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CATION COURSE GUIDE USING OBTL
Module 1 : 3 hrs. COMPUTER NETWORK

Course Instructor Lyonyl Paul Q. Sevilla, ECE, MECE

FM Messenger Paul Sevilla

Contact Details Email Ad [email protected]
Phone No./s 0920 983 6578
Consultation Hours TTH 7:00 – 8:30 PM TTH N/A

Part I: TARGETED COURSE OUTCOMES AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Course Outcomes

At the end of the semester: 

1. Identify the principles governing computer networks

2. Describe and differentiate various protocols and structures of computer networks
3. Analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of computer networks

Learning Objectives

At end of this module

1. The students will be able to identify the Network Hardware

2.

Part II: ASSESSMENT/S

Learning Evidence

1. The students will identify a control system according to its classification using an
identification test.
2. The students will identify the definition of Control System Design using an
identification test.
3. The students will answer an identification test involving mechatronic systems.
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Part III: TEACHING-LEARNING ACTIVITIES (TLA)

Computer Networks are classified by its two general categories – transmission

technology & scale
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION BY TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY
Point-to-Point – It is a transmission technology which connects individual pairs of machines. To
go from the source to the destination on a network made up of point-to-point links, short
messages, called packets in certain contexts, may have to first visit one or more intermediate
machines. Often multiple routes, of different lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is
important in point-to-point networks. Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and
exactly one receiver is sometimes called unicasting.

Broadcast – It is a transmission technology in which it allows the possibility of addressing a

packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a packet with
this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. Some
broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, which known as
multicasting.

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION BY SCALE

Figure 1 Classification of Interconnected processors by scale

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK – It is an network whose range is over the range of a

person. It includes but not limited to the wireless network of any personal device to its
peripheral device such as wireless mouse, keyboard, earphones, and a computer.
Bluetooth technology is mostly used in this type of network.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK - is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby
a single building like a home, office or factory. It is commonly used to connect personal
computers to other consumer electronics resources, such as printers, in an office or a
building. When LAN’s are used in companies, it is often called enterprise networks.
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 Wireless LAN – In these network, the computers must have a modem and
antenna to communicate to the ACCESS POINT (sometimes called as wireless
router or base station) in order to relay packets between wireless comouters and
also between then and the internet as shown in figure 2. The standard for
wireless LANs is called IEEE 802.11 or popularly known as Wifi and it runs from
11 to hundreds of Mbps.

 Wired LAN – under IEEE 802.3

standard (popularly called as
Ethernet), it is the common
type of LAN. Each computer is
connected to a box called
SWITCH and is sometimes
called as Switched Ethernet
where it uses Ethernet
protocol as means of
communication over the said
wired network. A switch has a
multiple PORTS each of which
is connected to a computer.
Also, in bigger networks,
multiple switches are
Figure 2. Wireless LAN
connected to each other.

 Virtual LAN – It is a logical network wherein two or more network can work on
the same physical network.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK – It is a network that covers a city. One of the best
examples are the cable television networks operating in various cities. Over the years,
the cable television network provider not just provide TV programs from various
international channel but also include Internet service. It can be estimated to be the
same as depicted in figure 3 where it uses centralized CABLE HEADEND so that the
distribution among the home subscribers can be possible.

Figure 3Metropolitan Area Network based on cable TV

Another good example of MAN is the IEEE 802.16 also popularly known as WiMAX.
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WIDE AREA NETWORK – It is a network that spans a large geographical area (e.g.
country or continent). It is commonly used by companies with off-shore branch offices,
or in other cities. As see in figure 4, each of these offices contains computers for running
user programs called HOSTS. These hosts are interconnected via COMMUNICATION
SUBNET or SUBNET for short.

In most WAN’s, subnet mainly consists of transmission lines (e.g. copper wire, optical
fiber, or microwave radio links) and switching elements. These switching elements
connect two or more transmission lines and these are specialized computers dedicated
for determining which transmission line a certain packet, which it has received, to
proceed. These switching elements are commonly called as ROUTERS.

A certain entity who owns a WAN may opt to have its own subnet (that is, they can put
up a physical network facility which is very costly) or they may lease a dedicated line
from another company.

Moreover, instead of leasing a dedicated line a viable option is through the use of

Virtual Public Network (VPN). It allows connections to be made among offices as virtual
links which use the underlying capacity of the Internet.

If the company operates its host but does not want to do something with its subnet, it
must subscribe to a subnet operator known as NETWORK SERVICE PROVIDER (in
Philippines these are SMART, Globe, and DITO).

INTERNETWORKS – This is a collection of interconnected networks. There are various

kinds of networks existing around the globe which have different hardware and
software (which are frequently incompatible) are desired to be connected.

NETWORK SOFTWARE

PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES – to reduce design complexity, networks are organized in

layers where one is built upon another. Each layer is to serve higher layers while
blinding these higher layers of the implementation of the process. PROTOCOL is an
agreement between communicating parties on how communication is to flow. Violation
of any of these protocols would mean impediment to the communication flow. Consider
a 5-layer network for instance:

The entities belonging on the same layer are called PEERS. It can be hardware,
software process, or even a person. Peers communicate by using the
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protocol to talk to each other. In actual operation, no data is directly
transferred from layer N on one machine going to layer N on another
machine (say layer 5 of host 1 to layer 5 of host 2). Instead, each of these
layer passes data and control information to the layer below it
until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium
where actual communication occurs.

Between each pair (like layer 1 and 2, or layer 5 and 4) of adjacent layers is an
interface. It defines the primitive operations that the lower layer makes
available to immediate upper layer. It is important to consider clean interfaces
between adjacent layers when designing a network.

A set of layers and protocols is called a NETWORK ARCHITECTURE. The

specification of an architecture must contain enough information to allow
an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for each layer
so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol. Neither the details of
the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces is part of
the architecture because these are hidden away inside the machines and
not visible from the outside. It is not even necessary that the interfaces on all
machines in a network be the same, provided that each machine can
correctly use all the protocols. A list of the protocols used by a certain
system, one protocol per layer, is called a PROTOCOL STACK.

Layers offer two types of services, CONNECTED-ORIENTED and CONNETIONLESS SERVICE

CONNECTION ORIENTED SERVICE – service is modeled after the telephone system. To
talk to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the number, talk, and then hang up.
Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first establishes
a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection. The
essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes objects
(bits) in at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the other end. In most
cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the order they were sent.
In some cases when a connection is established, the sender, receiver, and subnet
conduct a negotiation about the parameters to be used, such as maximum
message size, quality of service required, and other issues. Typically, one side
makes a proposal and the other side can accept it, reject it, or make a counterproposal.
A circuit is another name for a connection with associated resources,
such as a fixed bandwidth. This dates from the telephone network in which a circuit
was a path over copper wire that carried a phone conversation.

CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE - service is modeled after the postal system. Each message
(letter) carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the
intermediate nodes inside the system independent of all the subsequent messages.
There are different names for messages in different contexts; a packet is a message at
the network layer. When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full before
sending it on to the next node, this is called store-and-forward switching. The
alternative, in which the onward transmission of a message at a node starts before it is
completely received by the node, is called cut-through switching. Normally, when two
messages are sent to the same destination, the first one sent will be the first one to
arrive. However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so that the second
one arrives first.
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REFERRENCE MODELS
Now that we have understood that networks are organized as layers, we have to
proceed with the introduction of two important network architectures: the OSI REFERENCE
MODEL and the TCP/IP reference model.

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward

defining internationally standardized protocols.

4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information

flow across the interfaces.

5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions

need not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and
small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.

Figure 4.
OSI

Reference Model

PHYSICAL LAYER
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The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side
sends a 1 bit it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions
here are what electrical signals should be used to represent a 1 and a 0, how
many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed simultaneously
in both directions, how the initial connection is established, how it is torn down
when both sides are finished, how many pins the network connector has, and what
each pin is used for. These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical,
and timing interfaces, as well as the physical transmission medium, which lies
below the physical layer.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility
into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors. It does so by
masking the real errors so the network layer does not see them. It accomplishes
this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically
a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If
the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending
back an acknowledgement frame.

Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers
as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
Some traffic regulation mechanism may be needed to let the transmitter know
when the receiver can accept more data.
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to
control access to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the
medium access control sublayer, deals with this problem.

The Network Layer

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is
determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be
based on static tables that are ‘‘wired into’’ the network and rarely changed, or
more often they can be updated automatically to avoid failed components. They
can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for example, a terminal
session, such as a login to a remote machine. Finally, they can be highly dynamic,
being determined anew for each packet to reflect the current network load.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in
one another’s way, forming bottlenecks. Handling congestion is also a responsibility
of the network layer, in conjunction with higher layers that adapt the load they place on
the network. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay,
transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue. When a packet has to travel from
one network to another to get to its destination, many problems can arise. The
addressing used by the second network may be different from that used by the first
one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The
protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these
problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is
often thin or even nonexistent.

The Transport Layer

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The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split
it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that
the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done
efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes
in the hardware technology over the course of time.

The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session
layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of
transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages
or bytes in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of
transport service exist, such as the transporting of isolated messages with no guarantee
about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to multiple
destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established.
(As an aside, an error-free channel is completely impossible to achieve;
what people really mean by this term is that the error rate is low enough to ignore
in practice.)

The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from
the source to the destination. In other words, a program on the source machine
carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using
the message headers and control messages. In the lower layers, each protocols is
between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and not between the ultimate
source and destination machines, which may be separated by many routers. The
difference between layers 1 through 3, which are chained, and layers 4 through 7,
which are end-to-end, is illustrated in Fig. 4.

The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping
track of whose turn it is to transmit), token management (preventing two parties
from attempting the same critical operation simultaneously), and synchronization
(checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up from where they left
off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).

The Presentation Layer

Unlike the lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around,
the presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different internal
data representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged
can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used ‘‘on
the wire.’’ The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows
higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records) to be defined and
exchanged.

The Application Layer

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly

needed by users. One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a
browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server
hosting the page using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application
protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

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Figure 5 OSI vs. TCP/IP

The Link Layer

All these requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network based

on a connectionless layer that runs across different networks. The lowest layer in
the model, the link layer describes what links such as serial lines and classic Ethernet
must do to meet the needs of this connectionless internet layer. It is not
really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface between
hosts and transmission links. Early material on the TCP/IP model has little
to say about it.

The Internet Layer

The internet layer is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture together.
It is shown in Fig. 5 as corresponding roughly to the OSI network layer. Its
job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently
to the destination (potentially on a different network). They may
even arrive in a completely different order than they were sent, in which case it is
the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. Note
that ‘‘internet’’ is used here in a generic sense, even though this layer is present in
the Internet.

The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol),
plus a companion protocol called ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) that helps it
function. The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
Packet routing is clearly a major issue here, as is congestion (though IP has not proven effective
at avoiding congestion).

The Transport Layer

The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called
the transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination
hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two
end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one, TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that
allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on
any other machine in the internet. It segments the incoming byte stream into
discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the destination,
the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output
stream. TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a
slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.
The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an
unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s
sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own. It is also widely used
for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which
prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting
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speech or video. The relation of IP, TCP, and UDP is shown in Fig. 5. Since
the model was developed, IP has been implemented on many other networks.

The Application Layer

The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. No need for
them was perceived. Instead, applications simply include any session and presentation
functions that they require. Experience with the OSI model has proven this view correct: these
layers are of little use to most applications.

On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols.
The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail
(SMTP). Many other protocols have been added to these over the years. Some important ones
that we will study, shown in Fig. 5. include the Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host
names onto their network addresses, HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide
Web,
and RTP, the protocol for delivering real-time media such as voice or movies.

CONCLUSION:

Computer Network is composed of network hardware and software. The network hardware is
the infrastructures or physical facilities set up between hosts to make communication possible.
It can either be wired or wireless. Computer Software consists of set of rules of engagement of
communication which is collectively called as protocols.

The entire computer network system is based on two main models. The OSI model and TCP/IP
model.

In the next modules to come, we will study in detail each layer based on these models.

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