A+ Certification: Part 1 - Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 22, 2005

Course Overview

The A+ Hardware Service Technician exam will cover in detail the different hardware
components and peripheral components you may experience in a normal technician’s
daily job. Though you may have extensive experience with troubleshooting computer
problems or issues, there are many “details” that the exam covers which you may not
have experienced yet or may need to refresh your knowledge on.

This courses will give a broad overview of computer hardware, provide detailed
information into the System Board, and provide a detailed look into storage devices.
Throughout the course, you may be stopped at different points to be given a "pop" quiz
about details in the section you have just learned. You can skip these quizzes and return
to them later if you wish to continue studying. In addition, the links on the right can lead
you to more study destinations for the exams.

Throughout the exam you may see icons which indicate something you need to know for
the exam or something from the author's life experience:

When you see this icon, study the topic thoroughly, there is material in this
section with specific questions on the exam.

Indicates an example from the Author's experience in the IT world.

Course Outline

I. Introduction to the Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices Course

Section 1

II. Types of Computers

III. PDAs

IV. Types of PC Cases

V. Safety and Care and ESD

VI. Parts of a PC
Section 1 Review

Section 2

VII. System Board Overview

VIII. Expansion Bus

Section 2 Review

Section 3

IX. Storage Devices

X. SCSI

XI. Preparing Your Hard Drive

XII. CD-ROMs

XIII. Tape Backup Devices

XIV. Floppy Drives

ype of Computers

There are four basic types of computers: PC (Personal Computer), Workstations,

Laptops, Servers.

The PC, or Personal Computer, is the most common category of computers.

This category would include your home PCs and most of your business class
PCs.

A workstation is a breed of computer which is a high performance version

of the PC. Workstation manufacturers took many of the high speed and high
availability components normally found in servers and created a workstation
PC which is a high performance version of the original. Throughout the rest
of this tutorial, you will find the word PC and the word workstation used interchangeably,
while technically there is a difference, we will begin using “workstation” now as a word
to describe a PC since the two are in the same basic category.
 Laptops are portable computers. Originally, laptops were large, heavy, short
battery life beasts. Nowadays, laptops (also referred to as notebooks) are light,
powerful, have good battery life, and serve as a desktop replacement for many
individuals (including myself).

A server is a machine developed to allow for file or print serving, application hosting, or
some other task usually involving many simultaneous connections. Common features of
servers include redundancy, multiple drives, large amounts of memory, multiple pro
cessors.

PDAs

A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a commonplace item in many

businesses and homes. Spurred by the success of Palm Pilots, the PDA
industry has had tremendous growth in the past few years.

A PDA is a device which allows an individual to keep their notes, email,

schedule, small documents, and other information with them at all times. It is a useful
device for record keeping and usually syncs with your computer to allow your contact list
and emails to be "in sync" with each other in your handheld and normal computers.

Palm Pilots are the most prevalent PDAs on the market, with a market share of about
30%.

Most PDAs are based on either the Palm operating system or the Microsoft PocketPC
operating system.

Palm Pilots present an interesting challenge to IT staff who are trying to

support it. At one firm I worked at, we went through several different policies
in regards to supporting PDAs. Originally, we would not support any PDA,
though if a member of management were to purchase one, we would support
them individually. Eventually, we decided on a standard and if anyone were to buy the
standard PDA we would support it. This allowed us to designate an expert (which
coincidentally happened to be me) on PDAs and be able to develop support procedures
for the specific PDA we would support.

Types of PCs

There are several types of Personal Computers you should be aware of: small form factor,
minitower, midtower, full tower, desktop.
A small form factor is the smallest of the non-portable PCs. Typically lacking in many
expansion options, SFF computers are useful for situations which require the smallest
desktop style PC possible.

A minitower PC is a common household and business PC. It usually has some expansion
slots available (1-3) and one hard drive slot available. A typical minitower PC has all of
the ports built in to allow for more expansion cards.

A midtower PC is also a common business class machine. A midtower has more

expansion room than a typical minitower machine.

A full tower has the most expansion room and usually several hard drive bays open for
additional storage drives.

A desktop has probably been the most popular type of machine over the years. A typical
desktop machine is designed to lay flat on a desk or stand and contains 1-3 additional
drive bays and 2-7 additional expansion slots available.

Small Form Minitower

Midtower Full Size
Factor Computer Computer
Computer Tower

Safety and Care

Before we launch into a lengthy tutorial on the insides of a computer we should discuss
care and safety when working inside a computer. I know you’re itching to jump right in
and start taking apart a computer at your desk but without the right precautions, you can
easily break your computer or worse, hurt yourself.

Luckily for you – not only do you get to learn about safety and the precautions to take
when dealing with electronic equipment – but you also get to learn something useful as
these items are a portion of the CompTIA hardware service technician exam.

Electro-Static Discharge
 Electro-static discharge can cause damage to
electronic components as you work on them.
Note: ESD may be in several questions on the
exam. ESD can be caused by static electricity your body picks up as you
move, rub against your clothing, or can be picked up by things you touch.

While working on a computer or any components, you should always wear an ESD wrist
strap which grounds you. Also, it is recommended that you do not wear synthetic
clothing. Synthetic clothing can cause a buildup of static electricity as your body rubs
against it.

You should also always touch the case of the computer prior to touching components
inside, this will help to ground you.

The ESD wrist strap should not be used when working on monitors though, the stored
voltage can kill you.

When shipping or storing electronic components, you should send them in antistatic bags.
Antistatic bags do not conduct electricity and can be reused.

Generally speaking, if you are disassembling computers, the environment you are in
should be relatively dust free. It is also not recommended you work on electronic devices
in a room which is carpeted.

Parts of a PC

There are basic parts common to all PCs. Though they may look different, most of these
components function similarly among different brands, shapes, and sizes of computers.
This is a broad overview of the elements that makeup a PC, the System Architecture
course goes into much greater detail.

The Case

Typically, there are 5 types of cases for computers (from smallest to largest): small form
factor, minitower, midtower, desktop, full tower.

Depending on your use for the computer, different sizes serve different needs. A full
tower has the advantage of a large amount of expansion space. A small form factor, on
the other hand, does not have much expansion room, but does fit quite nicely in a small
office or area.

The case is built to hold all of the components of a computer and protect from the normal
elements inside an office. If you pour coffee into your computer, the case will not be able
to protect it all that much, though from the normal every day occurrences, a case does
provide some protection. A case also is developed to allow for easy cooling of the
devices inside. Many elements of a computer become extremely hot when operating and
a case must be designed to handle airflow effectively to reduce the temperature of its
components.

The Power Supply

The power supply has the responsibility of converting power and providing it to the
components in the computer. The power supply converts 110 volt AC into four voltages:
+5 volts DC, -5 volts DC, +12 volts DC, -12 volts DC (ground).

The Motherboard

The Motherboard, sometimes referred to as the system

board or main board, is the central piece of all computers.
The motherboard contains the processor, the RAM, and
the expansion devices.

Storage Devices

A computer is not an effective tool if it doesn’t have a method to run software or store
data. Storage devices come in all shapes, sizes, and types. The purpose for a storage
device is to store and retrieve data.

Expansion Cards

Expansion cards allow you to expand the computer to add peripherals, communication
devices, or other functionality.

Monitor/Display

The monitor or display device is used to view the software which is running on the
computer.

CRT – Cathode Ray Tube. Most monitors built over the years are CRT monitors. CRT is
the standard in most televisions as well.

LCD – Liquid Crystal Display. LCD monitors have been widely used in laptops and
notebooks. Due to their high cost, they have mostly stayed off the desktop until recently.
With dropping LCD costs, more people are moving to LCD monitors with the advantages
of smaller occupied space, lower power requirements, and what many believe is a higher
quality picture (or possibly just easier on the eyes).

After studying this section, you should:

 Understand the different types of computers.

The difference between a laptop, desktop, and server.

Understand what a PDA is.

Define the purpose of a PDA and define what PDA represents (Personal Digital
Assistant).

Understand the different types of PCs.

Understand the general differences between a small form factor, a minitower, midtower,
full tower, and desktop computer.

Understand basic safety procedures when working with electronic components.

Understand what ESD is and what device you should use to protect yourself.

Understand the basic parts of PCs.

A general understanding of the components which are in a PC.

If there is a section you feel you need more studying in, feel free to click on the button
next to the topic to return and reread that section.

System Board Overview

The system board, also referred to as the “main board” or “motherboard” contains all of
the elements that are central to the operation of the computer including the CPU,
expansion slots, memory, and components which connect to other devices.

System Board Components

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the central chip

to the operation of the computer. The CPU processes
the instructions from the software. A CPU can be
from several different manufacturers, examples
include a Pentium II, an AMD Athlon, or a PowerPC.
CPU speeds are measured in Megahertz. The higher
the Megahertz, the faster the chip (generally speaking,
CPUs are also measured in how many instructions per
second it can perform and so a chip with a lower MHz could work much faster than one
with a higher MHz, though on the Intel-compatible side of computing, the higher the
MHz number, the faster the chip). For example, a Pentium III running at 800 MHz is
faster than a Pentium III running at 700 MHz.

Newer chips are measured in GHz (Gigahertz), which is simply 1000 MHz. A 1.2 GHz
chip is 1,200 MHz.

The expansion bus allows the computer to be upgraded using different modules.
Expansion buses are made up with copper slots where a circuit board can plug into it. The
motherboard contains a bus clock which controls how fast information flows to the
expansion boards and back.

Memory, or more specifically RAM (Random Access Memory), is the place for storages
of software, computer instructions, and operations while the computer is operating. RAM
is a very fast storage location; though it loses all of its information with a loss of power.

he System Board

The System Board, or Motherboard, is discussed in great detail in the System

Architecture course. For the exam, you need to know the general layout of a
motherboard. Become familiar with the general layout of the system board. Here is an
example of a motherboard with common components referenced:
A+ Certification: Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 29, 2005

8-bit

The 8-bit expansion bus operates at a maximum of 4.77 MHz

(approx. 5 MHz), has eight interrupts, four DMA Channels, and
8-bit Bus one large 62 slot card.
(Click image for large version in
new window)

ISA Bus

The ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus is a 16-bit bus with

a card slightly larger than the 8-bit. The 16-bit cards have an extra
piece extending beyond the 8-bit card length. This bus has 16
ISA Bus
interrupts and 8 DMA channels. ISA also runs at 8 MHz. ISA (Click image for large version in
buses are backwards compatible with the 8-bit cards. new window)

MCA Bus

The MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) bus was a proprietary bus designed by IBM. It is
a 16-bit or 32-bit bus and it’s clock speed is 10 MHz. It also offered software
configuration instead of dip switches and jumper settings.

EISA

EISA (Extended ISA) bus borrowed a lot of features from the

MCA bus and expanded on them. It has a 32-bit bus and has more
I/O addresses (Input/Output addresses or memory addresses). It
also still uses the 8 MHz of the ISA bus to allow for backwards
compatibility. EISA Bus
(Click image for large version in
new window)
 VLBus Vesa Local Bus
(Click image for large version in
new window)
The VESA Local Bus (VLB) is a local bus type, meaning it is a
bus which runs at the same speed as the processor. Typically, it is used for video to gain
the advantage of the high speed of transfer of the processor. It is backwards compatible
with the ISA, but has an extra slot to make it 32-bits.

PCI Bus

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Bus is the newest and

most advantageous type of all of the buses. It supports both 32-bit
and 64-bit data paths to be compatible with 486 and Pentium class
processors. PCI is also processor independent, allowing it to
operate in Macintosh, PC, and RISC computers. PCI runs at 33 PCI Bus
(Click image for large version in
MHz and has a maximum throughput of 256 megabytes per new window)
second.

AGP Bus

AGP, or Accelerated Graphics Port, is a bus technology developed

by Intel to support high speed video cards. The AGP interface
uses the RAM in your computer to generate 3-D images and video
very quickly.
AGP Bus
(Click image for large version in
new window)

PCMCIA Bus

PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card Association) is the last type of bus we will
discuss. It is mainly used in laptops or other small computers and in some digital
cameras. PCMCIA comes in three types, cleverly called Type I, Type II, and Type III.

Type I cards are 3.3 mm thick. Type II cards are the most common type and are 5 mm
thick. Type III cards are mainly used for hard drives and are 10.5 mm thick.

A+ Certification: Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 29, 2005

Summary of Expansion Busses

Bus Type Bus Size Speed (MHz)

8-bit 8-bit 4.77
ISA 16-bit 8 (10 in turbo mode)
MCA 16-bit or 32-bit 10
EISA 32-bit 8
VESA Local 32-bit Processor Speed
PCI 64-bit Processor Speed
PCMCIA Card 16-bit 33 MHz

After studying this section you should:

Understand the components on the system board.

Understand what the CPU is, what an expansion bus is, and what memory is.

Understand the different expansion bus types.

Understand the differences between 8-bit, ISA, MCA, EISA, VLBus, PCI, AGP and
PCMCIA.

Understand the interrupts and DMA in relation to expansion busses.

Understand what an interrupt is and what DMA allows a device to do.

A+ Certification: Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 29, 2005

Storage Devices

There are several types of storage devices you should be aware of for the exam.

Hard Drives
There are three main types of hard drives (more specifically hard drive connection types):
IDE, EIDE, and SCSI.

IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) is the original standard for hard drives for PCs. IDE is
the interface between the bus and the hard drive, based on the ISA 16-bit bus. Originally,
it was designed as a separate interface, but currently most computers support EIDE with a
built-in interface on the motherboard. A standard IDE drive supports up to 528 MB of
space.

The EIDE (Enhanced IDE) interface was developed to overcome

the 528 MB limit on hard drive size. The most common type of
connector, EIDE also supports faster access, DMA, AT
Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) for CD-ROM and tape
drives, and support for additional drives. EIDE can be added as
EIDE Connector an expansion board to older systems. Most newer systems come
(Click image for larger version in a
new window) with EIDE functionality built-in to the motherboard.

A+ Certification: Computer Hardware, System Boards, and Storage Devices

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 29, 2005

SCSI (Small Computer Systems

Interface) is another standard for hard
drive connection. SCSI also has a variety of other peripherals and
storage devices which can take advantage of it.

SCSI comes in three varieties: SCSI 1, SCSI 2, and SCSI 3. SCSI

SCSI 3 Cable 1 supports up to 8 devices, 1 of which is required to be the
controller card (so you can add 7 additional devices to the
(Click picture for larger version in
a new window) controller). Unlike normal IDE or EIDE systems, most SCSI
devices come in internal or external varieties and most cards can
support both. SCSI 2 (also known as Ultra-2), which is more popular than SCSI 1,
supports up to 16 devices (one of which has to be the adapter card or controller) and
supports a higher transfer speed. SCSI 3 is sometimes referred to as Ultra-3 SCSI. Ultra-3
SCSI increases the throughput rate of the interface from 80 Mbps to 160 Mbps. The new
standard for this transfer rate is referred to as Ultra160/M.

Max
Max Cable Max
Number
SCSI Type Length Speed
of
(meters) (MBps)
Devices
SCSI-1 6 5 8
SCSI-2 6 5-10 8 or 16
 Fast SCSI-2 3 10-20 8
Wide SCSI-2 3 20 16
Fast Wide SCSI-2 3 20 16
Ultra SCSI-3, 8-bit 1.5 20 8
Ultra SCSI-3, 16-bit 1.5 40 16
Ultra-2 SCSI 12 40 8
Wide Ultra-2 SCSI 12 80 16
Ultra-3 (Ultra160/m)
12 160 16
SCSI

A SCSI chain (all of devices on a controller) must have a terminator at both ends. The
SCSI card often has a built-in terminator and a lot of present day SCSI devices also have
a switchable termination on the drive or device. SCSI drives are typically more expensive
than EIDE drives, but have higher access speed and allow for more devices on one
controller.

SCSI 2 Port
(Click picture for a large image in a
SCSI 2 Cable Internal SCSI
new window)
(Click picture for a large image in SCSI Terminator Cable
a new window) (Click picture for a large image (Click picture for a large image
in a new window) in a new window)

CD-ROMs

CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory) was

developed by Sony and Phillips. It has a standard
capacity of 650 Megabytes of information and is burned
onto a disc using laser light.

CDs have expanded over the years and a typical CD-

ROM today can hold 700 MBs of information or 80
minutes of music.

Most typical home machines and some business-class PCs come with a CD-R or CD-RW
drive. A CD-R drive allows you to write once to a CD-R or CD-RW disc. A CD-RW
drive allows you to write once to a CD-R disc or many times to a CD-RW disc.
 There are many advantages to using CD-Rs and CD-RWs to store data or backup
data. Cost per megabyte is very cheap on CD-Rs, most for pennies per megabyte.
In addition, CD media is fairly long lasting if you care for it.

CD media can become unreadable if you leave discs in sun or heat for too long or if they
become scratched.

CDFS (Compact Disk File System) is the type of filing system CD-ROMs use to store
information.

Tape Backup Devices

Typical backup drives connect via the parallel port, SCSI, ATAPI, or USB ports.

There are several different competing tape formats you should be aware of. QIC (Quarter
Inch Format) is a format which either comes in a 3.5” or a 5.25” hard plastic case. It can
store from 40 Mb to 25 GB worth of data.

Linear Tape-Open (LTO) is an open standard format developed by IBM, Hewlett-

Packard, and Seagate. LTO was developed to provide a standard among normally
proprietary tape backup systems. LTO format tapes come in a variety of sizes and types.

The positive of tape is a large amount of storage for a low reusable cost. The negatives of
a tape are its access time – a tape starts at the beginning and moves to the spot where the
data is when retrieving information.

Tape devices are typically only used for backup situations.

Floppy Drives

In early home PCs, often the floppy drive was the only way to store and retrieve data
(though in my first computer – an Atari – I had a tape cassette recorder which stored and
retrieved somewhere in the neighborhood of 16K of a normal audio cassette). Over the
years, the floppy drive has stayed with us, though more as a leftover from the early days
than anything else.

A typical system with a floppy drive is a 3.5” drive which holds 1.44 MB.

A+ Certification: Part 2 - Hardware: System Architecture

by Jeremy Reis on Wednesday, June 29, 2005

Course Overview

The A+ Hardware Service Technician exam will cover in detail the different hardware
components and peripheral components you may experience in a normal technician’s
daily job. Though you may have extensive experience with troubleshooting computer
problems or issues, there are many “details” that the exam covers which you may not
have experienced yet or may need to refresh your knowledge on.

This courses will give a detailed look into the System Architecture of a computer system.

Throughout the exam you may see icons which indicate something you need to know for
the exam or something from the author's life experience:

When you see this icon, study the topic thoroughly, there is material in this
section with specific questions on the exam.

Indicates an example from the Author's experience in the IT world.

Course Outline

I. Introduction to the System Architecture Course

Section 1

II. System Architecture Overview

III. Components of a Motherboard

IV. The CPU

V. Characteristics of a CPU

VI. CPU Sockets

Section 1 Review

Section 2

VII. BIOS & CMOS

VIII. Types of Memory

IX. Memory Packages

X. RAM's Integral Part of the Computer System

Section 2 Review

Section 3

XI. IRQs

XII. DMA Channels

XIII. Common I/O Addresses

XIV. COM Port Addresses

Section 3 Review

Section 4

XV. Cable Connections

XVI. Serial vs. Parallel

XVII. Computer Port Identification

General System Architecture Overview

System Architecture is a broad topic in regards to computers.

There are many components which make up a computer. Each one is necessary to the
operation of the computer, which makes each one important in terms of troubleshooting
issues and difficulties.

At the heart of the computer is the motherboard and its heart the central processing unit
(CPU). The CPU is responsible for most of the processing of software applications,
directing of data traffic inside the computer, and other operations of the computer. An
example of a CPU is a Pentium III.

The computer also needs to allow its user to change its base settings and store those
settings. Its BIOS (Basic Input Output System) contains the base level instructions for the
computer and has a setup program to change any user-defined settings such as hard drive
type, power management settings, or IRQ settings. The BIOS stores its data in the CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor).

The motherboard/system board also contains RAM (Random Access Memory). RAM is
used to load your operating system and software applications to be able to utilize them
while you are using your computer system. RAM has extremely fast transfer rates.
The system board also has expansion buses allowing you add expansion cards to increase
communication capabilities, expand viewing features, or use the computer more
effectively. Example expansion boards include an Ethernet card, a 64 Mb video card, or a
IEEE1394 Firewire expansion card.

In addition, PCs have storage devices which allow you to store and retrieve data. A
storage device may be a hard drive, a floppy drive, or an optical drive.

Characteristics of a CPU

Chip Speed

The processor contains millions of transistors. The CPU is measured by its clock speed in
MHz. One Megahertz is one million cycles per second. The first IBM PC CPU, the Intel
8088, ran at 4.77 MHz. Today’s PCs exceed 2 GHz (2,000 MHz!)

Math Coprocessor

Contained within the chip is a math coprocessor which handles floating point
calculations, like algebra and statistics. The math coprocessor is also referred to as the
FPU (Floating Point Unit). Earlier Intel chips had an additional chip which handled the
math functions, but the Pentium line has had the functions built-in.

Cache Memory

Most processors have an internal cache which stores frequently used data and
instructions. Cache is broken up into two classifications, L1 which is internal cache and
L2 which is the external cache.

Buses

Each processor has buses which work with it.

The external bus, also called the system bus, allows the processor to connect with other
devices such as expansion cards and devices.

Buses consist of two parts: data bus and address bus. The data bus transfers the
information and the address bus tells where the information should go.

CPUs

Here is table of the different chip types and their characteristics (we included PowerPC
for comparison purposes):
 CPU Speed Data Bus Address L2 Cache Addressable Transistors
(MHz) (Bits) Bus (Bits) Memory
8088 4.77 8 20 0 1 MB 29,000
80286 8-12 16 24 0 16 MB 134,000
80386SX 16-20 16 32 0 4 GB 275,000
80386DX 16-33 32 32 0 4 GB 275,000
80486SX 16-33 32 32 8 Kb 4 GB 1,185,000
80486DX 25-50 32 32 8 Kb 4 GB 1,200,000
486DX2 33-66 32 32 8 Kb 4 GB 1,200,000
486DX4 75-100 32 32 8 Kb 4 GB 1,600,000
Pentium I 60-166 64 32 16 Kb 4 GB 3,100,000
Pentium 166-233 64 32 32 Kb 4 GB 4,450,000
MMX
Pentium 120-200 64 36 288 Kb 64 GB 5,500,000
Pro
Pentium II 233-450 64 36 512Kb 64 GB 7,500,000
Celeron 500 + 64 32 128Kb 4 GB 7,500,000
Pentium 450-1,000 64 36 256Kb 64 GB 9,500,000
III
Pentium 500-1,000 64 32 256Kb- 64 GB 28,100,000
III Xeon 2Mb
Pentium 1,400 + 64 64 256Kb 64 GB 55,000,000
IV
Itanium 1,000 + 64 64 L3 - 4Mb 64 GB 25,000,000
Athlon 850-1,200 64 32 256Kb 4 GB 22,000,000
Athlon XP 1,600 + 64 64 384Kb 64 GB 37,500,000
Power PC 233-333 64 64 512Kb, 64 GB 6,500,000
G3 1Mb
Power PC 400 + 64 64 1Mb 64 GB 10,500,000
G4
 The A+ Hardware exam will delve into some of the details in this chart.
Things to take notice of is the Data Bus, Address Bus, and Addressable
Memory. You will probably be tested on these items.

BIOS

What is the BIOS?

The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is the chip that contains low
level software for configuring the system's capabilities and
communicating with the hardware. The BIOS previously was stored in
the ROM, though most present day computers have the BIOS stored in
EEPROM, an electronically erasable programmable ROM. The BIOS
communicates between the software and the hardware so fewer
conflicts present themselves.

BIOS Operation

When you first enter setup on a computer, you see many options for configuring your
computer. Typical options include the automatic detection of IDE drives, option to
enable/disable the processor cache, Plug’N’Play feature detection, password protection,
time/date settings, IRQ settings, and more.

Typically, the BIOS stores its configurations in the CMOS (Complementary Metal-
Oxide Semiconductor). The CMOS is powered by a small battery so it can retain its
settings after the power is turned off. The CMOS is usually not upgradeable, but the
battery used to power it is usually easily upgradeable.

Troubleshooting and the BIOS

Since the BIOS contains the low level software controlling the computer, you may need
to replace it in earlier PCs if you have to upgrade the hard drive.

If you continually lose your settings in between power cycles of your machine, your
CMOS battery may need to be replaced. This can be found on the motherboard and is
typically a standard battery you can get replaced at most computer shops or electronics
stores.

Example Screenshots of Different BIOSs (Click to open larger in a new window)

Memory

ROM

ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a form of non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory

keeps its contents even there is no power. Read-only memory is just that, read only, it
cannot be written to. The computer ROM contains the setup program and POST (Power
On Self Test) software.

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is a volatile type of memory which loses its information
when power is not present. RAM is where your software and data is stored when your
computer is on and you are actively using or accessing them.

There are many different types of RAM common in today’s PCs, though the different
types fit into one of these two categories:

DRAM – Dynamic RAM. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times a

second.

SRAM – Static RAM. Does not need to be refreshed like DRAM, which makes it faster.
More expensive than DRAM.

PROM

PROM (Programmable ROM) is a programmable type of ROM. It cannot be erased or

changed once it is recorded.

EPROM

Eraseable PROM can be erased using a UV light on a special window on the chip. This
chip can be reprogrammed.

EEPROM

Electronically Erased PROM can be erased using a special electrical charge. Chips can
then be reprogrammed after erased. Most modern day BIOSs are stored in EEPROM.

VRAM

Video RAM is used on video cards to display video to the monitor. VRAM is dual-
ported, it can be read from and written to at the same time from two different devices.
VRAM is a very fast type of memory used on most video cards.

WRAM
WRAM (Windows RAM) is a dual-ported type of memory - meaning you can read and
write to the RAM at the same time from different devices. It was developed to be an
extremely fast graphics RAM. The Windows in Windows RAM is the large "windows",
or chunks, of memory that can be written to or read from at a given time.

SGRAM

SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM) is synchronized with the system clock. Unlike
WRAM, SGRAM is single-ported. It syncs itself to the system clock and can run at
speeds up to 100 MHz. It is a type of DRAM.

RDRAM

RDRAM, or Rambus DRAM, is a type of DRAM developed by Rambus Inc. which

allows access to the memory at 800 MHz, breaking the current 100 MHz barrier.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is memory used to cache CPU instructions. L1 is cache memory that is
located on the CPU. L2 is cache memory located outside the CPU.

DIP

Dual Inline Package is an older RAM type used in older systems.

Memory Packages

DIPP

Dual In-line Pin Packages - mainly used in EEPROMs.

SIPP

Single In-line Pin Packages

SIMM

Single In-line Memory Modules. Typically found in older systems in 30 or 72 pin chips.
32-bit data path. Pentium processors require s 64-bit data path, so you need to install
SIMMs in pairs (e.g. 2 32MB SIMMs).

DIMM
Dual In-line Memory Modules. Most common type of system memory, usually 168 pin.
64-bit data path, can be installed in single chips.

SODIMM

Small Outline DIMM. A type of laptop or PDA memory, 144 pin.

RAM and Your Computer

DOS

RAM is broken up into DOS memory “sections.” The first 640 Kb of memory is
Conventional Memory, which is used to load DOS, run programs, and load drivers. DOS
is loaded in the first 64K of memory.

Above 640 Kb, but below 1024 Kb, is Upper Memory, also called Reserved Memory.
640 Kb – 768 Kb is Video RAM, 768 Kb – 960 Kb is for BIOS and RAM buffers, and
960 Kb – 1024 Kb is Motherboard BIOS.

Above 1024 Kb is Extended memory. High Memory Area (HMA) is the first 64 Kb of
Extended memory. Extended memory is mainly used by Windows programs.

Expanded memory is sometimes used by DOS programs and is available up to 32 MB. It

is swapper in 16 Kb pages (addresses in pages of 16 Kb).

In DOS, the [Link] program allows you to determine how memory is being used by
DOS. It has several switches, the important ones are highlighted here: /? the help switch,
/C the classify switch - gives a report of how memory is used, /D the debug switch -
details the first 640KB of memory, /F the free memory switch, shows all free memory
blocks in the first 640KB of memory, /M (module) the module switch, shows the starting
addresses of the data, program, and how much memory is allocated, and /P the pause
switch, displays the output one page at a time.

To use upper memory, you need to make sure the upper memory device driver,
[Link] is invoked in [Link] and DOS=UMB is there also.
DOS=HIGH loads DOS into HMA.

Device=[Link] is the extended memory device driver.

A Parity Error indicates a problem with RAM. Parity is a simple form of error checking
and is used to check RAM.

IRQs

IRQs (Interrupt Request) are a very important portion of this course as there
could be several questions on the exam in regards to this material. In addition,
understanding IRQs and what effect they have on your computer can help you
when troubleshooting problems in your career as an IT technician.

All CPUs perform tasks one at a time. When a device needs the attention of the
processor, it sends an interrupt request. Since the processor needs to know where the
request came from, we have the IRQ settings to minimize conflicts and allow multiple
devices to interrupt the CPU when needed.

Here is a chart of common IRQ settings; you should memorize these for the exam:

IRQ Device
0 Timer
1 Keyboard
2 Wired to IRQ 9
3 COM 2 (COM 4)
4 COM 1 (COM 3)
Available (often LPT2, sound cards,
5
or network cards)
6 Floppy Disk Controller
7 LPT1
8 Clock
9 Wired to IRQ 2
10 Unused
11 Unused
12 Mouse Port
13 Coprocessor
14 Hard Disk Controller
15 Unused

DMA

DMA, or Direct Memory Access, is also a very important topic to study and understand.
DMA channels allow devices to communicate directly with system memory without
involving the CPU allowing for more efficient (faster) transfer of data. Newer PCs no
longer require DMA, but older PCs may.

Hard drive controllers, NICs, and floppy disk controllers are three examples of devices
that may use DMA in older systems.

In most PCs, there are 8 DMA channels (number 0 – 7). Channels 4-7 are generally
available, while channel 0 is used to refresh DRAM, channel 1 is used by the hard disk
controller or sound card, and channel 2 is used by the floppy disk controller.

Common I/O Addresses

I/O Addresses are memory locations which provide an interface between the operating
system and an I/O device. This is an important area of study for the exam.

Address (Hex) Device

00-0F DMA Controller
20-21 Interrupt Controller
40-43 Timer
1F0-1F8 Hard Disk Controller
200-20F Joystick Controller
238-23B Bus Mouse
278-27F LPT2
2E8-2EF COM4 Serial Port
2F8-2FF COM2 Serial Port
300-30F Ethernet Card
330-33F MIDI Port
378-37F LPT1 Port
3E8-3EF COM3 Serial Port
3F0-3F7 Floppy Disk Controller
3F8-3FF COM1 Serial Port

It's important you study and memorize the memory addresses,

Cable Connections

DB-9

DB-9 is a standard connection for a COM cable (serial cable). Contains 9 pins.

DB-25

DB-25 is the other standard connection for Serial cables. Serial communications only use
9 of the available 25 pins.

Parallel (IEEE 1284)

A 25 pin connector on the computer side and a 36 pin connector on the printer side. Most
printers are moving to a standard Ethernet or USB connection.

RJ-11

RJ-11 is a standard telephone type connection. It is 4 or 6 wire and some

networking equipment has used RJ-11, though RJ-45 is more common.

RJ-45

RJ-45 is the most popular network cable/connection type. RJ-45 is similar to the RJ-11
type connector, though it has 8 wires.
 BNC

BNC is a type of network connection most commonly used in 10 Base 2

networks. BNC is primarily used with a coaxial cable.

PS2/MINI-DIN

PS2 is a standard developed by IBM for keyboards, mice, and input

devices. Uses a DIN connection with 6 pins.

USB

Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is the new standard for peripheral

connection to PCs. USB devices range from scanners to printers to
storage devices. Supports data transfer up to 12 mbps and each port
can support up to 127 devices.

IEEE 1394

IEEE 1394 is the standard for what is commonly referred to as

“Firewire”. Apple Computer coined the term when they began adding
Firewire ports to their Macintosh computers. MORE

IEEE 1394, or Firewire, is a high speed connector for data intensive applications such as
video editing or external storage devices.

Serial vs. Parallel

A serial cable is one which can only send data in one direction at a time. A parallel cable
sends data in both directions simultaneously.

Ports

Example Ports on a computer:

 LPT Printer Port VGA Port

Audio Connections Firewire (IEEE 1394)

Keyboard / Mouse Power

USB
SCSI

Com/Serial Port Modem Phone Line

BNC Network
Ethernet Port & Cable
A+ Certification: Part 3 - Hardware: Upgrades, Troubleshooting and Preventative
Maintenance

by Jeremy Reis on Friday, July 01, 2005

Course Overview

The A+ Hardware Service Technician exam will cover in detail the different hardware
components and peripheral components you may experience in a normal technician’s
daily job. Though you may have extensive experience with troubleshooting computer
problems or issues, there are many “details” that the exam covers which you may not
have experienced yet or may need to refresh your knowledge on.

This courses will give a detailed look into the upgrading, troubleshooting and
preventative maintenance of a computer system.
Throughout the exam you may see icons which indicate something you need to know for
the exam or something from the author's life experience:

When you see this icon, study the topic thoroughly, there is material in this
section with specific questions on the exam.

Indicates an example from the Author's experience in the IT world.

Course Outline

I. Introduction to the Upgrading, Troubleshooting, and Preventative Maintenance

Section 1

II. The Troubleshooting Process

III. POST

Section 1 Review

Section 2

IV. A MultiMeter

V. The Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter

Section 2 Review

Section 3

VI. Cleaning Compounds

VII. Power Problems

VIII. The UPS

Section 3 Review

Section 4

IX. Upgrading a PC

X. Upgrading Memory
XI. Upgrading the Hard Drive

XII. Upgrading the CPU

XIII. Upgrading the BIOS

XIV. Upgrading the Laptop Battery & Hard Drive

XV. Adding PCMCIA Cards

XVI. Adding a Docking Station

XVII. Upgrading Laptop Memory

Troubleshooting Issues and Problems

As an IT support person, you will need to work with customers throughout your career.
Most often, you will hear from your customers when something isn't working for them,
and often times, they can be irate. As we used to say, "They never call the cable company
when it's working."

Providing good customer service is extremely important in building a good relationship

with your customers. Unfortunately, your troubleshooting job requires getting
information from the customer who may not be in the frame of mind to provide it.

What problem are you experiencing?

First, you need to determine the user's problem in their own words. Though you may
know it is not as they are explaining it, allowing the customer to explain the problem will
help in the process of solving and calming them down.

One of the principles I learned in support was that the user was never at fault. Most often,
the problem occurred because of some action taken by the user, though when you are
discussing the issue with them, you need to keep the mindset that it is not their fault. This
helps prevent their egos from being hurt because of something they may have done.

My first job in IT support provided a great deal of experience and taught me a

lot about support. On my first day of work there, I arrived a few minutes
early. An employee in a different department came over and found me and
told me she had a problem. I was, of course, gung ho about solving my first
issue. She explained that her laptop would not turn on. I proceeded to plug the power
supply in for her. She was so embarrassed, I explained that it happens all the time and not
to worry!
Is it software or hardware related?

After you determine the user's problem and ask some questions to understand it,
determine at this point if it is a hardware or software issue. If it is a hardware issue, you
will either need to send a tech or look at it yourself. If it is a software issue, many of these
can be handled over the phone.

POST

POST, or Power On Self Test is your first source of troubleshooting a problem. POST
automatically runs when your computer is turned on and tests several components of your
PC.

The Processor – if the test fails for the CPU, the system stops usually with no error code.

ROMs – POST checks the BIOS ROMs. If there is a problem, the system will stop,
usually with no error code.

DMA Controller – if there are any problems with the DMA controller, the system will
stop.

Interrupt Controller – if POST detects problems with the Interrupt Controller the system
will give an audible error signal of one long beep then one short beep then the system
stops.

System Timing Chip – this chip provides timing signals for the bus and processor. Any
errors will produce an audible error signal of one long beep and one short beep then the
system stops.

Video Card – if the Video Card fails, there will be one long beep then two short beeps
then the system halts.

RAM – any RAM errors will generate a “201: Memory Error” message on the screen.
Any error codes beginning with 2 indicate a memory error.

Keyboard – a problem with the keyboard will result in a “301: Keyboard Failure” error
message followed by a short beep. System may halt or may ignore the error.

Floppy Drives – any problems will result in a “601: Floppy Disk” error code appearing
on the screen.

Other Devices – POST checks the other ports and components of the computer, beeps,
then continues. It also checks the Master Boot Record (MBR) on the hard drive. If it
cannot find the MBR, it will freeze and not continue loading, otherwise it hands control
over to the MBR (or DOS Boot Record (DBR) if it is booting from a floppy).
Summary of POST error codes:

Error Code Problem Description

1xx System Board problem
161 CMOS Battery Failure
164 Memory System Size error
2xx Memory related problem
3xx Keyboard problem
4xx Monochrome video problem
5xx Color video problems
6xx Floppy Disk problem
17xx Hard disk problem

What is a Multimeter?

A multimeter is a common device to measure voltages, resistance, and currents. The

CompTIA A+ Hardware Service Technician exam expects a basic knowledge of working
with a multimeter and how it functions.

Caution: Always use care when working around electronic components.

A multimeter combines a voltmeter, which measure voltage, a ohmmeter

The Ammeter

An Ammeter measures current through a circuit. Since it measures the current, the
ammeter should not interfere with the circuit, therefore it requires low resistance. In
order to measure the current, the ammeter must be part of the circuit, therefore you must
"break" the circuit so the ammeter can run in series with the circuit.

The Voltmeter

A Voltmeter is used to measure voltage, or potential difference in a circuit. A voltmeter

runs in parallel with the circuit, the circuit does not need to be broken for a voltmeter.
The voltmeter requires high resistance. The voltmeter is providing a parallel pathway,
this is why a high resistance is required.

The Ohmmeter
An Ohmmeter measures resistance. In order to measure resistance, the circuit must not
have a power supply connected. The ohmmeter functions by passing a small amount of
current through the circuit and measuring the voltage.

Cleaning Compounds

Another important area of understanding in preventative maintenance are the cleaning

compounds you use. Over time, computers may get dusty and dirty and require cleaning,
you must use only approved cleaning compounds around computers.

Cleaning products based on Isopropyl Alcohol are generally safe and you should always
use lint free cleaning fabrics.

Cleaning the Interior of a PC

In addition, when cleaning the inside of computers, you must only use compressed air or
approved PC cleaning vacuums. Use of other devices may cause damage to the chips in a
computer.

When you do clean the interior of a PC, you should always clean out the power supply
and any dust accumulated on the motherboard.

When you are complete with your cleaning, be sure to check any cables as the may
unseat during cleaning.

Power

There are several classifications of power problems you may experience with the normal
A/C power.

Surges: a surge, also called a spike, is a very brief change in voltage

Sags: a brief dip in available voltage (similar to a very short brown-out)

Brownout: a sag which is there for an extended period of time. With a brown-out, you
still have power coming through, just not the normal amount

Blackout: complete loss of power

UPS

A UPS, an Uninterruptible Power Supply, is a battery backed up unit which provides

continuous power (for a short period of time) in case of a brownout, sag, or blackout.
There are two classifications of UPS: online and offline. An online UPS is one which
supplies power from its battery and recharges from the incoming power. An offline unit
switches to battery power when power loss is sensed.

An online UPS protects the machine more by providing a steady voltage.

Things to Consider About UPSs

UPSs are very useful devices though there are several elements you need to consider
when purchasing or installing them.

The cost is an important issue to consider. For a workstation, a simple 10-20 minute UPS
can range from $50 - 150. For a machine which requires a significant amount of power
(e.g. a server or a whole rack of servers) the costs can go up significantly.

One other important thing to consider with a no-failure environment is more than one
UPS combined with a generator. At one position I held, we had a server room with
around 25 servers. Each server had dual power supplies which were balanced between
different industrial strength surge protectors. The surge protectors were balanced between
two large online UPSs. These UPSs were designed to provide power to the server room
for about an hour without failure. With this balanced approach, if one power supply, one
surge protector, or one UPS failed, the server could still function.

One other consideration for server room battery backups - don't forget to provide UPS
units for the network hardware! I have seen enterprises setup an exquisite battery backup
system for the servers to keep them up in case of power failure but fail to support their
switches. When a power loss would occur, the employees would lose network access,
thus oftentimes losing what they were working on.

Upgrading a PC

There are many reasons you would consider upgrading a PC or components within a PC.
With processor speeds increasing daily, upgrading an older system with a new CPU is an
inexpensive way to have an up-to-date system without the cost of purchasing an entirely
new computer.

The best bang for the buck in upgrades is in memory. Upgrading the memory on a
machine with a low amount increases the perceived speed significantly.

You may also need to upgrade the storage on a machine, add new ports, or add new
peripherals.

Upgrading a PC
There are many reasons you would consider upgrading a PC or components within a PC.
With processor speeds increasing daily, upgrading an older system with a new CPU is an
inexpensive way to have an up-to-date system without the cost of purchasing an entirely
new computer.

The best bang for the buck in upgrades is in memory. Upgrading the memory on a
machine with a low amount increases the perceived speed significantly.

You may also need to upgrade the storage on a machine, add new ports, or add new
peripherals.

Upgrading Memory

Upgrading the memory on a PC is a fairly simple task. You first have to determine what
kind of memory your motherboard supports. If you are using SIMMs, you will need to
replace memory in pairs of sets of four. If you are using DIMMs, you can replace the
memory a chip at a time.

Once you have determined the type of memory and purchased it, you will need to power
down the machine and open the case to your computer.

Remember to use caution with static electricity and wear a wrist strap whenever working
on a PC.

Remove any memory if all of the slots are full. Open the two side latches which hold the
memory secure and press the RAM chip firmly into its socket. Memory chips are all
designed to fit in only one direction so you have no fear of putting the wrong side in.
Once the memory is in the slot, close the two latches.

Power on the PC. Your BIOS setup program will probably recognize the new memory
automatically and reboot to save the changes. Once the changes are saved by the BIOS,
your upgrade is complete!

Upgrading the Hard Drive

With the ever expanding amount of software and data being generated, adding an
additional hard drive or replacing the hard drive is a common upgrade in computer
systems.

Adding a Hard Drive

Adding an additional hard drive takes a little more advanced knowledge than upgrading
the memory, though the task isn’t too difficult.
Many retail hard drive upgrade kits contain easy to use instructions and procedures to
help the common person upgrade their computer. With your understanding of computer
systems, adding an additional hard drive will be easy.

To add an additional hard drive, you will need to power down your machine, remove the
power cord, and open the case. Remember to use a wrist strap to ground yourself prior to
working inside the computer.

Locate an empty hard drive bay in the case and mount the hard drive into the case. If you
current hard drive has an EIDE cable, check to see if it has an additional open port for the
new HD. If the cable is a single port variety, you will need to install an EIDE cable which
has two ports.

Check the setting on the first hard drive and see if it is set to Master or Cable Select. If it
is not yet set, set it now. Set the new hard drive as the Slave and plug the IDE cable into
it. In addition, find an available power cord and plug it into the hard drive. Typically, the
power cable has a white connector with five small holes in it.

Close the case and plug the computer back in. When the computer starts booting, it may
detect the new hard drive or you may need to set it up in the BIOS.

Next, load your operating system and perform a high level format on the drive (or
partition it if needed).

Upgrading the Existing Hard Drive

Upgrading an existing hard drive is similar to the process for adding a hard drive except
that you will need to replace the hard drive in the steps above. If it is the primary hard
drive on the system, you will either need to backup your previous hard drive and restore
the data into the new HD, or reinstall your operating system on the replacement HD.

Upgrading a CPU

There are two main types of upgradeable sockets, ZIF and LIF, Zero Insertion Force and
Low Insertion Force.

There are several things you need to keep in mind when upgrading a CPU. A CPU is only
as fast as the bus on the motherboard and you should keep this in mind. You can upgrade
a CPU but if the bus speed on the motherboard is not fast enough, you will not gain the
speed increase you are looking for.

Also, one of the other important things to keep in mind when wishing to upgrade the
CPU is the socket type on the motherboard. There are many different sizes of slots on the
motherboard for the chip to fit into, you can see the socket sizes in the CPU section of the
System Architecture course.
Upgrading the BIOS

When you need to upgrade the HD or other peripherals, your BIOS may be out of date
and need upgraded as well.

Newer BIOSs have upgradeable EEPROMs so they can be upgraded without replacing
the actual chip.

Upgrading a Laptop Battery

Laptop or notebook computers usually come with around a 2-3 hour battery and your
requirements may demand a higher capacity battery. Many notebook manufacturers sell
extended life batteries to replace your primary battery or an extended battery which fits in
one of the laptop expansion slots.

Upgrading a Laptop Hard Drive

Typically, a notebook computer has only one hard drive slot containing a 2.5” EIDE
drive. You can either upgrade this hard drive, or there are some other choices in
upgrading your storage space.

An alternative is to purchase a hard drive adapter for your expansion bay, if your
computer has one. Or, alternatively, you can purchase a Type III PCMCIA hard drive
which occupies two Type II PCMCIA expansion slots.

Additionally, you may be able to purchase an external portable hard drive which operates
off your USB, Firewire, or Parallel ports.

Adding Additional PCMCIA Cards

A typical laptop has two Type II PCMCIA slots, though on most sub-notebooks, there is
only one slot available.

There is a wide range of devices available which fit the Type II PCMCIA slots such as
IEEE1394 expansion cards, Type III hard drives, NIC cards, cellular modems, GPS units,
and more.

Adding these devices is relatively simple. PCMCIA cards are hot swappable so you can
add a device while the computer is turned on (though my experience has been to add a
new card before the computer comes on, makes installation and discovery easier).

Adding a Docking Station

A docking station allows your laptop to replicate its ports so you can leave the network,
an external monitor, keyboard, mouse, expansion cards, etc. plugged in and just remove
and insert your laptop or notebook computer as needed.
Expanding Laptop Memory

Typically, laptop memory is a bit more expensive than desktop memory and you are
more limited in the number of memory chips you can fit on the notebook motherboard.

Typically, laptops either have a access panel which can be unscrewed to add additional
(or replace) memory, or it is accessible under the keyboard. On Compaq Armada
notebook computers, there are several tabs you slide down to open the keyboard and
insert the memory under the keyboard.

Basic Types of Printers

In your career as an IT technician, you will troubleshoot and work with a variety of
printers: laser printers, inkjet printers, dot matrix printers, label printers, plotters, photo
printers. Luckily, the troubleshooting techniques and issues are similar among many
varieties of printers, allowing you to transfer your knowledge of printers from one brand
to another, and often from one type to another.

DPI

One of the common indicators of a printer’s print quality is the DPI the printer prints at.
DPI is an acronym for Dots Per Inch.

The quality of the print is represented by how many dots per inch across the page and
how many dots per inch down the pager.

For example, in a recent ad I saw for Canon S300 inkjet printer, the resolution for black
ink was 600 x 600 DPI, while the resolution for color was 2400 x 1200 DPI. As the
printhead travels across the page, its best resolution is printing up to 600 dots of black ink
per inch and 2400 dots of color ink per inch.

Laser Printers

In most office environments, laser printers have become the most common type of
printer. A laser printer (also called a “page” printer) receives its print information a page
at a time and prints using a combination of lasers, electrostatic charges, and toner.

Parts

The laser printer has several parts which make up a significant portion of its operation:
toner cartridge, laser scanning assembly, high voltage power supply, DC power supply,
paper transport assembly, transfer corona assembly, fusing assembly, formatter board.

The toner cartridge holds the toner which is what is “printed” onto the page. Toner is
sensitive to the electrostatic charges. The toner cartridge also contains the print drum,
charge corona wire, and the cleaning blade. The print drum has a photosensitive material
on it which holds static charge when it is not exposed to light. The charge corona wire
charges the drum, while the cleaning blade does exactly what the name suggests, it cleans
the used toner off the drum.

The laser scanning assembly holds the laser which shines its light on certain parts of the
printer drum. The electrical charge is reduced and the toner attaches itself to the drum
where the laser has shined.

The high voltage power supply takes 120 V AC and converts it to higher voltages for
the charge corona wire and transfer corona wire. The DC power supply products +5 Volts
DC, -5 Volts DC, and +24 Volt DC from household current.

The paper transport assembly moves the paper through the printer. It is a series of
motors and rollers to move the paper.

The transfer corona assembly charge the paper with a positive charge as it moves
through the printer. Once charged, it picks up the toner from the photosensitive drum.

The fusing assembly (also known as the “fuser”) applies pressure and heat to the paper
to seal the toner particles to the paper. In the process of fusing, there is a halogen lamp
which heats up to about 350 degrees F.

The formatter board is the circuit board that controls everything that is going on in the
printer. It formats the information then tells the different modules to function together to
get the printer page across.

Laser Printing Process

Once a laser printer receives the print information from the PC (or sometimes from a file
server), it goes through a certain process in order to print:

1. Cleaning
2. Conditioning
3. Writing
4. Developing
5. Transferring
6. Fusing

This process is important to learn and understand as there is guaranteed to be a question

regarding this information on the exam:

1. Cleaning – the EP drum is cleaned with a rubber blade.

2. Conditioning – the EP drum is given a negative charge of about -600 Volts by the
primary corona wire.
3. Writing – a laser beam writes to the EP Drum. This laser causes portions of the drum
to become almost positively charged.

4. Developing – toner is applied to the drum by the particles being transferred to the areas
of positive charge.

5. Transferring - the Transfer Corona wire charges the paper with a positive charge, the
EP drum turns the paper as it runs beneath.

6. Fusing – the paper runs through the Fusing Assembly which is heated to 350 degrees
F. The toner is fused onto the paper.

This printing process will be in one or more questions on the exam.

Memorize it!

Preventative Maintenance

The purpose of preventative maintenance on a laser printer is to prevent potential

problems from appearing. There are several things you can do in preventative
maintenance.

The ozone filter should be replaced during maintenance.

The rollers inside the printer may need to be cleaned/replaced. There are roller
replacement kits available for most major brands of printers. The replacement roller kits
should be replaced by a professional with experience in laser printers.

Always fan paper before inserting it into the printer tray. This allows separation of the
individual sheets of paper to decrease chances of a paper jam from the paper tray.

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are a very common type of printer because of their low cost and color
capabilities.

Inkjet printers functioning by spraying ink onto paper to form the letters and graphics.
The inkjet printer has an ink cartridge (or sometimes several ink cartridges) which
contain several chambers of ink. When the ink runs out, you must replace the ink
cartridge. It is not recommended you refill ink cartridges.
Most common inkjet printers today are bubblejet printers, a spin-off from the original
inkjet printers. Since the term inkjet is in much more common use, the printers are still
referred to as “inkjet” printers.

The original inkjet printers used a pump and ink nozzles to “spray” ink onto the page.
Bubblejet printers use a special ink cartridge which has a tiny pinhole in the bottom.
When the printer needs a certain color ink, it sends an electronic signal to a heater
element near that color. It heats the ink up near vapor and as the ink expands, it sends a
drop out the pinhole in the bottom which the print head applies to the page as it passes.

You may have noticed in inspecting a inkjet printer that the printhead always “rests” in
the same location when not in use, and commonly goes through some iterations prior to
printing. When it moves out of the print range and rests, it rests on a specially designed
pad to soak up any excess ink and keep the printhead always ready to print. The iterations
you hear it performing prior to printing are related to cleaning to ensure the printhead is
clean prior to applying ink to a pa

Dot Matrix Printers

The major category of printers you will need to be aware of for the A+ Hardware exam
are dot matrix printers. Dot Matrix printers are a form of impact printer. The printhead in
a dot matrix printer is a series of pins which form numbers, letters, and graphics as it
passes over the paper. In early Dot Matrix printers, 9-pin was a common size of the
printhead. This was referred to as a “draft quality printer.” Later versions, such as the 24-
pin printhead, print in near letter quality (NLQ) print mode.

A dot matrix printer works by striking pins inside the printhead against a ribbon as it
passes in front of the paper. These pins form letters, numbers, other characters, and
graphics.

Things You Need to Know

During preventative maintenance, never lubricate the printhead of the printer.

A tight ribbon could be the cause for flecks and smudges on the paper.

A missing or broken printhead pin could cause incomplete printing.

If the print density is erratic, there can be a problem in the advancement of the printer
ribbon.

What is a network?

When more than two computers are linked together it forms a network. There are three
types of networks: Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), and
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
The most common two types of network you will come in contact with are the LANs and
the WANs. A Local Area Network is one which is confined to a small general geographic
area. A Wide Area Network is one which spreads over a large area.

For example, your company’s office may have a LAN installed in your building. This is
the network which all of your computers and peripherals are installed on. It may then
connect to a WAN which comprises all of your satellite offices around the world.

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network which is comprised in one geographic

metropolitan area. For example, a city may have setup a MAN for its networking
requirements.

There are generally two different broad types of networks, the peer-to-peer network and
the server-based network.

A peer-to-peer network consists of a series of workstations (desktop or laptop PCs)

connected together with no central file or user management server. This is a common
form of network in small offices. A common sign that you have a peer-to-peer network is
that the individual computers share files and printers themselves and each user logs in
locally to their computer. Commonly, a peer-to-peer network will use an operating
system such as Windows 95, 98, ME, though it can be setup with other operating systems
such as Windows 2000, Windows NT, Linux, or MacOS.

A file-server based network is one which has a central server at its core. A file-server
network, when configured properly, has advantages over peer-to-peer networks including
security and central management.

Protocols

Networks communicate using protocols. A protocol is simple a method for the network to
communicate, a way where all devices can talk the same “language”. TCP is an example
of a protocol.

There are a couple of protocols you should be aware of for the exam:

TCP/IP: The most common communication protocol for networking. Acronym stands
for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

Appletalk: A Macintosh standard protocol for communicating over networks. Often used
in small Apple computer based networks, most news Macs just use TCP/IP.

IPX/SPX: Novell Netware used to be the standard for network servers and as such
IPX/SPX, their proprietary protocol, was the dominant networking protocol in the late
80s and early 90s. Eventually, Novell was forced into using TCP/IP for their standard like
everyone else.
Network Cables

There are three main types of network cabling: twisted-pair, coaxial, fiber optic. In
addition, there is wireless networking.

Twisted-Pair

Twisted-pair, commonly called CAT5, is the least expensive and most popular type of
network cabling. It is several pairs of copper wires twisted around each other in an
insulated covering. 10BaseT networks primarily use twisted-pair cabling.

Coaxial Cabling

Coaxial cabling consists of a copper wire surrounded by insulation and a foil shield. It is
often used for 10Base2 cabling. Coaxial cable is the same cabling you see used for
“cable” TV.

Fiber Optic

Fiber optic cabling is designed to transfer data at very high rates and over large distances.
It carries a light pulse through a glass core at speeds of 100 Mbps - 1 Gbps.

Wireless Networks

Wireless networks consist of several different types of transmission medium. It can use
microwave, radio, infrared light, or lasers.

The most common types of wireless networks you will encounter are the 802.11b and
802.11a types of networks. 802.11 is a standard of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, a standards setting body. 802.11a sets standard for 54 Mbps
wireless networks in the 5 GHz range and 802.11b sets the standard for 11 Mbps wireless
networks in the 2.4 GHz range (also known as WiFi). 802.11 sets the standard for 1 or 2
Mbps wireless networks operating in the 2.4 GHz range.
Other Types of Networks

Though you will probably not see this on the exam, it is good to know there are other
types of network cables out there, mostly for the home arena. There are many
inexpensive cabling solutions which rely on telephone wire or some which rely on the
power lines inside your home. Though most businesses would not use these types of
solutions, some homeowners are turning to them for inexpensive methods of networking
computers together in their homes.

Network Equipment

There are several different pieces of network equipment that you should be aware of.
At each workstation, there is a network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a device which
allows that workstation (or node) to connect to a network. There are many different types
of network cards, though the most common is a 10BaseT Ethernet NIC.

Between each node, or between the nodes and central connecting device, there is the
cable. The cable acts as the medium in which all of the data transfer occurs.

On most networks, there is a device which directs the traffic on the network. There are
two devices which perform this functionality, a switch and a hub. A switch is a device
which receives the packets of information and directs them to their destination. A switch
does not share bandwidth between devices. A hub also directs traffic between devices,
but it shares the packets of information with every port on the hub. The primary
difference between a hub and a switch is that the packets are sent to every port (shared
bandwidth) on a hub, while a switch directs the packets to the proper ports. A switch is
preferred in most environments.

A gateway is a device which resides at the entry/exit point of a network to join to types
of networks together.

A server can also exist on the network which is a central repository for information, user
accounts, printer information, files, or any combination of these items. A server can
simply be another workstation designated as a server with server software or it can be a
full-blown server costing thousands of dollars with redundancy and more robust features
than most PCs.

Types of Network Cards

There are two types of networking cards you should be aware of for the exam, though
there are additional networking devices which we will cover in this tutorial for your
general knowledge, though probably will not be on the exam.

Desktop/Workstation NIC Cards

The most common type of Network Interface Card (NIC) is the kind which works in a
standard desktop or workstation. Typically, this card is a PCI based card which transmits
at 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps. This type of card fits into one of the open slots on the
motherboard of the PC.

Most major brand business computers (and a lot of home computers) now come standard
with an Ethernet port. This port is the same that was contained on the former PCI cards,
though the circuitry now simply resides on the motherboard of the PC.

Needless to say, each PC must contain a NIC card in order to participate on the network.
In addition, each PC must contain the software it requires to communicate with the
network.
PC Card NICs (PCMCIA)

When a laptop PC does not have a “built-in” network interface, you need to use a
PCMCIA NIC to communicate on the network. These interfaces typically take up one
PCMCIA slot on the computer.

Laptops with a built-in network interface have the circuitry built into the motherboard or
a “daughterboard”. Confusing, a lot of the major manufacturers use built-in Ethernet
ports which drivers say that are PCI Ethernet cards. Your typical PCI slot would contain a
card too large for a laptop, though the PCI circuitry can be utilized anywhere.

Other Types of Network Connection Devices

There are a broad range of other devices which can connect you to the network. Most of
these are either USB or Firewire based solutions.

Connection via RS232

It is possible to network two machines together via RS232, the serial port. Typically, you
would use special software and a null modem cable to accomplish this. Due to speed, this
is not a preferred method of networking.

Duplex

Full Duplex

Full Duplex is a type of communication which can send data both directions
simultaneously. For example, on a full duplex network one workstation can be sending
data while another is receiving data at the same time.

Half Duplex

Half Duplex is a type of communication which can send data both directions, but not at
the same time. For example, a workstation can send data and then immediately receive
data, but cannot transmit and receive simultaneously.

Network Topologies

The topography of a network is the physical arrangement of elements in a network.

Bus Topology

A type of network where all of the nodes (connected devices) are connected via the same
bus. In the bus topology, all of the nodes are connected via the same cable as each other.
Also known as linear topology.
Fully Connected Topology

In a fully connected topology, all of the nodes have a direct connection to each other.

Hybrid Topology

Two or more types of networks connected together.

Mesh Topology

Network type where there are two nodes with two or more paths between them.

Ring Topology

A type of network where each node has two connections to it.

Star Topology

A network topology in which all of the nodes communicate with a central node which
passes communication throughout the network. If one node on the network loses its
connection to the central node, that node cannot communicate with the network.

Most Common Topology

The most common type of network topology is the hybrid topology, a combination of two
or more types of topologies.

Increasing Bandwidth

Upgrading from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps

One of the most cost effective ways to upgrade network bandwidth within a local area
network is to upgrade the nodes and networking devices to 100 Mbps.

Typically, a company builds a 10BaseT Ethernet network inside a building with CAT5
cabling. Each networking card inside each workstation operates at 10 Mbps or 10/100 (10
Mbps or 100 Mbps).

In a medium to large network, you will have several switches or hubs on the network to
direct traffic. These switches or hubs run at a given speed, usually either 10 Mbps or
10/100 Mbps. Upgrading these to 10/100 switches or hubs and upgrading the network
cards to 10/100 will allow those clients to run at 100 Mbps.

Network Problems/Degradation
A network collision is when two streams of data from two devices on an Ethernet
network are transmitted at the same time and collide. The network detects the collision
and discards both packets of data and request new ones from the source. A collision is a
natural occurrence on Ethernet networks. Too many collisions and your network
bandwidth degrades as requests for new packets and more collisions take their toll.

With managed switches, you can view how many collisions are occurring on the switch.
With millions of packets transmitted an hour on busy networks, you can easily notice a
trend if you collision rate starts climbing. Too many collisions can be a sign of a bad
device or card connected to the network.

Network Chatter

Network chatter is a non-technical term for the traffic on your network which is
discovery or traffic which may not seem to serve much of a purpose. Certain servers or
devices may seem to “chatter” constantly, sending out packets but for no real purpose.

For example, I worked at a company which had about 30 file servers on the
network. Out of the 30, all but one were Windows NT or 2000, the remaining
one was a Netware 4.10 server. The Netware server caused so much “chatter”
on the network that when we would remove it, our network traffic would drop
50%. Netware servers sometimes have the tendency to send out unneeded packets to
clients other than their own as a method of discovery or communication.