Republic of the Philippines

AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND AQUATIC SCIENCES
Maria Aurora, Aurora

Lara B. Querijero, LPT

Instructor
[email protected]
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
TO ETHICS

Ethics or morality is essentially a Philosophy subject. It is therefore

imperative that a sufficient grasp of the topic course is provided to the readers.

“The Unexamined Life is not Worth Living”

-Socrates

What is Philosophy?
In the popular mind, philosophy is something obscure, weird and
idiosyncratic (Santiago, 1996). Perhaps, many would have not even encountered nor to
some just ignore it due it’s seemed vague or insignificant meaning. For some Filipinos,
the concept of philosophy is the enterprise of people who try to outdo others through their
irrelevant and arbitrary reasoning. Truly indeed, no one can define Philosophy without
embracing the “universe.” The term “Philosophy” cannot be defined precisely because
the subject is complex and controversial. It is true to say that philosophy is as old as man;
it life itself. It has a dynamic meaning, drawing out its relevance from its own time and
event.
Traditionally, philosophy is defined in two fashions: etymologically and
essentially/classically.
1. Etymological definition
- The term philosophy was first coined by Pythagoras, a Greek
philosopher. It came from two Greek words; philos which means love, and
Sophia which means wisdom. When compounded, its literal meaning is
the “love of wisdom.”

What does it mean to “love” wisdom?

The ancient Greeks have classified their concept of love into three: eros, philia, and a
gape.

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 3 Concepts of Greek Word Definition
Love
1. Eros Erasthai - Used to refer to that part of love constituting a
passionate, intense desire for something.
- Often referred to as a sexual desire, hence the
modern notion of ‘erotic’ (Greek erotikos).
2. Philia Philia - Entails a fondness and appreciation.
- The term philia incorporated not just
friendship, but also loyalties to family and
‘polis’ – one’s political community, job or
discipline.
3. Agape - Refers to the paternal love of God for man but
is extended to include a brotherly love for all
humanity (Moseley, 2001).

What kind of people are the lovers’ wisdom?

During the time of Pythagoras, there were three
classifications of men: the lovers of pleasure, the lovers of success, and the lovers of
wisdom. Of which the last was the most superior of all for it pertains to the human
endeavor of seeking the truth for its own sake, hence, attaining wisdom. Thus, the
philosopher belongs to the third classification (Agdalpen et al., 2011).

2. Essential Definition
- Classically, philosophy is the “search for meaning”. The ‘search’,
means to look for something more, to probe, to go beyond. However, philosophy has
been defined in various fashions. Many have described philosophy as the ‘science of all
science’; as ‘mother of all sciences’, or the ‘search for the ultimate meaning of reality’.
- Philosophy is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of existence
and reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what is of
basic value and importance in life. It is the attempt to give an account of what is true and
what is important, based on a rational assessment of evidence and arguments rather than
myth, tradition, bald assertion, oracular utterances, local custom, or mere prejudice. It
includes the security of relations between humanity nature and between individual and
society (World Book Encyclopedia, 1994). Thus, it is a process of inquiry involving
analysis, criticism, interpretation, speculation, and reflection of reality.
- Evaluation of the totality of human experience is the most significant
task of philosophy. Philosophy does not create, invent nor discover new facts but instead
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it takes an in-depth and comprehensive view of the information and truth given by
scientists, scholars, and philosophers and analyzes their worth, application, meaning, and
origin. In short, philosophy is the examination of life.

PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER SCIENCES

1. Philosophy and Science

Philosophy and Science both discuss the fundamental truths about the
universe. These fields study nature and life.

2. Philosophy and History

Philosophy and History are interrelated fields that are dependent to each
other. History serves as the breeding ground of philosophy, without it philosophical
concepts will not be possible, will not emerge nor conceive and everything will be
unknowable. Philosophy, on the other hand, defines history and interprets its existence
for better understanding of the past, a clear view of the present and more positive outlook
in anticipation of future.

3. Philosophy and Mathematics

Philosophy and Mathematics are both logical bodies of knowledge. The
approaches involved are methodical and systematic giving emphasis in proving
theoretical concepts and formulating standards of truth in order to accept as general or
universal foundation of learning.

4.Philosophy and Religion

Philosophy and Religion are inseparable fields in a sense that one justifies
the other. This means that religion is generally a philosophical culmination of basic and
complex ideas about almost everything both justifiable or not, while philosophy is a
religious context that tries to concretize divine beliefs, ideas, opinions, facts and
supposition in order that the world will be aware of it and believe in it.

Language makes philosophical text possible, through it, ideas, opinions, truths,
and theories are expressed vividly and concretely in all forms and mediums
understandable to humans. Philosophy, however, makes language more meaningful,
flexible, versatile, creative and significant.

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MAJOR DISCIPLINES IN PHILOSOPHY
1. Logic as the study of right and sound reasoning.
2. Epistemology as the study of the validity of knowledge.
3. Metaphysics seeks to explain the fundamental concept of being.
4. Aesthetics as the philosophical study of beauty.
5. Cosmology deals with the study of real things in the universe.
6. Theodicy is the study of God and his nature.
7. Social Philosophy as the study of human and their relation to society.
8. Ethics as the science of morality of human acts.

Notion of Ethics:
Ethics from its Greek word ethos means a characteristic way of doing things or
body of customs. Ethics, therefore, is a practical science which is meant to teach how
human ought to live.

IMPERATIVES OF ETHICS
The practice of ethical/moral life implies imperatives or the “sine qua non” of
ethics for without which, ethics would collapse. In her book, Emerita Quinto (2008) has
expounded clearly these imperatives.

1. Humans Freedom
Freedom is an inherent human power to act or not to act that makes them
responsible for their actions. Ethics in this sense will be irrelevant in the absence of
human freedom. Responsibility is an indispensable implication in human actions which
would be meaningless unless human is free. If humans are designed to only follow what
they are destined to obey, their actions then would not deserve any reward or punishment.
Justice is deserved only to humans who are free to choose their course of action. Freedom
always entails then right to choose.
Ethics, indeed, is the science of the morality of human actions that imply
responsibility on the part of the agent only if that agent is free.

2. Existence of God
God’s presence is a salient factor that makes sense in the study of ethics. Without
God’s existence that postulates human’s belief, they (humans) find no reason to do good
and avoid evil. When one talks about morality, it refers to the goodness or evilness of the
acts which presupposed rectification. This means that a good act deserves reward while

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evil punishment. Reward and punishment can be dispensed only by the Supreme Being;
God alone can give the final judge.
Nevertheless, the Supreme Being or God that Christians believe could for others
is a law or a process where people in the ancient cultures have arrived to dispense justice
in their own tradition.

3. Immorality of the Soul

Again, if there is no life after earth where the soul believed to perpetuate life
beyond, then good deeds are not rewarded nor evil doers are punished. Hence, there is no
sense at all to lead a better life, neither to make sacrifices nor to deny one’s self from the
lure of this world. Immorality of the soul is, indeed, a cornerstone of ethics.

Let’s do the ACTIVITY!

ACTIVITY NO. 1
I. Modified TRUE/FALSE. Write T if the statement is True and underline the word/s
that makes it False, then write the correct answer on the space provided. (2 points each)
_______________1. Plato is a Greek philosopher who first coined the term “philosophy.”
_______________2.Freedom deserved only to humans who are free to choose their
course of action.
_______________3. The salient factor that make sense in the study of ethics is morality.
_______________4. The practice of ethical/moral life implies imperatives or the “sine
qua non” of ethics for without which ethics would collapse.
_______________5. Agape is the love that seeks truth.
_______________6. The literal meaning of philosophy is “search for meaning”.
_______________7. The concept of love in which it constitutes a passionate, intense
desire for something is eros.
_______________8. The Supreme Being that can give the final judgment is the law.
_______________9. The paternal love of God for man and the brotherly love for all
humanity refer to philia.
_______________10. Morality refers to the goodness/evilness of the acts which
presupposed rectification.

II. Enumeration: Enumerate the following and give concrete examples for each item. (2
pts. each)
1-3 Imperatives of Ethics as per Emerita Quinto (2008)
1. ______________________________________________________________________

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2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________

4-6 Three classifications of man during Pythagoras time

4. ______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________

7-9 Three classifications of love

7. ______________________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________________

10-12 Other description of Philosophy

10. _____________________________________________________________________
11. _____________________________________________________________________
12. _____________________________________________________________________

13-14 Philosophy defined in 2 fashions

13. _____________________________________________________________________
14. _____________________________________________________________________

15-16 Two Greek words from which the term philosophy came from
15. _____________________________________________________________________
16. _____________________________________________________________________

ETHICS AND MORALS

We greatly encounter moral and ethical issues in our day to day life. Perhaps,
these two define the personality, attitude, and behavior of a person. The word moral is
derived from a Latin word “mos” which means custom. On the other hand, if we talk

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about ethics, it is also derived from a Greek word “ethikos” which means character
ethics defines the character of an individual.
While morals are concerned with principles of right and wrong, ethics is related to
right and wrong conduct of an individual in a particular situation. Many use the two terms
as synonyms, but there are slight and subtle differences between morals and ethics, which
are described in the following topic.
Essentially, ethics and morality are set of rules that govern human actions to
ensure mutual respect and cooperation. It is, therefore, equally important that students
understand rules as an inevitable component in social life in order to meet social goals.

1. Rule
Rules are instructions that tell what we are allowed to do and what we are not
allowed to do (Collin’s Dictionary). These are stated to help us achieve success and meet
common goals in society. More so, rules are imperative statements to govern human
conduct in addressing specific and peculiar situations to sustain orderly and healthy
human relation. Hence, absence of rules makes human life difficult.

2. Importance of Rule
Obviously, rules are important because they tend to protect human rights and
freedom specially the “weaker members” in the society as they might be exploited if no
rules to shield them. Once rules are enforced within their mandate, they provide a stable
environment and harmonious human co-existent leading to peace and development. The
following are concrete importance of rules:
a. Rules organize relations between individuals;
b. Rules to make it clear what is right to do/ follow in a society and what are
wrong to refrain from;
c. Rules provide opportunity to achieve personal and societal goals;
d. Rules regulate various social institutions to fulfill their integral roles for the
common welfare;

It is of that people look at rules as restrictions that curtail one their precious
rights; freedom. But in fact life’s freedom would unlikely to be enjoyed without rules.
People always need rules to be able to live peacefully and deal with others together. Can
one imagine a game without rules; of course it will be a kind of mess. When they are
playing a game, they must follow its rules or it will be chaos. Everything in our life
should be regulated with rules or it becomes a mess. If there are no rules and everyone is
free to do whatever they want, most people will probably behave selfishly. We need rules
to help us achieve the common good.

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 DEFINITIONS OF MORALS

Morals refer to social, cultural and religious beliefs or values practiced overtime
by an individual or group which direct people to do what is customarily allowable as
right or refrain from those that society prohibits as “taboo” or wrong. Morals are the
rules and standards made by the society or culture which is to be followed by us while
deciding what is right. Some moral principles are here to be examined:
a. Do not cheat.
b. Be loyal.
c. Be patient.
d. Always tell the truth.
e. Be generous.
With these, morals refers to the beliefs of what is not objectively right, but what is
considered right for any situation, so it can be said that what is morally correct may not
be objectively correct. Hence, following moral principles entails a personal conviction to
follow what is right and refrain doing the contrary as dictated by our right reason.
However, no one shall be inclined to believe that it is subjective morality for there is an
existence of moral norms to which one is free to subscribe with or not.

DEFINITIONS OF ETHICS
Meanwhile, ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of
conduct of an individual or group. It works as a guiding principle as to decide what action
to take either the good or the bad. These principles are the standards or guidelines which
govern the life of a person. Ethics is also known as moral philosophy.

1. Truthfulness/Honesty
Honesty or truthfulness is among the basic principles of the natural moral law,
and people everywhere recognize that honesty in dealings with others is a prerequisite for
a societal order and well-being; truthfulness leads us to humility, to remorse for that
imperfection and the wrongs we all have certainly committed (St. Thomas Aquinas, “Of
Honesty,” “Treatise on Fortitude and Temperance” Summa Theologica SS, Question
145)

2. Loyalty

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 “The willing and practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a cause”. It
has an existence of good faith that requires that the parties to a contract have due regard
to the other party’s interests during the contract negotiations and performance, but also
after the contract has been executed. The principle of loyalty promotes the realization of
an agreement by directing behavior so that the other party’s reasonable expectations will
be met.

3. Respect
In its simplest form, respect for persons maintains that human beings have
intrinsic and unconditional moral worth and should always be treated as if there is
nothing of greater value than they are. This principle rests on the unique capability of
human beings to behave as rational agents, that is, self-aware and capable of objective
thought and the ability to reason.

4. Fairness
Is characterized by equity,respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world,
both among people and in their relations to other living beings.

5. Integrity
As principle imposes an obligation on all individuals to be straightforward and
honest in all professional and business relationships. Integrity also implies fair dealing
and truthfulness.

KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORALS

AND ETHICS (Grannan, 2018)

The major differences between Morals and Ethics are as under:

1. Moral deal with what is ‘right or wrong. Ethics deals with what is ‘good or evil’.
2. Morals are general guidelines framed by the society e.g. we should speak truth.
Conversely, ethics is a response to a particular situation, e.g. is it ethical to state the truth
in a particular situation?
3. The term “moral” is derived from a Latin word ‘mos’ which refers to custom and the
customs are determined by group of individuals or some authority. On the other hand,
ethics is originated from Greek work ‘ethikos’ which refers to character and character is
an attribute.

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4. Morals are dictated by society, culture or religion while Ethics is chosen by the person
himself who governs his life under the dictate of right reason.
5. Morals are concerned with principle of right and wrong. On the contrary ethics stresses
on good and evil conduct.
6. A morals are framed and designed by the group, there is no option to think and choose;
the individual can either accept or reject the norm. Conversely, the people are free to
think and choose the principles of his life in ethics.
7. Morals may vary from society to society and culture to culture. As opposed to Ethics,
this remains same regardless of any culture, religion, or society.
8. Morals do not have any applicability to business, whereas Ethics is widely applicable
in the business known business of ethics.
9. Morals are expressed in the form of statements, while the principle of ethics are
translated into an explicit action.

Generally, the term ethics and morality are used interchangeably, although a few
different communities (academic, legal, or religious, for example) will occasionally make
a distinction. In fact, Britannica’s article on ethics considers the terms to be the same as
moral philosophy. While understanding the most ethicist (that is philosophers who study
ethics) consider the terms interchangeable, let’s go ahead and dive into these distinctions.
Both morality and ethics loosely have to do with distinguishing the difference
between “good and evil” or “right or wrong”. Many people think of morality as
something that’s personal and normative, whereas ethics is the standards of “good and
evil” distinguished by a certain community or social setting. For example, your local
community may think adultery is immoral, and you personally may agree with that.
However, the distinction can be useful if your local community has no strong feelings
about adultery, but you consider adultery immoral on a personal level. By these
definitions of the terms, your morality would contradict the ethics your community.
In popular this course, however, we’ll often use the terms moral and immoral
when talking about issues like adultery regardless of whether it’s being discussed in a
personal or a community based situations. As you can see, the distinction can get a bit
tricky.
It’s important to consider how the two terms have been used in this course in
different fields so that we can consider the connotations of both terms. For example,
morality has a Christian connotation to many Westerners, since moral theology is
prominent in the church. Similarly, ethics is the term used in conjunction with business,
medicine, or law. In these cases, ethics serves as a personal code of conduct of people
working in those fields, and the ethics themselves are often highly debated and

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contentious. These connotations have helped guide the distinctions between morality and
ethics.
Ethicists today, however, use the terms interchangeably. If they do want to
differentiate morality from ethics, the onus is on the ethicist to state the definitions of
both terms. Ultimately, the distinctions remain between the two is as substantial as a line
drawn in the sand.

MORAL STANDARDS
In definition, these are set of norms in society in accord to moral principles that
supposed to determine about the kind of actions people believe are morally right and
deter them from doing what is considered as wrong. Moral standards therefore are those
was or commands that allow specifics actions to be committed for those that disallow
actions contrary to these norms.
Moral standards are precepts to follow based on mores or traditional norms and
practices that allow actions as good in specific time and place. Hence, failure to submit to
these principles, one may be subjected to an appropriate sanction.
Meanwhile, ethical standards are principles that when followed, promote values
such as honesty, patience, respect, and kindness. However, there is not one set of these
standards that is imposed to every setting/sector. Like certain university that sets
standards different from other universities which they believe essential for the smooth
operation of their institution. Nonetheless, ethical standards are difficult to realize
because often these are vague and subject to interpretation such as when we say “men
and women should be treated equally” or “as public servant, treat our clients with
respect and kindness.” Equal treatment will not always postulate fairness and justice as
much as we want to treat our clients with equal respect and kindness being in the public
service. Each client essentially deserves unique treatment due to their varied needs.

DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL STANDARDS

During childhood, moral standards are absorbed from family, friends and various
societal institutions as a positive regulating mechanism to ensure that appropriate code of
conduct is observed among its members. Later in life experiences, learning and
intellectual development help a person in complying with these standards and eventually,
upon which the individual comes up with personal moral guide in achieving one’s goals
in life.

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 Moreover, moral standards are postulated by accepted cultural practices and
established societal norms overtime. In addition, that were allowed and permitted under
particular situation, once they become irrelevant in the community, certain moral
standards are set to rectify these sanctions.

MORAL STANDARDS vs. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Moral standards deal with matters, which can seriously injure or seriously benefit
human beings while it is not the case with non-moral standards. Examples of non-moral
standards include the standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad,
and the standards we call “law” by which we judge legal right and wrong. Moral
standards are not formed or changed by the decision of particular authoritative bodies and
the validity of these standards lies on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to
support and justify them. If a person has the moral obligation to do something, then the
person is supposed to do even if this conflicts with other non-moralvalues or self-interest.
Moral standards do not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a
particular individual or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
stand point in which everyone’s interests are impartially counted as equal.
Moral standards are associated with special emotions and a special vocabulary. If
a person tells a lie so as to fulfill a purpose and then afterwards starts feeling guilty or
ashamed of their behavior.
Moreover, Mañebog (2013) added that morality may refer to the standards that a
person or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly,
moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behavior, especially the
distinction between good and bad (or right or wrong) behavior.
She furthers that moral standards involve the rules people have about the kind of
actions they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the
kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicist equate
moral standards with moral values and moral principles.
Meanwhile, non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or
ethical considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in game, and various house rules.

The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them
from non-moral standards:
a. Moral Standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,

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following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.

a. Moral Standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral
standards states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with
self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal
ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to
devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she probably is morally
wrong to do so. When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s
moral duty to exercise civil disobedience.
There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time when
the injustice of an evil is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral non-cooperation
(such as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to their owners).

a. Moral Standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or
person such as Nation’s legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One thing
about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or adequacy
of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.

a. Moral Standards have the trait of universalizability.

Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all apply to all who are in
the relevantly similar situation. If ones judges that act A is morally right for a certain
person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
This characteristics is exemplified in the Golden Rule, “Do unto others what you
would them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal Principle of
Justice, “It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B
to treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there
being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which can be stated
as a reasonable ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability is an extension of

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the principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s value
judgments.

a. Moral Standards are based on impartial considerations.

Moral standards does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a
certain person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
standpoint in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal.
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality is
morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties.

a. Moral Standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.
These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do
not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are
proposed for use, to advice, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is used
to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or
of guilt.
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special
purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his
behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the current
fashion trend.

ACTIVITY II
I. Identification. Write your answer on the space provided
________________1. Principles that when followed promote value.
________________2. It defines the character of an individual.
________________3. It refers to the social, cultural and religious belief/values practiced
overtime by an individual/group which directs people to do what is right and refrain from
doing what is wrong.
________________4. Laws/commands that allow specific actions to be committed or
that disallow actions contrary to the norms.
________________5. Instructions that tell what we are allowed to do and not allowed to
do.
________________6. The willing, practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a
cause.
________________7. Imposes and obligation on all individuals to be straightforward and
honest in professional and business relation.

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________________8. Maintains that human being have intrinsic and unconditional moral
worth and should always be treated as if there’s nothing greater value than they are.
________________9. Leads to humility, to remorse for that imperfection and the wrongs
we all have certainly committed.
________________10. Characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the
shared world among people and their relation to other.

#Assignment:
REFLECTION: “My ethics, my worth”
*Short bond paper. Minimum of 1 Page not more than 3 pages.
- type written: Times New Roman (or if not available you can use another font, 12,
normal, single-spaced, justified (if you choose soft copy you can send it at my email
[email protected]
- hand written: print legibly (if you choose hand written or printed, you will pass it at
school)

DILEMA AND
FOUNDATION OF
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MORALITY
CHAPTER
2

DILEMMA:
Dilemma is a difficult situation in which an individual is confronted to
choose between two or more alternative actions to resolve the problem. The following
types of dilemma will provide clearer ideas leading to formulating concrete measures to
confront life’s difficulties and challenges.

Types of Dilemma
Dilemmas produce so much frustration and friction of people which no
psychological discernment could stop and consider their exact nature. Dilemmas could be
present in any organizational structures that continue to escalating conflict among its
members. One help in handling dilemmas is to start with identifying the fundamental
flavors of dilemmas, which are enumerated in the following manners.
a. Classical Dilemmas – different criteria, same behavior.
There are conflicting criteria for the same behavior. While the blend may be
difficult, it is essential. Each side of Dilemma is valuable only because of the other side.
Attempts to live only under one side of the dilemma are fatality flawed.

1. Order / \ Freedom
2. Empowerment / \ Alignment

b. Temporal Dilemmas – Same process, different criteria applied at a different

time.

A special case of classic dilemma occurs with an activity which is complex

enough to be a work process or a project. Often there are criteria dominant in the early
part of the process that conflict with criteria that become dominant in a later point. For
example, accuracy of information taken during the sales cycle is essential for the timely
processing of the order. The separation (Functional or temporal) between the relevant
events is an illusion; good process design and good project management pull for
combining criteria and designing them into the work.

1. Innovation / \ Manufacturability
2. Speed (customer satisfaction) / \ Accuracy (process integrity)

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 c. Orthogonal Dilemmas – Different behaviors, different criteria.
There are two sets of behaviors that seem diametrically opposed. They generate
different cultures, different structures, different staffing. While there may be a hybrid that
is preferable, the blending is optional; a company could be viable exploiting just one half
of the dilemma.
1. Centralization / \ Decentralization
2. Service orientation / \ Product orientation
Deciding whether to take on the dilemma is a matter of vision, strategy, and/or
values. If company decides to pursue a hybrid, the work is like a classic dilemma.

d. Sequential Dilemmas – Different behaviors, different times.

Different behaviors which conflict with each other, but the most likely solution is
to sequence them appropriately; the tension in the dilemma eventually becomes one of
relative emphasis, timing, and transitioning.

1. Performance / \ Development
2. Work / \ Home

The key strategies for sequential Dilemmas are:

1. Proportion of time to spend in each.
2. Sequencing of the activities through transitioning.

e. Unequal Dilemma – The dilemma is split across unequal status.

Sometimes a person in authority will assert one side of a dilemma. For example,
the CEO announces that the company will commit to high growth rates, severe cost
cutting, or product innovation. And he or she ignores the corresponding position that
defines a dilemma:

1. High growth / \ Organizational integrity

2. Fiscal stability through cost cutting / \ Preserving capability
3. Product innovation / \ Support for existing product lines

So the executive celebrates the growth in business, while employees are struggling with
the shredding of work processes, the burden of on boarding more and more staff, or the
deteriorating satisfaction of customers from the lower quality of service. Because the
unequal status of the various players, only one side of the dilemma receives attention.
And the authority of the executive can be used to dismiss or denigrate the employees who
voice concern for the other side of the dilemma. They are defined as pessimists or “not
team players”. So the tension in the goals goes unaddressed; unfortunately, the negative
consequences of the imbalance will accumulate regardless.

2. Moral Dilemma
A moral dilemma is defined as any situation in which the person making decision
experiences a conflict between the moral rightness of decision and the quality of the
results it produces. Many times, these dilemmas involve a morally wrong decision that
produces a desirable result, or vice versa. Other times, moral dilemmas involve a decision
in which the person is forced to choose only one of two good things.
What is common in this conflict is an agent regards herself/himself as having
moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions is not possible. The

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crucial features of a moral dilemma are these: the agent is required to do each of two (or
more) actions; the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all)
of the actions. The agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she
does, she will do something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).
Under a Platonic case, it is immoral to ignore or fail returning a borrowed item.
However, if the borrowed item once returned to the owner is used to endanger or harm
other people it really poses a genuine moral dilemma. For the agent’s solution in that case
is clear; it is more important to protect people from harm than to return a borrowed
weapon. And in any case, the borrowed item can be returned later, when the owner no
longer poses a threat to others. Thus in this case we can say that the requirement to
protect others from serious harm overrides the requirement to repay one of the conflicting
requirements overrides the other, we have a conflict but not a genuine moral dilemma. So
in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma it
must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is overridden ( Sinnot-
Armstrong 1988).

3 Types of Moral Dilemma

1. Personal Dilemma- These are situations in which an individual has a choice to be

made between two options, neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically
acceptable fashion. In such cases, personal ethical guidelines can provide no
satisfactory outcome for the chooser.
a. Let’s say you’re in a situation in which you can choose whether your
son/ daughter dies or the man who can cure cancer. If you had a
choice. If you had a choice to save your child, or the person who can
cure cancer, who would you choose?
b. How about this: You’re driving along a mountain side in a brand new
2016 Mercedes Benz. You drive until you are presented with a
problem: whether you crash your Mercedes off a cliff or you run over
5 children?
2. Organizational Dilemma- Organizational ethics are the principals and standard
by which business operate, according to Reference for Business. They are best
demonstrated through acts of fairness, compassion, integrity, honor and
responsibility.
If you’re in a situation where the company has a clear policy on
harassment, and you witness someone being harassed, that’s not much of
dilemma. You use the company’s process to report the incident.

But supposing the harassment is, well, borderline harassment. Not quite
over the line, but close. And the harasser is a friend of yours, and the
person being harassed is being targeted because he or she maliciously took
the credit for an important piece of work your friend had done. Do the
mitigating factors affect your judgment or whether the line has been
crossed or not?

3. Systematic Dilemma- The process of systematic moral analysis is predicted or

moral rule violations, which result in harm to another person or persons.
This refers to the conformity and compliance of each member to the
expected code of conduct to be manifested in the agency/ workplace.

B. Foundation of Morality: Freedom as Requisite on Moral Responsibility

Freedom comes in various meanings such as the power or right to act, speak, or
think as one wants without hindrance or restraint; “we do have some freedom of choice”.

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Politically, freedom is coined as liberty but relatively the same, is understood as the
absence of subjection to foreign domination or despotic government. In a sense, people
enjoy independence, self government, self-determination, self-rule, home rule,
sovereignty, non-alignment, and autonomy which they translated into Democracy.

Moreover, freedom, in politics, consist of the social, political, and economic

freedoms to which all community members are entitled. In philosophy, freedom involves
free will as contrasted with determinism. Hence, freedom is essentially difficult to define
for it is integral to all inherent qualities of human being.

This is in consonance to the substantive claim of Kant that freedom is the source
of all value- that it is intrinsically valuable, and that other valuable things must not
merely be compatible with freedom but actually derive their value from the value of
freedom.

Meanwhile, Saint Augustine showed that human is free physically, yet bound to
obey the law. It is, therefore, clear that there is difference between “like to do” and the
“ought to do”. It is true that humans are naturally free to do what they are bound to do
without depriving them to do what they want to do. However, human beings are duty
bound to what they ought to do as expected from them to do ( A more extensive
discussion on this aspect will follow on the topic Kant’s moral imperative).

For Gorbachev (1988) in his time asserted that the principle of freedom is a must.
Refusal to recognize this principle will have serious consequences to the issue of world
peace.

Indeed, the right to freedom is very fundamental to every nation as it is the heart
of every democratic ideal, as much as it also inherent to every human. The right to
freedom could be considered as the right of all rights, the source from which all other
rights emanate form. In that case, once human can exercise free will, human will then
have the freedom to invoke and enjoy those rights.

Now we live in an age of moral freedom, in which individuals are expected to

determine for themselves what it means to lead a good and virtuous life. Moral freedom
involves freedom over the things that matter most. With this, freedom is a significant
foundation of moral acts. It is an imperative that makes the study of morality possible.

Quito (2008) explains that no ethics is likewise possible without human freedom.
Human beings are only accountable to these acts and make them responsible provided the
same are done freely, whether to do or not to do, upon which morality becomes useful
and meaningful.

If humans are designed to follow actions that are imposed on them to follow, then
they are not responsible for their actions. The concepts of reward and punishment would
be irrelevant. Retribution is deserved only if humans have the choice to do or not to do an
intended action. Hence, morality is the right of human to choose to do good than evil.

C. Reasons and Impartiality: Requisite for Morality

Immanuel Kant argued that “ morality was based on reason alone, and once we
understood it, we would see that acting morally is the same as acting rationally.” This
entails that reason is fundamental requirement for any moral decisions. This also suggests
that passions, feelings, and emotions are to be guided by reason in order to act soundly
and morally. So, morality cannot simply postulated by neither personal interest, intense

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desire to be happy nor emotions to influence our choices- but reason. Reason enables us
to think and reflect over actions that we intend to do and decide which of them to take.
Moreover, Aristotle realized that reason is specifically a distinguishing attribute that
elevates human far over and above all living creatures. It is the reason that resemble
human to the Supreme Reason that rules and guides individuals, nations, and all things to
their proper ends.

A mere knowledge of morality will not make human moral. It includes

application of these principles; man must not only know the rules of right living; they
should live them. A moral human must always conform to the Supreme Reason.

On the other hand, impartiality is a principle of justice that decisions or judgment

on something or someone should be objective not on the basis of bias or prejudice to
favor someone irrationally. As to the adherence on moral rules, no one shall be exempted
from that same rule.

Impartiality indeed is a good value. It is on this principle that morality is an

opportunity for everybody to lead their lives accordingly to which is inconformity to
ethical norms. In essence, morality holds no boundaries. Each is bound to live a good life.

ACTIVITY

Identification: Write your answer on the space provided.

____________________1. Situation in which the person making the decision experience
conflict between moral rightness of a decision and the quality of the result it produces.
____________________2. Conformity and compliance of each member to the expected
code of conduct to be manifested in the agency/ workplace.
____________________3. Principle of justice holding that judgment on something/
someone shall be objective not on the basis of bias to favor someone irrationally.
____________________4. Difficult situation in which individual is confronted to choose
between two or more alternative actions to resolve the problem.
____________________5. Situation in which individual has a choice to be made between
two options.
____________________6. Freedom in accordance with will which is not necessitated to
action.
____________________7. In philosophy, it involves freewill as contrasted with
determinism.
____________________8. Principles and standards by which business operate according
to Reference for Business.
____________________9. He claims that freedom is the source of value.
____________________10. He showed that human is free physically yet bound to obey
the laws.

II. Determine what type of dilemma does the following

have. Write only the letter of your answer on the space
provided.

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 a. Sequential
b. Orthogonal
c. Unequal
d. Classic
e. Temporal

__________1. Empowerment – Alignment

__________2. Work- Home
__________3. Innovation – Manufacturability
__________4. High growth – Organizational Integrity
__________5. Performance – Development
__________6. Order – Freedom
__________7. Centralization – Decentralization
__________8. Product Innovation – Support form existing product lines
__________9. Speed – Accuracy
__________10. Service orientation – Product Orientation

III. Discussion/Debate on the following moral cases.

1. Concentration Camp
You are inmate in a concentration camp. A sadistic guard is
about to hang your son who tried to escape and wants you
to pull the chair from underneath him. He says that if you
don’t he will not only kill your son but some other innocent
inmate as well. you don’t have any doubt that he means
what he says. What should you do?

Discuss your answer: _____________________________________________________

2. The Pregnant Woman

A pregnant woman leading a group of people out of a cave on a coast is stuck
in the mouth of that cave. In a short time high tide will be upon them, and unless she
is unstuck, they will all be drowned except the woman, whose head is out of the cave.
Fortunately, (or unfortunately), someone has with him a stick of dynamite. There
seems no way to get the pregnant woman loose without using the dynamite which
will inevitably kill her; but if they do not use it everyone will drown. What should
they do?
Discuss your answer: _____________________________________________________

3. The Mad Bomber

A madman who has threatened to explode several bombs in crowded areas has
been apprehended. Unfortunately, he has already planted the bombs and they are
scheduled to go off in a short time. It is possible that hundreds of people may die. The
authorities cannot make him divulge the location of the bombs by conventional
methods. He refuses to say anything and requests a lawyer to protect his Fifth
Amendment right against self- incrimination. In exasperation, some high level official
suggests torture. This would be illegal, of course, but the official thinks that it is
nevertheless the right thing to do in the desperate situation. Do you agree? If you do,

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 would it also be morally justifiable to torture the mad bomber’s innocent wife if that
is the only way to make him talk? Why?
Discuss your answer:______________________________________________________

4. The Neighbor
You have a wonderful daughter. She is 8 years old and has always been a
happy outgoing child. But a while ago something terrible happened, she was raped.
You are quite sure that the person who raped her is your neighbor. Your daughter is
so traumatized she has stopped speaking, but she in other ways been able to convince
you that he is the one. Unfortunately not enough evidence can be found to convict
him.
You try to put your life back together. You move to another house and try to
help your daughter in any way you can, but it is clear that the experience has ruined
her life and that of your family.
One evening you have taken your wife out to dinner at a restaurant when you
spot your former neighbor at another table. He is eating alone and looks unhappy.
You quickly finish eating and leave. The next day you find out that your former
neighbor’s wife has been murdered. Enough evidence to convict him of the murder is
soon found, and first you are very happy, finally his will get what he deserves. But
then you remember that you saw him in the restaurant at the time of the murder. You
know he did not murder his wife. Maybe he paid someone else to do it. You
remember that the police said that it had been made it look like a burglary, maybe it
was.
You sit down to think. If you keep quiet he will be convicted for the murder,
and the real murderer will go free. If you give him an alibi, he will go free, but you
can’t be sure the real murderer will be found, and it is possible that the evil bastard
paid someone to do it.. What do you do?

Discuss your answer: ______________________________________________________

CHAPTER THE MORAL AGENT

3 AND CULTURE
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  A moral agent is “a being who is capable of acting with reference to right and
wrong”
 These are agents expected to meet the demands of morality (choosing between
good and evil). However, not all agents are automatically considered moral
agents.
 Moral agent must be capable of conforming to at least some of the demands of
morality. What are these demands?

This requirement can be interpreted in different ways. On the weakest interpretation

it will suffice if the agent has the capacity to conform to some of the external
requirements of morality. So if certain agents can obey moral laws such as ‘Murder is
wrong’ or ‘Stealing is wrong’, then they are moral agents, even if they respond only to
prudential reasons such as fear of punishment and even if they are incapable of acting
for the sake of moral considerations.
This percept presupposes that the agent is a knower, regardless the knowledge
is full or limited, and the agent would still possess one salient requirement of moral
agent.
According to the strong version, the Kantian version, it is also essential that the
agents should have the capacity to rise above their feelings and passions and act for the
sake of the moral law. There is also a position in between which claims that it will suffice
if the agent can perform the relevant act out of altruistic impulses. Other suggested
conditions of moral agency are that agents should have; an enduring self with free will
and an inner life; understanding of the relevant facts as well as moral understanding;
and moral sentiments, such as capacity for remorse and concern for others (Haksa,
2018).

A “moral agent” is therefore someone who is capable of doing things rightly or

wrongly. Typically, this is understood to mean acting with the ability to freely choose
(within parameters) what to do. It sometimes also includes the idea of being aware of the
concepts of rightness and wrongness, or of what actions are considered right and wrong.
Human is a being that acts, one who acts with will and knowledge and holds responsible
for the acts.

A. Characteristics of Moral Agent

All throughout the ages, human being has been defined in various ways leading
to more complex concepts by various minds. With the previous discussion, indeed
human being is the moral agent endowed with all possibilities and capabilities to act
upon actions with moral considerations.

A moral agent, therefore, is a person who has the ability to discern right from
wrong and to be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral
responsibility not to cause unjustified harm.

Traditionally, moral agents are only those who can be held responsible for their
actions. Children and adults with certain mental disabilities may have little or no capacity
to be moral agents. Adults with full mental capacity relinquish their moral agency only in
extreme situations, like being held hostage.

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 By expecting people to act as moral agents, we hold people accountable for the
harm they cause others as well.

B. Culture
Question on morality got its significance within the context of humanity, the Agent of
Morality. In simple term, we can talk about morality because of human existence within
which human beings face various cultural challenges that entail their moral decisions.
Being so, clear grasp on culture is important.

Culture is an aggregate of the learned beliefs, attitudes, values, norms and

custom of society or group of people, shared by them and transmitted from generation to
generation within the society. Culture too changes with time. The society that developed
the culture is continuously being exposed to new experiences. Further, the society or
group is not a fixed body of people. New generations are being brought into it and some
new members from other cultures are being assimilated. With the increased mobility of
persons, flow of information and young person’s joining the group; cultures expand,
dilute, subdivide and change. The changes in culture are however, not rapid and never
drastic.

We have already defined that culture is an aggregate of beliefs, attitudes etc. which can
be viewed as a “blessing” and a preserver of values, heritage, arts and good behavior. It
can also be a “baggage” when we consider that it transmits some irrational and out-od-
date attitudes included in it as custom.

1. Types of Culture
a. High Culture- is linked with the elite, upper class society, those families and
individuals with an ascribed status position. It is often associated with the arts
such as opera, ballet and classical music, and sports such as polo. High culture
maintains its elite and exclusive position.

b. Cultural Diversity- is a concept relating to culturally embedded differences

within society, it’s the fact that different cultures exist alongside each other.

c. Subculture- culture enjoyed by a small group within society. In this sense it is a

minority part of majority culture. They have distinct norms and values which
make them sub-section of society.

d. Popular Culture- it borrows the idea from high culture and popularizes it, making
it available for the masses; a product of the media dominated world; it is a
positive force for it brings people of different background together in a common
culture.

e. Multiculturalism- it is depicted to be very similar to cultural diversity, other

definitions align multiculturalism with different ethnic groups living alongside each
other.

f. Global Culture- A global culture is a key feature of globalization, they emerged

due to patterns of migration, trends in international travel and the spread of the
media, exposing people to the same images of the same dominant world
companies.

2.Importance of Culture
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 a. Culture affects perceptions. How we perceive things is largely affected by our
judgment skills, preconceived notions, attitude, and emotions. These factors are
closely linked with our culture. In perceiving something as good or bad, our
biases play a role and so does our way of thinking. In judging something as easy
or difficult, our attitude and motivation levels play a key role. Our culture
determines the structure of our thinking, which influences our perceptions on the
good or bad.

b. Culture influences behavior. Culture affects perception and perceptions drive

behavior. Thus, the culture we belong to, has a direct impact on our behavior.
Behavioral and communication etiquette are a part of our culture. What our
culture teaches us affects the way we interact socially as much as it also affects
our moral behaviors toward others.

c. Culture shape personalities. Our culture defines people’s expectations from us.
Our religions, traditions, customs, all a part of our culture, play a major role in
shaping our personalities. The way we perceive a situation and react to it,
depends largely on what we have learned from the environment and the way we
have been brought up.

d. Our culture shapes our value and belief systems, which influence our
personalities. In a culture where children are taught to be independent early in
life (American, for example), they grow up to be individualistic. In a culture where
boys and girls are not treated as equal, children may become aggressive and
look at the opposite gender as their enemy, or those treated as inferior may grow
up to be submissive.

3.Moral Behavior
Critically, no one can simply say which behavior is a moral one because all
behaviors are. Relatively, it is the morals of the person or the society that make them
adopt those particular behaviors. Morals are the prevailing standards of behavior that
people have to follow and act in accordance with one’s beliefs in order to live
cooperatively in groups.

For example, following your society’s (or other social group’s) rules of good behavior
where honesty is highly valued, telling the truth is important. In society where helping the
poor is highly valued, giving money to the poor is very much appreciated.

Moral behaviors are what one believes to be the right things to do. No doubt cultural
and religious beliefs play a role in what one thinks to be right and wrong. However, one
may believe that an individual can decide or act normally even in the absence of religion.
In this case, no objectively moral behavior exists.

4.Role of Culture in Moral Behavior

How important is culture in shaping our moral behavior?

Culture undeniably does play a significant role within shaping moral behavior and
extends even further to social norms.

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Technically, culture is “everything” and not just in the arts and entertainment that we
occasionally enjoy; it is like the oxygen we breath. Culture does matter quite a bit to how
people behave and think. With this, culture cannot be responsible for everything that
people do and think. Moreover, using culture to measure and explain success and failure
also obscures our understanding on the various factors affecting socioeconomic and
biological situations.

To truly understand culture’s role in shaping us, we must understand that culture is not
just the inert repository of ideas and customs we all live with, but that is shaped by
various factors. Culture shapes us, but many events mold culture and we shape these
just as much.

Culture influences human behavior at any given society’s belief system which make
people unique from others (Victor, 2017). Inspite of our cultural uniqueness and
differences, people can still exercise their power to choose what is morally right and
morally wrong.

Culture has been with us since the dawn of human existence. Significant as it is, culture
considerably shapes its members on how they live and relate within themselves and with
other cultures.

Culture has a great impact in the development of the human person in varied ways; may
it be in physical, knowledge, thought, relationship, religious or moral development.

Therefore, culture functions to mould and establish a social identity that brings people as
well to provide the knowledge of common objectives which members would try to
achieve. Culture, indeed, provides norms, customs, laws, and moral demands that are to
be followed. So to speak, in general, in a culture there is a consistency and systematic
patterns of behavior, culture plays a vital role.

5.Culture relativism
Culture relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a
culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself. Originating in the work of Franz Boas in
the Early 20th Century, cultural relativism has greatly influenced social sciences such as
anthropology. This is understood as uniqueness of every culture from each other.
Besides, even under one general culture, other incidental or the so called sub-cultures
exist within culture. No one can really say in categorical term that a particular culture is
much better or civilized than the others.

Meanwhile, ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the
norms of one’s culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral
norms of the society in which it is practiced.

With this, cultural relativism is an affirmation that holds that societies are dissimilar in
their moral standards, their laws and culture protocols. To expand, cultural relativism
holds that what one culture believes immoral, another culture may believe is moral. In
essence, cultural relativism is the view that morality is culture dependent.

6.Moral Relativism

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Are standards of right and wrong mere products of time and culture? Is morality really a
neutral concept?

Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are true or false only relative to some
particular standpoint (for instance, that a culture or a historical period) and that no
standpoint is uniquely privileged over all others.

Moral relativism is the idea that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles.
It’s a version of morality that advocates “to each her own”, and those who follow it say,
“Who am I to judge?”

Moral relativism can be understood in several ways:

a. Descriptive moral relativism, also known as cultural relativism, says that moral
standards are culturally defined. Indeed, there may be a few values that seem
nearly universal, such as honesty and respect, but many differences appear
across cultures when people evaluate moral standards around the world.

b. Meta- ethical moral relativism states that there are no objective grounds for
preferring the moral values of one culture over another. Societies make their
moral choices based on their unique beliefs, customs, and practices.

c. Normative moral relativism is the idea that all societies should accept each
other’s differing moral values, given that there are no universal moral principles.
Most philosophers disagree however. For example, just because bribery is okay
in some culture doesn’t mean that other cultures cannot rightfully condemn it.

Moral Relativism is on the opposite end of the continuum from moral absolutism,
which says that there is always one right answer to any ethical question. Indeed, those
who adhere to moral relativism would say, “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”

Meanwhile, Jeff Landauer and Joseph Rowlands (2001) believed that Moral
Relativism is an ethical judgment which claims that no ethical system is better than
another. It stems from the fact that to judge an ethical system, it must be judged by a
moral standard.

Moral Relativism rests on the belief that values are subjective. It hold the belief that
there is no objective morality; that there is no such thing as right and wrong, good or evil.
Only if moral systems are just made up and supported only by personal or social bias
can moral judgments of ethical systems be wasted.

Moral Relativism is the denial of truth in ethical questions. The proponent of it

accepts that his/her own moral system is meaningless and is accepted on whim, not
reason. Intellectually, Moral Relativism is an attempt at destroying the concept of ethics.

Since Moral Relativism holds that ethical systems are subjective, it claims that none
is better or worse than another, that any system that claims to be true or absolute is evil,
it falls ironic for it still maintains a distinct moral principle leading to the possibility of truth
in ethics.

#REFLECTIONS

1. Why is cultural relativism a challenge in Ethics?

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CHAPTER ASIAN MORAL
IV CHARACTER/
BEHAVIOR
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 Just in any continents, Asia as well possesses a distinct moral/ethical behavior
that makes us unique in our culture, dealing with socio-political-cultural difficulties and
challenges.

Relatively, Asians stress personal orientation rather than task orientation, the
needs of the group is given priority than for the individual. The value of modesty is also
emphasized. Even those who achieved success in life remain modest and humble.
Likewise, generosity and sharing are greatly valued. Individual ownership of material
property exists but mostly shared to those in need.

Another distinct and prevalent influence of Asian behaviors/ moral traits can be
attributed to Confucianism that has deeply influenced East Asian behavior. Three
behavioral traits in East Asians are prominent. First, the East Asian’s lack of
“personality” is traced to the Confucian social institution of Li-rules of propriety. Second,
the East Asian’s lack of principled moral thinking is linked to the dyadic, relation-based
character of the Confucian ethic, its lack of hypothetical reasoning and its hierarchal
view of human relationships. Third, the East Asian’s lack of assertiveness is rooted in
the Confucian ideal of man as a reflection of harmony in the cosmos and the Confucian
ideal of society as based on the fulfillment of duties rather than the assertion of rights.

These characters kept establishing our Asian identity which makes us more
resilient in facing challenges such as inflation, climate change, domestic problems and
even political difficulties in the region.

In the Southeast Asia which the Philippines is a part of, Jeffrey Hays (2013)
provides a more distinct traits and characters that are mostly Buddhism and
Confucianism. Southeast Asians generally don’t like confrontation and rarely show
visible signs of anger. They have traditionally valued cool- headedness, placidity and
soft words. Outward expressions of anger are considered boorish and crude. Southeast
Asians rarely loose their temper and if they do it doesn’t help them get their way. People
just think they are crazy. Anger is usually expressed through a third person so face-to-
face confrontation is avoided.

Southeast Asians smile a lot. Smiles are often genuine way of expressing
happiness and friendliness but they can also be a way of masking true emotions. People
from Southeast Asia often smile or laugh when they hear bad news. That is how they
hide their sorrow. As a rule, feelings are not expressed directly. Showing disappointment
in public is especially frowned upon.

Southeast Asians have a reputation for being fun loving, compassionate, gentle,
hospitable, open-minded, laid-bank, smiling and friendly; there is a prevailing sentiment
that life should be enjoyed at the moment, and problems should not be taken so
seriously that disrupt enjoyment and they have a strongly developed sense of courtesy
and respect with values that include respect for elders, loyalty to friends and family.

1. Buddhism Character
Buddhism shapes character in Southeast Asia as Christianity does in
Europe. Theravada Buddhism encourages its practitioners to keep their
emotions and passions in check and stresses karma over determination,
which often means people are more willing to accept their lot in life and is
sometimes is viewed by Westerners as a lack of ambition or

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 unwillingness to work hard to improve their positions in life. Just like many
Filipinos, this character is explicit in time of conflict where we tend to be
calm and euphemistic; Filipinos avoid conflict with fellow Filipinos.

Moreover, like most Filipinos, Buddhism also provides guidelines for

village justice, namely in the form of the five basic moral prohibitions: 1)
refrain for taking life; 2) don’t steal; 3) avoid illicit sexual activity; 40 don’t
speak falsely; and 5) refrain from consuming inebriating substances.
These guidelines are most prevalent to be followed in the Philippine
communities. Buddhists believe that humans want many things and want
to keep them forever, which is impossible and creates a constant state of
desire, which in turn causes suffering and fear of further loss. Buddhists
have also taught us to practice nonviolence, do good deeds, present gifts
to monks, aspire to have gentle thoughts, meditate, and have respect for
the sanctity of life. The basic tenets of Buddhism influenced Gandhi and
Martin Luther King.

2. Confucian Character
Confucian values include love and respect for the family, integrity, loyalty,
honesty, humility, industriousness, respect for elders, patience,
persistence, hard work, friendship, commitment to education, belief in
order and stability, emphasis on obligations to the community rather just
individual rights and preference for consultation than open confrontation.
Hence, the same characters are also unique in Filipino communities.
They also give strong emphasis on teachers, superiors, family members
and elders. Love and respect are principals that were practiced more in
the context of the family than in society and humanity as a whole.
Confucianism is a social code based on morality rather than laws;
recognizes five cardinal virtues: 1) benevolence in terms of sympathy for
others (jen); 2) duty reflected in the shame felt after doing something
wrong (yi); 3) manners, propriety and feelings of deference (li); 4)
wisdom, in terms of discerning right and wrong (chi); and 5) loyalty and
good faith (hsin).

A. Filipino Moral Character

1. Filipino Character and Personality

Filipinos have been described as friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily
offended, nosy, garrulous, direct, hospitable, feisty, irreverent, good
natured, clever, witty, gregarious, happy, generous, easy to laugh,
gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun loving, sensitive and hospitable.

Personal and family honors are stressed, as well as dignity and pride.
Education is highly valued and families make great sacrifices to educate
their children. Hiya (shame) is instilled in Filipinos at an early age. To be
shamed is the greatest form of disgrace. Filipino culture developed over
centuries in tandem with and in response to Western culture introduced
by the Spanish and later Americans.

Filipinos are generally more easy-going than other Asians. A survey

conducted by the Hong Kong based- Political and Economic Risk
Constituency (PERC) ranked Filipinos as the “easiest people in Asia to
get a long with”.
Filipinos have a strong sense of family and community. They are very gregarious and
like to talk and hang out with family and friends. They love to fool around, gossip, make
jokes and tease one another. Rumors spread quickly. Some say Filipinos are happy-go-
lucky people who are often pessimistic about today but always optimistic that tomorrow
will be better (Krutovsky, 2009).

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 2. Strengths and Weaknesses of Filipino Moral Character

Every country has its differing values and stereotypes, and the Philippines is no
exception. We Filipinos firmly believe and show values to the world that make us one of
the many individuals love and appreciated by people across nations. Although we have
been colonized by several countries, many core values from our ancestors remained
intact and are still honored to this day. Filipinos are not perfect, but we have great
characteristics and qualities every one of us should be proud of.

B. Strengths of the Filipino Character

a. PAKIKIPAGKAPWA- TAO

1. Pakikipagkapwa- tao – basic sense of justice and fairness, concern for others
and ability to emphatize with others
2. Sensitivity to people’s feelings (pakikiramdam)
3. Pagtitiwala or trust
4. Sense of gratitude or utang na loob
5. Very dependent on interpersonal relationships; gives sense of security
6. Camaraderie and a feeling of closeness to one another

b. Strong Family Ties

1. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for family- source of personal identity,
emotional and material support
2. Honor and respect given to parents and elders
3. Care given to the children
4. The generosity towards kin in need
5. Great sacrifices that one endures for the welfare of the family
6. Sense of family results in a feeling of belongingness and rootedness in a basic
sense of security.

c. Joy and Humor

1. Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life and its ups and downs;
pleasant disposition, a sense of humor and a propensity for happiness that
contribute not only to the Filipino charm but also to the indomitability of the
Filipino spirit.
2. Laughing at ourselves and the mess we are in is an important coping
mechanism; playful, sometimes, disrespectful, we laugh at those we love and at
those we hate and we make jokes about our good fortune and bad
3. Manifested in the Filipino’s love for socials and celebrations, to laugh even in the
most trying of times. The result is a certain emotional balance, optimism, a
healthy disrespect for power and office and the capacity to survive.

d. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity

We can adjust and adapt to circumstances and the surrounding environment,
both physical and social; adjust to whatever happens even in unplanned or
anticipated events. We possess a tolerance for ambiguity that enables us to
remain unfazed by uncertainly or lack of information.

e. Hard Work and Industry

1. We have the capacity for hard work given proper conditions; to raise one’s
standard of living and to possess the essentials of a decent life for one’s family.
2. We are willing to take risks with jobs abroad and, while there, to work at two or
three jobs. The result is productivity and entrepreneurship for some and survival
despite poverty.

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 f. Faith and Religiosity

1. Our innate religiosity enables us to comprehend and genuinely accept reality in

the context of God’s will and plan.
2. Religious expressions is very tangible expressed everyday; we relate to God like
a human being- threaten, thank, ask forgiveness, appease.
3. Tragedy and bad fortune are accepted and optimism characterizes even the
poorest lives are related to bahala na which may considered positively as a
reservoir of psychic energy, a psychological prop on which we can lean during
hard times This pampalakas ng loob allows us to act despite uncertainty.

Name:
Course Year and Block:

ACTIVITY # 5

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 I. MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and
underline the word/s that makes the statement FALSE then write the correct
answer.
___________________1. Western stress personal orientation rather than task
orientation.
___________________2. Buddhism shapes character in Southeast Asia as Christianity
does in Europe.
___________________3. Confucianism is a moral code based on morality rather than
laws.
___________________4. Filipinos are more easy-going than other Asians.
___________________5. European culture developed over centuries in tandem with
and in response to Western culture.
___________________6. Every country has its differing values stereotypes.
___________________7. Individual ownership of material property exists but mostly
shared to those in need.
___________________8. Confucians believe that humans want many things and want
to keep them forever.
___________________9. Buddhist value includes love and respect for the family.
___________________10. To be coward is the greatest form of disgrace.

II. MATCHING TYPE: Match column A with the correct answer on column B.

Column A

_____1. A genuine way of expressing happiness

_____2. Loyalty and good faith
_____3. Basic sense of justice and fairness
_____4. To raise one’s standard of living and to possess
the essentials of decent life for one’s family
_____5. Wisdom in terms of discerning right and wrong
_____6. Sensitivity to people’s feeling
_____7. Benevolence in terms of Sympathy for other
_____8. A feeling of belongingness and rootedness in a
basic sense of security
_____9. Manners, propriety and feelings of deference
_____10. Duty reflected in the shame felt after doing
something wrong

C. Filipino Positive Values

Filipino values shape our relationships, behaviors, choices, and sense of
who we are. Although positive values help people to avoid risky behavior,
they also help guide their day-to-day actions and interactions. Thus,
values inspire, not just prohibit. Consequently, people who have positive
values are more likely to listen to their conscience, help others, be
independent, tell right from wrong, and feel happy. Ultimately, positive

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 values help people make their own decisions in upholding them to live in
harmony with their respective communities. Some of these values are as
follow:

a. Hospitability. It’s one of the most popular traits of Filipinos. We are usually
friendly and welcoming to our guests. This Filipino attribute makes the
Philippines one of the most favorite destinations by tourists who want to enjoy the
beauty of our nature and the friendliness of our people, not to mention we can
also understand and speak English.

b. Helpful to others/Bayanihan. Unity in Bayanihan spirit manifests our close

relationship with our neighbors. In our Barangays and most subdivisions, the
people in the neighborhood know each other, talk to each other, and protect each
other. Our communities are organized. We help each other to organize our
fiestas, festivals and other events lively and colorful to make sure that our visitors
will have a great experience.

c. Respectful (mano, po and opo, halik sa kamay). Filipinos are corteous people.
The children and the young Filipinos will always use the words “po” and “opo” to
show respect to someone who is older or who has higher position than them. We
also do the “mano po” gesture as a sign of respect to our elders. Moreover,
workers will always address their customers with “sir” or “ma’am” to show
humility and honor to serve them.

d. Bravery. There is a hero’s blood running on our veins. We have the most fearless
heroes who only think of defending our homeland. Remember Lapu-lapu, Andres
Bonifacio and Jose Rizal. Moreover, our soldiers are probably the bravest in the
world. General Douglas MacArthur was even quoted saying “Give me ten
thousand Filipino soldiers and I will conquer the world.”

e. Jolliness and Sense of Humor. The Philippines is a country of smiles. Nothing

can take away the humor and jolliness of many Filipinos.. not even super
typhoon Yolanda- the strongest recorded typhoon that mode a landfall. Despite
the tragedy, Yolanda survivors can still be seen smiling, positive and hopeful to
rebuild their lives even better. The Filipino humor is evident everywhere, from
comedy films, TV shows, to every Filipino you will meet.

f. Discretion and dignity. Perhaps many of our politicians don’t have a delicadeza.
But our people, especially the Filipinas, still observe delicadeza. Despite the
growing number of Filipinos who are giving up their delicadeza, there are still
many Filipinos who always think twice before they make a decision that can
affect their dignity and honor. Thanks to their parents who raised them up with
high moral standards.

g. Gratefulness. Aside from being hospitable, Filipinos are also thankful. We don’t
forget anyone who helped us, whether he (she) is a Filipino or not. We even build
monuments to show our utmost respect and gratitude to our heroes and other
foreign personalities who helped the Filipino people. We show our warmest
gratitude to the international communities who helped us rebuild our lives after
Haiyan and other disasters that struck us.

h. Honesty and commitment. Perhaps “palabra de honor” is not evident among our
politicians, but it’s still evident among the common Filipinos. When we make a
promise, we try our best to fulfill that promise even if it will undermine ourselves.
For us, to fulfill a promise to others is a great self fulfillment. We are also candid.
What we see in you, we will tell you frankly.

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i. Helpfulness. Finally, even if the Philippines is not a big and rich country, we still
grant aids to other countries in need. We also send our brave soldiers to protect
other nations from threats and to preserve world peace.

j. Family-oriented. Filipinos are willing to make a big sacrifice just to make sure that
their loved ones will have a good life. Our parents will do anything just to give us
a brighter future. They are even willing to work in a foreign soil just to achieve
such goal. And in return, we study hard and even sacrifice our personal love life
just to fulfill the dreams of our parents for us. Furthermore, many Filipino
breadwinners work extraordinarily hard just to earn money to support their family.

k. Adaptability and resilience. Despite all the calamities that struck our country, like
the strong earthquake and Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) that devastated the
central part of Visayas in 2013, Filipinos are persistent enough to get back on
their feet, even without the solid help from the government. We can also adapt to
any type of environment and mingle with any kind of people all over the world.

l. Resourcefulness and creativity. Filipinos are known for ingenuity. We are

creative in many ways, whether it’s in art, music, science, technology and
business. Some of our smartest countrymen can come up with a brilliant idea
despite poverty or lack of financial resources. We are also good in recycling trash
and turn them into ingenious products.

m. Faithfulness. The Filipinos are one of the most faithful people in the world.
Whatever our religion is, we remain faithful and we don’t lose hope for a better
tomorrow. Our faithfulness and hopefulness keep us kind, positive, peaceful and
determined to achieve our goals no matter how impossible they may seem.

n. Thriftiness. There may be Filipinos who are living beyond their means. But on the
brighter side, there are also many Filipinos who are frugal. We shop wisely to
save our money for future important uses. We are conscious on the price tag,
discounts and quality of the products we buy to get the most out of our money.
Filipino parents also do sacrifices like skipping the stuff they want to buy for
themselves just to save their money to buy things that can make their children
happy.

D. Weakness of the Filipino Character

a. Extreme Personalism
1. Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships; no separation
between objective task and emotional involvement
2. We tend to give personal interpretations to actions, i.e., “take things
personally”. Thus, a sincere question may be viewed as a challenge to
one’s competence or positive feedback may be interpreted as a sign of
special affection.
3. We tend to be uncomfortable with bureaucracy, with rules and regulations
and with standard procedures, all of which tend to be impersonal. We
tend to ignore them or we ask for exceptions.
4. Personal contacts are involve in any transaction and these are difficult to
turn down. Preference is usually given to family and friends in hiring,
delivery of services and even in voting.

b. Extreme Family Centeredness

1. Excessive concern for family manifests itself in the use of one’s office and
power as a means of promoting the interest of the family, factionalism,

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 patronage and political dynasties, and in protection of erring family
members.
2. Family centeredness results to a lack of concern for the common good
and acts as a block to national consciousness.

c. Lack of Discipline
1. The Filipino’s lack of discipline is manifested in a casual and relaxed
attitude towards time and space which manifests itself in lack of precision
and compulsiveness, in poor time management and procrastination.
2. We are impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward, resulting in
the use of short-cuts, in skirting the rules (the palusot syndrome) and in
foolhardiness. We are guilty of ningas cogon, starting out projects with full
vigor and interest which abruptly die down leaving things unfinished.
3. Our lack of discipline often results in efficient and wasteful work systems
violations of rules leading to more serious transgressions and a casual
work ethic leading to carelessness and lack of follow-through.

d. Passitivity and Lack of Initiative

Filipinos are generally passive and lacking in initiative. There is strong
reliance on others (e.g., leaders, government) to do things for us related to
our need for a strong authority.

e. Colonial Mentality
Filipinos have a colonial mentality which is made up of two dimensions: the
first is a lack of patriotism or an active awareness, appreciation and love of
the Philippines; the second is an actual preference for foreign things.

f. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates a feeling of envy
and competitiveness toward others, particularly one’s peers who seem to
have gained some status or prestige.

g. Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection

There is a tendency in the Filipino to be superficial and even somewhat
flighty. In the face of serious problems, both personal and social, there is lack
of analysis or reflection.

The Filipino’s lack of self-analysis and our emphasis on norms is reinforced

by an educational system that is often more form than substance and a legal
system that tends to substitute law for reality.

Identified Filipino Negative Values (Joan

Cyril Abello, 2014. FAQ.ph, 2017)

No culture is perfect. Filipino is one. As much as we want to sustain our valued

characteristics, there are still negative traits we cannot deny becoming prevalent at
times.

1. Fatalism

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 An attitude of “what goes around, comes around” or “come what may.”
We have a tendency to surrender our future to fate. We often accept bad
news or circumstances without trying to stop or change them. This can
sometimes be helpful in adversity, but it can also keep us from finding
ways out of situations. Also, constantly expecting the worst can get pretty
depressing.

2. Crab mentality
This is prevalent in politics where people tend to push each other down to
clear the way for their own gain. Politicians, especially, try their best to
ruin each other, but this can also happen among regular people. I think it
goes to the point of selfishness.

Simply put, this refers to the behavior of preventing someone from

achieving something due to jealousy or envy. Instead of praising or
rendering assistance, someone with crab mentality would think “if I can’t
have it, then you can’t as well” and will purposely try to bring his/her
victim down. And just like the crabs who could have escaped from the
bucket if they only stopped pulling each other down, nothing ever gets
accomplished.

3. Ningas-Kugon
One reason why we sometimes exert half-hearted effort in our
undertakings is due to this attitude. Translated to “burning cogon grass” in
English, this idiom is meant to illustrate how Filipinos initially exhibit great
enthusiasm at the beginning of a project. Our eagerness however, fades
away just as quickly as the fire is extinguished, leaving our work either
half-baked or unfinished.

4. Filipino Time
Related to the mañana habit, Filipino time refers to the Filipinos’ own
unique brand of time, which is known to be minutes or hours behind the
standard time. In other words, we tend not to observe punctuality at all.
This behavior usually drives time-observant foreigners crazy. While we
Filipinos with our easy-going ways have somewhat become used to
Filipino time, it still is a bad habit that needs to be dropped.

5. Colonial Mentality
Probably one of the biggest flaws we have as a nation is our colonial
mentality, defined as a preference for all things foreign over our own, a
negative trait we acquired from our days under the Spanish and the
Americans. As a result, we Filipinos have been indoctrinated with the
misconception that our culture is inferior to that of our past colonizers.

Glaring examples of colonial mentality include patronizing foreign instead

of local brands, favoring foreign values over our own, and even desiring
to look more “Western” (think of whitening products).

6. General Disregard for Rules

Filipinos are known law abiding individuals but with stronger inclination to
disregard these laws. Ironically, Filipinos abroad follow rules and laws
because they know they cannot get away with not following them. Most
advance countries have very organized law enforcement agencies. In
short, anyone who violates the laws and rules will be punished. In foreign
land, Filipinos cannot simply bribe authorities. Whereas, many Filipino
enforcers are corrupt, incompetent and ill equipped to enforce the law. Do
the tendency is to break and even ignore the laws. Another hindrance to

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 follow the law is the so called padrino system where one contacts
relatives or known enforcement officer, public officials or prominent
individual who will make areglo on their behalf. This behavior makes the
enforcement of the law impossible.

7. Procrastination or “Mañana Habit”

This is another habit which keeps the development of our country slow.
Look at the government projects which have been left undone for years. If
only they were completed immediately, then many Filipinos would have
already benefited from them. This is also true with many of us. Instead of
working on a task while there is much time, we wait for the deadline
because we feel lazy to start on them, or we want to use the time in other
things. Of course, the outcome of our completed work would not be of
high quality because they were rushed.

8. Corruption
One of the biggest social ills our country has continued to face since time
immemorial is the issue of corruption. Let’s face it, our “culture of
corruption” is embedded deep within our system and reinforced by a
complex web of economic and social factors which include personal
ambitions and a twisted sense of loyalty to friends and kin. The
Philippines is in for a long haul if our officials and we ourselves do not get
rid of this very negative habit.

9. Gossiping
Filipinos are fond of talking about others’ business. It is not true that only
women are into gossiping. Even men can also be noisy on other people’s
lives. Sadly, this does not bring any good to the subjects. Secrets are
brought out; failures and flaws are emphasized; and relationships are
destroyed. Worse, as gossips are passed around, they tend to be twisted
until the final story becomes too far from the original- thus, causing more
damage.

10. Passivity (lack of leadership)

Filipinos’ lack of initiative for change is also one reason why our country
does not progress. We keep on complaining against the government and
other societal issues. However, we do not do anything about them. One
of our excuses is the lack of faith that our small actions can bring change.
However, the worse reason for this could be our lack of care for what is
happening around us. Common Filipinos also lack courage and
confidence. If you can notice it, in classrooms, churches, or conference
rooms, most of us don’t like to sit in the front seat.

These are just few of the many Filipino bad habits that hinder us to move forward as a
progressive nation. The country is endowed with hardworking and generous natural
resources which can be utilized as one nation to achieve the goals to prosperity.
Recognition of these negative traits provides us a sense of rectifying these mistakes,
and to maximizing our assets in confronting national and global challenges.

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