decisions
perception of privacy when they relocate from one related to the use of the computer systems; while
culture to another. Culture has also affected the the United Kingdom public are quite free to make
level of interaction exhibited by individuals and the independent decisions as to preferences they wish
way they behave towards building relationships to put in place in their normal life. Users in Nigeria
with others (Tsoi & Chen, 2011). might expect the social networking website
company to protect them, while the United
Kingdom users will be more likely to edit settings
One of the cultural models used in comparing based on their own preferences.
countries is the Hofstede model which constitutes • Individualism: This classifies society into
of four indices or dimensions as at 2011 (Tsoi & collectivists (where people have high
Chen, 2011), and now updated to six dimensions interdependence on one another) and individualists
([Link], 2016). As at 2011, the four (in this case people are more concerned about
dimensions used in comparing the cultural values themselves with little or no dependence on others).
between countries are Power distance, Nigeria is a collectivists society with a low score of
Individualism, Masculinity, and Uncertainty “30” in individualism; this could be interpreted as
Avoidance; with two new dimensions Long Term users having less strict privacy controls, tending to
Orientation and Indulgence added. These be open with data and sharing information to a
dimensions show a comparison between the two wide range of people, and belief in connection. The
countries used in this research (Nigeria and the United Kingdom with a “89” score in individualism
United Kingdom) shown in the figure below. keeps a very close circle of friendship and therefore
may be more prone to using strict privacy controls
to ensure their information is limited to a few set of

Nige
ria
and
the
Unit
ed
King
dom
Cult
ural people. This position is the same as that proposed



185
by Hall (1966), where he classified culture as share too much details or post photos of themselves
contact (with Nigeria fitting into the description of online. This has been attributed by some to the
this) and non-contact (which agrees with the scores experience users had growing up under the
from the United Kingdom). communism, where people’s actions were used
• Masculinity: This is more about the against them (Ur & Wang, 2012). This situation is
competitive nature of the society and has no similar in India where users perceived photo
obvious direct relation to privacy/conceptual sharing as very sensitive when it comes to privacy
perspective of user. (Kumaraguru & Sachdeva, 2012). Researches
• Uncertainty Avoidance: This relates to pointed above and more have shown different
how anxious users or the public are about the privacy patterns and attitudes of users towards
future. This may have a direct effect on the use of information sharing online; attributed to different
privacy settings as it raises the ambiguity of cultural norms.
unknown situations that can arise from sharing of
information online. In cyberstalking, attitudes, reactions and
• Long Term Orientation: This may have a
behaviours of victims before, during and after a
direct effect on the use of privacy settings as it cyberstalking attack will be different and this may
keeps users attached to their past and old traditions. be as a result of cultural norms or adopted cultures
This can include viewing connection to people based on where users live and their lived
they’ve known for a long time, thus affecting the experiences.
proper utilisation of privacy controls.
• Indulgence: This refers to the level at This research is focussing mainly on the United
which a society freely embraces changes in human Kingdom and Nigeria audience which represents
lives and actions related to fun in daily life. The the two different cultures. The result from this
society with a high score (Nigeria – 84) shows less research may be used in the future by researchers to
impulsively towards risk - this may be related to further understand the effect of culture on the use
sharing of information online; while a more of privacy settings online, particularly in an
restrained society (United Kingdom with an African/Western context which is an area that
Indulgence score of “69”) will be more anxious and hasn't been investigated by researchers in the
cautious about risk and this may affect the sharing current literature.
of information online.
XI. CYBERSTALKING RELATED
The differing need for privacy has been attributed LEGISLATIONS IN NIGERIA AND THE
to cultural background as some cultures place more UNITED KINGDOM
significance on privacy than others. Culture has In response to the growing threat of cyberstalking
been classified as contact and noncontact; with around the world, countries have come up with
contact cultures known for more physical legislations against annoying behaviours online.
connections like touch, eye contacts and more This legislation is made to protect the citizens and
direct interaction; while the noncontact, prominent also state the punishments for such offences under
in the European and American countries maintain the law of the country. In this section, the relevant
personal space and interpersonal distances (Kaya & legislations in Nigeria and the United Kingdom
Weber, 2003). will be discussed.
A. LEGISLATIONS IN THE UNITED
Existing privacy framework has identified three KINGDOM
levels of privacy. Privacy levels according to the The United Kingdom has a number of legislations
framework are desired, achieved and optimum already passed into law regarding cyberstalking,
privacy. Desired privacy can be explained as the online harassment and deliberate circulation of
individual’s expectation of contact and sharing of annoying message either by post or other means.
data with people; while the achieved privacy is the The laws related to cyberstalking protection in the
present manner or way an individual shares data United Kingdom will be identified and briefly
and personal information. Privacy is set to be at explained below.
optimum level when individuals have achieved • Data Protection Act 1998: This law is used
what they set out to achieve in sharing data and in protection of data of living people in the
information (Kaya & Weber, 2003). United Kingdom and it protects against
Research has shown that culture has influenced the holding information about individuals
way people perceive privacy both in normal living without purpose.
condition and in the online environment (Ur & • Computer Misuse Act 1990: This act
Wang, 2013). A comparison online information makes provision for securing computer
sharing attitude has shown that Hungarian adults and electronic devices against
over the age of thirty (30) are more unlikely to unauthorised access or manipulation of
computer systems. This act secures users



186
 against hacking or use of virus to gain • Nigerian Computer Security and
access to a computer. Protection Agency Bill, 2009
• Protection from Harassment Act 1997: The laws in Nigeria are quite efficient for the
The bill passed into law by the parliament environment as there are less reported cases of
of the United Kingdom with the aim of cyberstalking compared to the United Kingdom
protecting citizens from all sort of (Anon, 2016). It should be noted that none of the
harassment, stalking, racial harassment legislations in Nigeria fully address or protects the
and anti-social behaviors. It specifically citizens from cyberstalking.
protects citizens from all sort of persistent
communication that can lead to distress.
• The Communications Act 2003: This act
specifies the sending of improper message X11. RESULT AND CONCLUSION
or communication as an offence. Improper This paper has been able to establish that Nigerians
message refers to offensive, indecent are more likely to disclose personal information
phone calls or messages sent to other online (pictures, address, work information, mobile
people. The offence in question is that of numbers) compared to the United Kingdom
sending and it doesn’t matter if the citizens.
message was delivered or not. A number of reasons have been pointed out in this
Other legislations in the United Kingdom related to research based on the analysis and study of the
cyberstalking are Malicious Communications Act cultural models used in this research.
1988 which refers specifically to threats issued to
life; Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000; In summary, Nigeria is a collectivist society where
The Postal Services Act 2000 and Mobile citizens belief in sharing memories and information
Telephones (Re-Programming) Act 2002 which all among a wider friendship group, while the United
moderates the communications between two people Kingdom is more individualistic. Additionally, the
and enforcing communications are decent level of awareness and recognition of cyberstalking
([Link], 2016). in the two cultural group is different as shown by
 LEGISLATIONS IN NIGERIA
the government’s response to cyberstalking and the
In contrast to the United Kingdom, the legislation number of reported cases of cyberstalking in both
in Nigeria are not addressed to counter specific countries.
crime and the level of awareness among the
citizens are low. They are instead designed broadly The United Kingdom has specific legislations
and can be interpreted as needed by law aimed at addressing cyberstalking, while an
enforcement or the law courts. The laws relevant to average Nigerian law enforcement officer has no
cyberstalking will be identified and briefly knowledge of cyberstalking.
explained. More needs to be done in educating citizens, law
• Cybercrime Bill 2013: This law was enforcement officers, government agencies and the
passed into law by the Nigerian senate senate of Nigeria about cyberstalking as there are
with up to seven years’ imprisonment for no records of cyberstalking attacks in the country;
cybercrime offences. The law does not and no way to help or identify cyberstalking
specify a particular crime, but it made victims in the country.
mention of identity theft, cyberstalking,
child pornography, hacking government
computers and ATM (Automated teller
machine) Card skimming.
Other laws relevant to cybercrime in Nigeria but
with no direct link to cyberstalking are listed
below. This laws are more directed towards
computer security and hacking; but the level of
involvement into cyberstalking is low.
• Computer Security and Information
Infrastructure Protection Bill, 2005
• Cybercrime Bill, 2004
• Cybersecurity Bill, 2011
• Cybersecurity and Data Protection Agency
(Establishment) Bill, 2008
• Electronic Fraud and Prohibition Bill,
2008
• EFCC Act (Amendment) Bill, 2010

187
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