Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 1

Complex power

Consider the phasors V and I for voltage and current. These

are represented by the complex numbers:
Ir
V
φ
j 0D
Ix
Ix
j0D
V = V e
V= Ve
I − jφ
I= Ie j
I = I e
− φ

Ir

We can now define, as a

complex number, the quantity: S = V ⋅I *

This is the definition of “complex power”!!

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 2

Complex, real and reactive power

j 0D
V = V e
From... ..and... S = V ⋅I *
− jφ
I = I e
jφ
S=V Ie
We get: S = V I cos φ + j V I sin φ

and finally: S = P + jQ
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 Complex power,
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 3

impedance and admittance

With the concept complex power we can expand our
model of circuit impedance and admittance in an AC
circuit:
From: I =
V
= VY ..and... S =V I*
Z
2 2
V I
…we get: S = S =
Z* Y
2 2
…in particular: S =Z I S = Y *V
2 2 2
S = ( R + jX ) I P=RI Q=X I
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 4

Phasors (vectors) and complex power

Voltage or
Im current phasor
Note: The projection of a
revolving current and/or
voltage complex phasor (also
called vector) on the Re axis
represents the instantaneous
Re
values of the current and/or
Projection of a vector
on the Re-axis
voltage

This does not apply to

complex power vectors
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 5

Reactive power in a resistance

V V
I= =
Circuit: Phasors: Z R
I V
+
φ= 0° I 2
V Z=R V ⋅V V *
S =V ⋅I = *
=
R R
-

2
V A resistance neither
Therefore: P=
R generates or consumes
Q=0 reactive power
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 6

The inductor as a consumer of reactive power

V V V
I= = =−j
Circuit: Phasors: Z jω L ωL
I V
+
φ= 2
V Z=jωL 90° V ⋅V V *
I S =V ⋅I = j *
= j
ωL ωL
-

V
2
Q is positive ⇒
Therefore: Q= Inductance
ωL
consumes
P=0 reactive power
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 7

The capacitor as a generator of reactive power

Circuit: Phasors:
I V
+ I I = = jω CV
Z
1
V Z= φ= -90° V
jω C S = V ⋅ I * = V ⋅ (− jω C ⋅ V * )
- 2
= − jω C V
Negative consumption =
generation Q is negative ⇒
2 Capacitance
Q = −ω C V generates
P=0 reactive power
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 8

Load and real/reactive power

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 9

Reactive Power
• Reactive power is supplied by
– generators
– capacitors
– transmission lines
– loads
• Reactive power is consumed by
– loads
– transmission lines and transformers (very high losses

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 10

Reactive Power
• Reactive power doesn’t travel well - must be supplied
locally.
• Reactive power must also satisfy Kirchhoff’s law - total
reactive power into a bus MUST be zero.

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 11

3 phase power systems

(line to line/phase voltages/currents, 3
phase power, star/delta connections, 3
phase 3 wire/4 wire)

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 Advantages of three phase. Why 3 phases
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 12

systems?

• Smooth flow of power (instantaneous power is a constant).

Constant torque (reduced vibrations)
• The power delivery capacity is tripled (increased by 200%!)
by increasing the number of conductors from 2 to 3
(increase by 50%)
• Reduced cost (same power less wire or more power same
wire)
• Greater "power per kg" in motors, generators, and
transformers.

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 3 separate identical
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 13

and simple 1 phase systems

+ Va Ia Z

- +Vb Ib Z

+ Vc Ic Z
-
-
6 conductors!

Generation Transmission Load

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 Symmetrical voltages will lead to
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 14

symmetrical currents
Identical impedances!
Voltage phasors +
Vaf Ia Z Current phasors
Vbf
+ Ib Z
-
V cf Vcf Ic Z Ic
-
+
-

V af I
a

With a zero total current, the 3

Ib
V bf return conductors are not needed
for a symmetrical power system The angle
If the system is between
symmetric, the total voltage and
current = 0 I = I a + Ib + Ic = 0 current
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 15

A 3 phase 3 wire system

+ Va Ia Z

- +Vb Ib Z

+ Vc Ic Z
-
-

Both neutrals may or may not

be grounded
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 A 3 phase 4 wire system
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 16

(with ground wire)

+ Va Ia Z

- +Vb Ib Z

+ Vc Ic Z
-
-

Ground wire

Both neutrals may or may not

be grounded
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 A 2 phase 3 wire system
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 17

(with ground wire)

+v a ia Z

- +v b ib Z

- Ground wire

va (t ) = 2 V cos(ωt ) ia (t ) = 2 I cos(ωt − φ )
π π
vb (t ) = 2 V cos(ωt − ) ib (t ) = 2 I cos(ωt − φ − )
2 2

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 18

A 1 phase system with 2 wires

z = r + jω L 2
1
ia ZL/2
+ +
v1 (t ) = 2 V1 cos(ωt ) V2

– – ZL/2
-i a z = r + jω L

25 km
The system is balanced against the earth

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 19

How are the 3 phases labelled?

•North America: a, b, c
•Europe: (old) R,S,T
•Europe: (new) L1, L2, L3

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 20

Symmetrical 3 phase systems

• 3 phase voltages and currents are defined as being

symmetric if….
– All three phasors are of equal length
– A phase difference of 120° is between phases
• A 3 phase system is defined as being symmetric or
balanced, if...
– All voltages and currents are symmetric
– Impedances in all 3 phases are identical

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 Symmetrical phase and
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 21

line to line voltages

Line to line voltage = voltage 1. All three phase

voltages are of
between phases : V L
V cf equal length

2. All three line to line

voltages are of equal
N V af length
“neutral”
Phase voltage: V f 3. The phase
difference is in both
cases 1/3 of 360º or
V bf 120º
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 22

Symmetry in a 3 phase system

1. All three phase voltages are

of equal length

2. All three line to line voltages are of

equal length
3. The phase difference is in both
cases 1/3 of 360º or 120º
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 23

Line to line voltage - phase voltage

• Line to line voltage (VL): Voltage
between phases
• Phase voltage (Vf also called Vp ):
Voltage from phase to neutral

x
A triangle with
120° top angle: VL
V f = (V p ) =
x 3
3
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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 24

Voltage in 3 phase systems

• When we talk about a system
voltage in a 3 phase power
system (such as 220 kV or 400
V ), we always mean the RMS
value of the voltage between
phases (or the line to line
voltage, VL )

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 25
3 different representation of symmetrical 3 phase
quantities :

Voltage or current
Wave-
Formulas:
forms:
va (t ) = 2 V sin(ω t )
b- Phase
time vb (t ) = 2 V sin (ω t −120°)
vc (t ) = 2 V sin (ω t + 120°)
a- Phase
c- Phase

c-Phase Im ia (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t − φ )
ib (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t −120° − φ )
Vectors: a-Phase Re
ic (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t + 120° − φ )

b-Phase

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 26
Instantaneous power
in a 3 phase system

3 phase voltage: 3-phase current:

va (t ) = 2 V sin(ω t ) ia (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t − φ )
vb (t ) = 2 V sin (ω t − 120°) ib (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t −120° − φ )
vc (t ) = 2 V sin (ω t + 120°) ic (t ) = 2 I sin(ω t + 120° − φ )

From the above formulas, we get the total instantaneous power:

p3 phase (t ) = va (t )ia (t ) + vb (t )ib (t ) + vc (t )ic (t )

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 Instantaneous power
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 27

in a 3 phase system(2)

p3 phase (t ) = va (t )ia (t ) + vb (t )ib (t ) + vc (t )ic (t )

By inserting the formulas, we get:

= 2 I V [ sin(ω t ) sin(ω t − φ )
+ sin(ω t − 120°) sin(ω t −120° − φ )
+ sin(ω t + 120°) sin(ω t + 120° − φ ) ]

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 Instantaneous total power
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 28

in a 3 phase system(3)
Use the following trigonometric identities to simplify:
1
sin x sin y = [ cos( x − y ) − cos( x + y ) ]
2

cos( x) + cos( x −120°) + cos( x + 120°) = 0

And we get finally the following formula

p3 phase (t ) = 3 I ⋅ V cos φ = 3 ⋅ P1 phase

P1 phase = I ⋅ V cos φ

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 29

Total 3 phase power

• Therefore, the total instantaneous power in all 3 phases is
constant - or - 3 times the real power in each phase
• The power oscillates in each phase (although the sum of
power in the phases is constant)
• No reactive power appears in the formula!!
• Reactive power is, however, very much present in each
individual phase

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 A mechanical analogy with a 3 phase
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 30

hydraulic generator

The total power delivery in a

three phase system is smooth!

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 A mechanical analogy with a 1 phase
Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 31

hydraulic generator

The power delivery in a one phase system is bumpy!

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 32

Substation layout

Source: Lakervi & Holmes

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 33

Substation equipment

Íslenska ENGLISH
Skinnur Busbar
Rafali Generator
Spennir Two-wdg transformer
Háspennulína Power line
Aflrofi Circuit breaker
Skilrofi Disconnector
Eldingavari Surge arrester
Straummælispennir Current transformer
Spennumælispennir Potential transformer

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 34

Substation layout

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Lecture #2
2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 35

230/69 kV Substation
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Circuit breaker, Disconnect,Current transformer

Bus bar

Current CT
Disconnect Circuit Disconnect
breaker

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 37
Gas insulated 245 kV switchgear in a switchyard in
Burfell

23-Sep-11 Source: [Link]

Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 38

Burfell station switchyards

Newer indoor
switchyard

Old outdoor
switchyard

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 39

Problems with outdoor switchyards?

A new house
for an indoor
switchyard at
the Burfell
power station

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 40

Búrfell – Gas insulated switchgear

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 41

Indoor switchyards

Switchyards in a power station

are based on conducting
elements in gas insulated
chambers. The gas is SF6, which
has especially good insulation

SF6 molecule

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 42

Substation Brennimelur

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 43

Disconnector switches/ Isolators

• Interrupts small current

– Load current
Scandinavia USA
• Visible interruption
Open Closed
• Very manual control
Open Closed

Source: Nicklasson

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 44

Circuit breakers

Iceland USA

Open Closed

• Interrupts large current

– Several kA
– Short-circuit current
– Hidden contacts
Source: Nicklasson
• Control
– Protection systems
– Manual remote

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 45

Current transformer

• Reduces current
– Typically 1000/2 A
• Current monitored
– Control center
Source: Nicklasson
– Protection equipment
– P, Q transducers

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 46

Voltage/potential transformer

• Reduces voltage
– Typically x kV/110 V
• Voltage monitored
– Control center
– Protection equipment
Source: Nicklasson

– P, Q transducers
• C voltage divider

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 47

Surge / lightning arrester

• Overvoltage trap
• Alternative to air gap
• Short-circuit to ground

Source: Nicklasson

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson 48

References
• E. Lakervi, E.J. Holmes: Electricity
Distribution Network Design Peter
Peregrinus 1995, 2nd Ed
• [Link]

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Examples
Example 1

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Examples
Example 1 –
solution

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Example 2

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Example 2 -solution

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Example 3 (ands solution)

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Example 4

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Lecture #2 Power Engineering - Egill Benedikt Hreinsson

Example 4 - solution

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