1.

0 AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

1.1 Introduction
The Automatic Generation Control (AGC) system is a set of equipment and computer programs
that applies closed loop feedback control strategy to generate and deliver power in an
interconnected system as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the voltage and
frequency within permissible limits.

Changes in real power affect mainly the system frequency, while reactive power is less sensitive
to changes in frequency and is mainly dependent on changes in voltage magnitude. Thus, real and
reactive powers are controlled separately. The load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the real
power and frequency and the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive power
and voltage magnitude. Load frequency control (LFC) has gained in importance with the growth
of interconnected systems and has made the operation of interconnected systems possible. Today,
it is still the basis of many advanced concepts for the control of large systems.

1.2 Basic Generator Control Loops

In an interconnected power system, load frequency control (LFC) and automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) equipment are installed for each generator. Figure 1.1 represents the schematic diagram of
the load frequency control (LFC) loop and the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop.

Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator

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The controllers are set for a particular operating condition and take care of small changes in load
demand to maintain the frequency and voltage magnitude within the specified limits. Small
changes in real power are mainly dependent on changes in rotor angle 𝛿 and, thus, the frequency.
The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (i.e. on the generator excitation).
The excitation system time constant is much smaller than the prime mover time constant and its
transient decays much faster and does not affect the LFC dynamic. Thus, the cross-coupling
between the LFC loop and the AVR loop is negligible, and the load frequency and excitation
voltage control are analyzed independently.

1.2 Load Frequency Control

The operation objectives of the LFC are to maintain a reasonably uniform frequency, to divide the
load between to generators, and to control the tie-line interchange schedules. The change in
frequency and tie-line real power are sensed, which is a measure of the change in rotor angle 𝛿
(i.e. the error ∆𝛿 to be corrected). The error signal (i.e. ∆𝑓 and ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ) are amplified, mixed, and
transformed into a real power command signal ∆𝑃𝑉 , which is sent to the prime mover to call for
an increment in the torque.

The prime mover, therefore, brings change in the generator output by an amount ∆𝑃𝑔 which will
change the values of ∆𝑓 and ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 within the specified tolerance.

1.2.1 Fundamentals of Speed Governing

The basic concepts of speed governing are best illustrated by considering an isolated generating
unit supplying a local load as shown in Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 Generator supplying isolated load

Response of a Generator to Load Change

When there is load change, it is reflected instantaneously as a change in the electrical torque output
𝑇𝑒 of the generator. This causes a mismatch between the mechanical torque 𝑇𝑚 and the electrical

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torque 𝑇𝑒 which in turn results in speed variations as determined by the equation of motion. The
following transfer function represents the relationship between rotor speed as a function of the
electrical and mechanical torques.

Figure 1.3 Transfer function relating speed and torques

For load-frequency studies, it is preferable to express the above relationship in terms of mechanical
and electrical power rather than torque. The relationship between power 𝑃 and torque 𝑇 is given
by

𝑃 = 𝜔𝑟 𝑇 1.1

By considering a small deviation (denoted by prefix ∆) from initial values (denoted by the subscript
0), we may write:
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + ∆𝑃
𝑇 = 𝑇0 + ∆𝑇
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔0 + ∆𝜔𝑟

Then, from Equation (1.1),

𝑃0 + ∆𝑃 = (𝜔0 + ∆𝜔𝑟 )(𝑇0 + ∆𝑇)

The relationship between the perturbed values, with higher-order terms neglected, is given by

∆𝑃 = 𝜔0 ∆𝑇 + 𝑇0 ∆𝜔𝑟 1.2
Therefore,

∆𝑃𝑚 − ∆𝑃𝑒 = 𝜔0 (∆𝑇𝑚 − ∆𝑇𝑒 ) + (𝑇𝑚0 − 𝑇𝑒0 )∆𝜔𝑟 1.3

Since, in the steady state, electrical and mechanical torques are equal, if we express speed in pu
(i.e. 𝜔0 = 1), then

∆𝑃𝑚 − ∆𝑃𝑒 = ∆𝑇𝑚 − ∆𝑇𝑒 1.4

Figure 1.2 can now be expressed in terms of ∆𝑃𝑚 and ∆𝑃𝑒 as follows:

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 Figure 1.3 Transfer function relating speed and power

Load Response to Frequency Deviation

In general, power system loads are a composite of a variety of electrical devices. For resistive
loads, such as lighting and heating loads, the electrical power is independent of frequency. In the
case of motor loads, such as fans and pumps, the electrical power changes in motor speed. The
overall frequency-dependent characteristic of a composite load may be expressed as:
∆𝑃𝑒 = ∆𝑃𝐿 + 𝐷∆𝜔𝑟 1.5
where
∆𝑃𝐿 =non-frequency-sensitive load change

𝐷∆𝜔𝑟 =frequency-sensitive load change

𝐷 = load damping constant

The damping constant is expressed as a percent change in in load for 1% change in frequency.
Typical values of 𝐷 are 1 to 2 percent. A value of 𝐷 = 2 means that a 1% change in frequency
would cause a 2% change in load.

The system block diagram including the effect of the load damping is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Generator and load block diagram

This may be reduced to the form shown in Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 Generator and load block diagram

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In the absence of a speed governor, the system response to a load change is determined by the
inertia constant and the damping constant. The state-state speed deviation is such that the change
in load is exactly compensated by the variation in load due to frequency sensitivity.

Example 1.1
A small system consists of 4 identical 500 MVA generating units feeding a total load of 1,020 MW.
The inertia constant 𝐻 of each unit is 5.0 on 500 MVA base. The load varies by 1.5% for a 1%
change in frequency. When there is a sudden drop in load by 20 MW,

(a) Determine the system block diagram with constants H and D expressed on 2,000 MVA
base.
(b) Find the frequency deviation, assuming that there is no speed-governing action.

Solution

500
(a) For 4 units on 2,000 MVA base, 𝐻 = 5.0 × (2000) × 4 = 5.0.

Hence 𝑀 = 2𝐻 = 10.0 𝑠

Expressing 𝐷 for the remaining load (1020 − 20 = 1000 𝑀𝑊) on 2000 MVA base,

1000
𝐷 = 1.5 × = 0.75%
2000

(b) With ∆𝑃𝑚 = 0 (no speed governing), the system block diagram with parameters expressed
in pu on 2,000 MVA is

This may be expressed in the standard form in terms of a gain and a time constant:

where

1 1
𝐾= = = 1.33
𝐷 0.75

𝑀 10
𝑇= = = 13.33 𝑠
𝐷 0.75

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 The load change is
20
∆𝑃𝐿 = −20 𝑀𝑊 = − = −0.01 𝑝𝑢
2000
For a step reduction in load by 0.01 pu, Laplace transform of the change in load is
−0.01
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) =
𝑠
Hence, form the block diagram
−0.01 𝐾
∆𝜔𝑟 (𝑠) = ( )( )
𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑇
Taking the inverse transform,
𝑡
∆𝜔𝑟 (𝑡) = −0.01𝐾𝑒 −𝑇 + 0.01𝐾

= −0.0133𝑒 −0.075𝑡 + 0.0133

The pu speed deviation as a function of time is shown in the following figure.

The time constant 𝑇 is 13.33 s the steady-state speed deviation is

∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝜔𝑠𝑠 = − = 0.0133 𝑝𝑢
𝐷

= 0.0133 × 60 = 0.8 𝐻𝑧

Isochronous Governor
The adjective isochronous means constant speed. An isochronous governor adjusts the turbine
valve/gate to bring the frequency back to the nominal or scheduled value. Figure 1.6 shows the
schematic of such a speed-governing system. The measured rotor speed 𝜔𝑟 is compared with

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reference speed 𝜔0 . The error signal (equal to speed deviation) is amplified and integrated to
produce a control signal ∆𝑌 which actuates the main steam supply valves in the case of a steam
turbine, or gates in the case of a hydraulic turbine. Because of the reset action of this integral
controller, ∆𝑌 will reach a new steady state only when the speed error ∆𝜔𝑟 is zero.

Figure 1.6 Schematic of and isochronous governor

Figure 1.7 shows the time response of a generating unit, with an isochronous governor, when
subjected to an increase in load. The increase in 𝑃𝑒 causes the frequency to decay at a rate
determined by the inertia of the rotor. As the speed drops, the turbine mechanical power begins to
increase. This in turn causes a reduction in the rate of decrease of speed, and then an increase in
speed when the turbine power is in excess of the load power. The speed will ultimately return to
its reference value and the steady-state turbine power increases by an amount equal to the
additional load.

Figure 1.7 Response of generating unit with isochronous governor

An isochronous governor works satisfactorily when a generator is supplying an isolated load or

when only one generator in a multi-generator system is required to respond to changes in load. For

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power load sharing between generators connected to the system, speed regulation or droop
characteristic must be provided.

Governors with Speed-droop Characteristic

The isochronous governor cannot be used when there are two or more units connected to the same
system since each generator would have to have precisely the same speed setting. Otherwise, they
would fight each other, each trying to control system frequency to its own setting. For stable load
division between two or more units operating in parallel, the governors are provided with a
characteristic so that the speed drops as the load is increased.

The speed-droop or regulation characteristic may be obtained by adding a steady-state feedback

loop around the integrator as shown in Figure 1.8

Figure 1.8 Governor with steady-state feedback

The transfer function of the governor of Figure 1.8 reduces to the form shown in Figure 1.9. This
type of governor is characterized as a proportional controller with a gain of 1⁄𝑅 .

Figure 1.9 Block diagram with steady-state feedback

Figure 1.9 Reduced block diagram

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Percent Speed Regulation or Droop:

The value of 𝑅 determines the steady-state speed versus load characteristic of the generating unit
as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Ideal steady-state characteristics of a governor with speed droop

The ratio of speed deviation (∆𝜔𝑟 ) or frequency deviation (∆𝑓) to change in valve/gate position
(∆𝑌) or power output (∆𝑃) is equal 𝑅. The parameter 𝑅 is referred to as speed regulation or droop.
It can be expressed in percent as

percent speed or frequency change

Percent R = × 100
percent power output change

𝜔𝑁𝐿 − 𝜔𝐹𝐿
=( ) × 100 1.6
𝜔0
where

𝜔𝑁𝐿 =steady-state speed at no load

𝜔𝐹𝐿 =steady-state speed at full load
𝜔0 =nominal or rate speed

For example, a 5% droop or regulation means that a 5% frequency deviation causes 100% change
in valve position or power output.

Load Sharing by Parallel Units:

If two or more generators with drooping governor characteristics are connected to a power system,
there will be a unique frequency at which they will share a load change. Consider two units with
droop characteristics as shown in Figure 1.11.

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 Figure 1.11 Load sharing by parallel units with drooping governor characteristics

They are initially at nominal frequency 𝑓0 , with outputs 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 . When a load increase ∆𝑃𝐿
causes the units to slow down, the governors increase output until they reach a new common
operating frequency 𝑓 ′ . The amount of load picked up by each unit depends on the droop
characteristic:
∆𝑓
∆𝑃1 = 𝑃1′ − 𝑃1 =
𝑅1
∆𝑓
∆𝑃2 = 𝑃2′ − 𝑃2 =
𝑅2
Hence,
∆𝑃1 𝑅2
= 1.7
∆𝑃2 𝑅1

If the percentages of regulation of the units are nearly equal, the changes in the outputs of each
unit will be nearly in proportion to its rating.

Time Response

Figure 1.12 shows the time response of a generating unit, with a speed-droop governor, when
subjected to an increase in load.

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 Figure 1.12 Response of a generating unit with a governor having speed-droop characteristic.

Because of the droop characteristic, the increase in power output is accompanied by a steady-state
speed or frequency deviation (∆𝜔𝑠𝑠 ).

1.2.2 Control of Generating Unit Power Output

The relationship between speed and load can be adjusted by changing an input shown as “load
reference setpoint” in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13 Governor with load reference control for adjusting speed-load relationship.
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In practice, the adjustment of load reference setpoint is accomplished by operating the “speed-
changer motor”. The effect of this adjustment is depicted in Figure 1.14, which shows a family of
parallel characteristics for different speed-changer motor settings.

Figure 1.14 Effect of speed-changer setting on governor characteristic

The characteristics shown are for a governor associated with a 60 𝐻𝑧 system. Three characteristics
are shown, representing three load reference settings. At 60 Hz, characteristic A results in zero
output, characteristic B results in 50% output, and characteristic C results in 100% output. Thus,
the power output of the generating unit at a given speed may be adjusted to any desired value by
adjusting the load reference setting through actuation of the speed-changer motor. For each setting,
the speed-load characteristic has a 5% droop; that is, a speed change of 5% (3 Hz) causes a 100%
change in power output.

When two or more generators are operating in parallel, the speed-droop characteristic
(corresponding to a load reference setting) of each generating unit merely establishes the
proportion of the load picked up by the unit when a sudden change in system load occurs. The
output of each unit at any given system frequency can be varied only by changing its load
reference, which in effect moves the speed-droop characteristic up and down.

When a generating unit is feeding an isolated load, the adjustment of the speed changer changes
the unit speed. However, when the unit is synchronized to a power system, the speed changer
adjustment changes the unit power output; it has only a minor effect on system frequency,
depending on the size of the unit relative to that of the total system generation.

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1.2.3 Composite Regulating characteristic of Power Systems
In the analysis of load-frequency controls (LFCs), we are interested in the collective performance
of all generators in the system. The inter-machine oscillations and transmission system
performance are therefore not considered. We tacitly assume the coherent response of all
generators to changes in system load and represent them by an equivalent generator. The
equivalent generator has an inertia constant 𝑀𝑒𝑞 equal to the sum of the inertia constants of all the
generating units and is driven by the combined mechanical outputs of the individual turbines as
illustrated in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15 System equivalent for LFC analysis

Similarly, the effects of the system loads are lumped into a single damping constant D. The speed
of the equivalent generator represents the system frequency, an in per unit the two are equal. We
will therefore use rotor speed and frequency interchangeably in our discussion of load-frequency
control.

The composite power/frequency characteristic of a power system thus depends on the combined
effect of the droops of all generator speed governors. It also depends on the frequency
characteristics of all the loads in the system. For a system with 𝑛 generators and a composite load-
damping constant of D, the steady-state frequency deviation following a load change ∆𝑃𝐿 is given
by
−∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 =
1 1 1 1.8
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 + 𝐷
The effects of governor speed droop and the frequency sensitivity of load on the net frequency
change are illustrated in Figure 1.16, which considers the composite effects all the generating units
and load in the system. An increase of system load by ∆𝑃𝐿 (at nominal frequency) results in a total

generation increase of ∆𝑃𝐺 due to governor action and a total system load reduction of ∆𝑃𝐷 due to
its frequency-sensitive characteristic.

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 Figure 1.16 Composite governor and load characteristic

Example 1.2
A single area consists of two generating units with the following characteristics

The units are operating in parallel, sharing 900 MW at the nominal frequency. Unit 1 supplies 500
MW and unit 2 supplies 400 MW at 60 Hz. The load is increased by 90 MW.
(a) Assume there is no frequency-dependent load, i.e. 𝐷 = 0. Find the steady-state frequency
deviation and the new generation on each unit.
(b) The load varies 1.5 percent for every 1 percent change in frequency, i.e. 𝐷 = 1.5. Find the
steady-state deviation and the new generation on each unit.
Solution
First, we express the generator speed regulation of each unit to a common MVA base. Select 1000
MVA for the apparent power base, then
1000
𝑅1 = (0.06) = 0.1 𝑝𝑢
600
1000
𝑅2 = (0.04) = 0.08 𝑝𝑢
500
The per unit load change is
90
∆𝑃𝐿 = = 0.09 𝑝𝑢
1000

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 (a) With 𝐷 = 0, the per unit steady-state frequency deviation is
−∆𝑃𝐿 −0.09
∆𝜔𝑠𝑠 = = = −0.004 𝑝𝑢
1 1 10 + 12.5
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz is
∆𝑓 = (−0.004)(60) = −0.24 𝐻𝑧
and the new frequency is
𝑓 = 𝑓0 + ∆𝑓 = 60 − 0.24 = 59.76 𝐻𝑧
The change in generation for each unit is
∆𝜔 −0.004
∆𝑃1 = − =− = 0.04 𝑝𝑢 = 40 𝑀𝑊
𝑅1 0.1
∆𝜔 −0.004
∆𝑃2 = − =− = 0.05 𝑝𝑢 = 50 𝑀𝑊
𝑅2 0.08
Thus, unit 1 supplies 540 MW and unit 2 supplies 450 MW at the new operating frequency
of 59.76 Hz.
(b) With 𝐷 = 1.5, the per unit steady-state frequency deviation is
−∆𝑃𝐿 −0.09
∆𝜔𝑠𝑠 = = = −0.00375 𝑝𝑢
1 1 10 + 12.5 + 1.5
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐷
Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz is
∆𝑓 = (−0.00375)(60) = −0.225 𝐻𝑧
and the new frequency is
𝑓 = 𝑓0 + ∆𝑓 = 60 − 0.225 = 59.775 𝐻𝑧
The change in generation for each unit is
∆𝜔 −0.00375
∆𝑃1 = − =− = 0.0375 𝑝𝑢 = 37.500 𝑀𝑊
𝑅1 0.1
∆𝜔 −0.00375
∆𝑃2 = − =− = 0.046875 𝑝𝑢 = 46.875 𝑀𝑊
𝑅2 0.08
Thus, unit 1 supplies 537.5 MW and unit 2 supplies 446.875 MW at the new operating
frequency of 59.775 Hz. The total change in generation is 84.375, which is 5.625 MW less than
the 90 MW load change. This is because of the change in load due to frequency drop which is
given by
∆𝜔𝐷 = (−0.00375)(1.5) = −0.005625 𝑝𝑢 = −5.625 𝑀𝑊

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1.2.4 Fundamentals of Automatic Generation Control
With primary speed control action, a change in system load will result in a steady-state frequency
deviation, depending on the governor droop characteristic and frequency sensitivity of the load.
All generating units on speed governing will contribute to the overall change in generation,
irrespective of the location of the load change. Restoration of system frequency to nominal value
requires supplementary control action which adjusts the load reference setpoint (through the speed-
changer motor). Therefore, the basic means of controlling prime-mover power to match variations
in system load in a desired manner is through control of the load reference setpoints of selected
generating units. As system load is continually changing, it is necessary to change the output of
generators automatically.

The primary objectives of automatic generation control (AGC) are to regulate frequency to the
specified nominal value and to maintain the interchange power between control areas at the
scheduled values by adjusting the output of selected generators. This function is commonly
referred to as load-frequency control (LFC). A secondary objective is to distribute the required
change in generation among units to minimize operating costs.

AGC in Isolated Power Systems

In an isolated power system, maintenance of interchange power is not an issue. Therefore, the
function of AGC is to restore frequency to the specified nominal value. This is accomplished by
adding a reset or integral control which acts on the load reference settings of the governors of units
on AGC, as shown in Figure 1.17. The integral control action ensures zero frequency error in the
steady state.

Figure 1.17 Addition of integral control on generating units selected for AGC.

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The supplementary generation control action is much slower than the primary speed control action.
As such, it takes effect after the primary speed control (which acts on all units on regulation) has
stabilized the system frequency. Thus, AGC adjusts load reference settings of selected units, and
hence their output power, to override the effects of the composite frequency regulation
characteristics of the power system. In doing so, it restores the generation of all other units not on
AGC to scheduled values.

AGC in Interconnected Power Systems

Consider the interconnected system shown in Figure 1.18(a).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.18 Tow area system with only primary control.

It consists of two areas connected by a tie line of reactance 𝑋𝑡𝑖𝑒 . For load-frequency studies, each
area may be represented by an equivalent generating unit exhibiting its overall performance. Such

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composite models are acceptable since we are not concerned about inter-machine oscillations
within each area.

Figure 1.18(a) shows the electrical equivalent of the system, with each area represented by a
voltage source behind an equivalent reactance as viewed from the tie bus. The power flow on the
tie line from area 1 to area 2 is

𝐸1 𝐸2
𝑃12 = sin(𝛿1 − 𝛿2 ) 1.9
𝑋𝑇
Linearizing about an initial operating point represented by 𝛿1 = 𝛿10 and 𝛿2 = 𝛿20 , we have

∆𝑃12 = 𝑇∆𝛿12 1.10

where 𝛿12 = ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2, and 𝑇 is the synchronizing torque coefficient given by
𝐸1 𝐸2 1.11
𝑇= cos(𝛿10 − 𝛿20 )
𝑋𝑇

The block diagram representation of the system is shown in Figure 1.18(c) with each area
represented by an equivalent inertia 𝑀, load damping constant 𝐷, turbine, and governing system
with an effective speed droop 𝑅. The tie line is represented by the synchronizing torque coefficient
𝑇. A positive ∆𝑃12 an increase in power transfer from area 1 to area 2. This in effect is equivalent
to increasing the load of area 1 and decreasing the load of area 2; therefore, feedback of ∆𝑃12 has
a negative sign for area 1 and a positive sign for area 2.

The steady-state frequency deviation (𝑓 − 𝑓0 ) is the same for the two areas. For a total load change
of ∆𝑃𝐿 ,
−∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓 = ∆𝜔1 = ∆𝜔2 = 1.12
1 1
(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) + (𝐷1 + 𝐷2 )
1 2

Consider the steady-state values following an increase in area 1 load by ∆𝑃𝐿1 . For area 1, we have

∆𝑃𝑚1 − ∆𝑃12 − ∆𝑃𝐿1 = ∆𝑓𝐷1 1.13

For area 2,

∆𝑃𝑚2 + ∆𝑃12 = ∆𝑓𝐷2 1.14

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The change in mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence,
∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝑚1 = − 1.15
𝑅1
∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝑚2 = − 1.16
𝑅2

Substituting equation (1.15) in equation (1.13) and equation (1.16) into equation (1.14) yields
1
∆𝑓 ( + 𝐷1 ) = −∆𝑃12 − ∆𝑃𝐿1 1.17
𝑅1

and
1
∆𝑓 ( + 𝐷2 ) = ∆𝑃12 1.18
𝑅2

Solving equations (1.17) and (1.18), we get

−∆𝑃𝐿1 −∆𝑃𝐿1
∆𝑓 = = 1.19
1 1 𝛽1 + 𝛽2
(𝑅 + 𝐷1 ) + (𝑅 + 𝐷2 )
1 2
and
−∆𝑃𝐿1 (1⁄𝑅2 + 𝐷2 ) −∆𝑃𝐿1 𝛽2
∆𝑃12 = = 1.20
1 1 𝛽1 + 𝛽2
(𝑅 + 𝐷1 ) + (𝑅 + 𝐷2 )
1 2

where 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 are the composite frequency response characteristics of areas 1 and 2,
respectively. The above relationships are depicted in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19: Effect of change in area 1 load

An increase in area 1 load by ∆𝑃𝐿1 results in a frequency reduction in both areas and a tie line flow
of ∆𝑃12 . A negative ∆𝑃12 is indicative of flow from area 2 to area 1. The tie line flow deviation
reflects the contribution of the regulation characteristics (1⁄𝑅 + 𝐷) of one area to another.

Similarly, for a change in area 2 load by ∆𝑃𝐿2 , we have

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 −∆𝑃𝐿2
∆𝑓 = 1.21
𝛽1 + 𝛽2
and
∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1
∆𝑃12 = −∆𝑃21 = 1.22
𝛽1 + 𝛽2

The above relationships form the basis for the load-frequency control of interconnected systems.

Frequency Bias Tie Line Control

The basic objective of supplementary control is to restore balance between each area load and
generation. This is met when the control action maintains:

(i) Frequency at the scheduled value

(ii) Net interchange power with neighbouring areas at scheduled values

The supplementary control in a given area should ideally correct only for changes in that area. In
other words, if there is a change in area 1 load, there should be supplementary control action only
in area 1 and not in area 2.

Examination of equations (1.19) to (1.22) indicates that a control signal made up of tie line flow
deviation added to frequency deviation weighted by a bias factor would accomplish the desired
objectives. This control signal is known as area control error (ACE).

From equations (1.17) and (1.18), it is apparent that a suitable bias factor for an area is its
frequency-response characteristic 𝛽. Thus, the area control error for area 2 is

𝐴𝐶𝐸2 = ∆𝑃21 + 𝐵2 ∆𝑓 1.23

where
1
𝐵2 = 𝛽2 = + 𝐷2 1.24
𝑅2

Similarly, for area 1

𝐴𝐶𝐸1 = ∆𝑃12 + 𝐵1 ∆𝑓 1.25

where

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 1
𝐵1 = 𝛽1 = + 𝐷1 1.26
𝑅1
The ACE represents the required change in area generation, and its unit is MW. The unit normally
used for expressing the frequency bias factor 𝛽 is MW/0.1Hz.

The block diagram shown in Figure 1.20 illustrates how supplementary control is implemented. It
is applied to selected units in each area and acts on the load reference setpoints.

Figure 1.20: Block diagram of two-area system with supplement control

The area frequency response characteristic (1⁄𝑅 + 𝐷) required for establishing the bias factors
can be estimated by examination of chart records following a significant disturbance such as a
sudden loss of a large unit.

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Basis for selection of bias factor

Actually, from steady-state performance considerations, the choice of bias factor is not important.
Any combination of area control errors containing components of tie line power deviation and
frequency deviation will result in steady-state restoration of the tie flow and frequency since the
integral control action ensures that ACE is reduced to zero.

Example 1.2

Find:

(i) Change in frequency,

(ii) ACE, and
(iii) Appropriate control action.

Solution

(i) The change in frequency is given by:

−∆𝑃𝐿𝐴 −10
∆𝜔 = = = −0.0136 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 1 1 1
(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) +
𝐴 𝐵 0.015 0.0015

1 −1
(ii) ∆𝑃𝑀𝐴 = − 𝑅 ∆𝜔 = 0.015 (−0.0136) = 0.9091 𝑀𝑊
𝐴

∆𝑃𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝑃𝑀𝐴 − ∆𝑃𝐿𝐴 = 0.9091 − 10 = −9.091 𝑀𝑊

∆𝑃𝐵𝐴 = −∆𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 9.091 𝑀𝑊

1 1
𝐴𝐶𝐸𝐴 = ∆𝑃𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅 ∆𝜔 = −9.091 + 0.015 (−0.0136) = −10 𝑀𝑊
𝐴

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 1 1
𝐴𝐶𝐸𝐵 = ∆𝑃𝐵𝐴 + 𝑅 ∆𝜔 = 9.091 + 0.0015 (−0.0136) = 0 𝑀𝑊
𝐵

(iii) ACE indicates each area action to the change of load. ACE of area B is zero, this
means that nothing should be done in area B. ACE of area A < 0, this means that
area A should increase the setting control power by – (-10) = 10 MW to cover its
own load.

1.3 Reactive Power and Voltage Control

The generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power flow.
The generator excitation of older systems may be provided through slip rings and brushes by means
of dc generators mounted on the same shaft as the rotor of the synchronous machine. However,
modern excitation systems usually use ac generators with rotating rectifiers, and are known as
brushless excitation.

The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactors. The generator reactive
powers are controlled by field excitation. Other supplementary methods of improving the voltage
profile on electric transmission systems are transformer load-tap changers, switched capacitors,
step-voltage regulators, and static var control equipment. The primary means of generator reactive
power control is the generator excitation control using automatic voltage regulator (AVR). The
role of an (AVR) is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a
specified level. The schematic diagram of a simplified AVR is shown in Figure 1.21

Figure 1.21: A typical arrangement of a simple AVR

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An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a drop in the terminal
voltage magnitude. The voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential transformer on one phase.
This voltage is rectified and compared to a dc set point signal. The amplified error signal controls
the exciter field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the generator field current is
increased, which results in an increase in the generated emf. The reactive power generation is
increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal voltage to the desired value. We will look
briefly at the simplified models of the component involved in the AVR system.

1.3.1 Amplifier Model

The excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic amplifier, rotating amplifier, or modern
electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by a gain 𝐾𝐴 and a time constant 𝜏𝐴 , and the
transfer function is
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴
= 1.27
𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠
Typical values of 𝑲𝑨 are in the range of 10 to 400. The amplifier time constant is very small, in
the range of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and is often neglected.

1.3.2 Exciter Model

There is a variety of different excitation types. However, modern excitation system uses ac power
source through solid-state rectifiers such as SCR. The output voltage of the exciter is a nonlinear
function of the field voltage because of the saturation effects in the magnetic circuit. Thus, there
is no simple relationship between the terminal voltage and field voltage of the exciter. A reasonable
model of a modern exciter is a linearized model, which takes into account the major time constant
and ignores the saturation or other nonlinearities. In the simplest form, the transfer function of a
modern exciter may be represented by a single time constant 𝜏𝐸 and a gain 𝐾𝐸 .
𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐸
= 1.28
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠
The time constants of modern exciters are very small.

1.3.3 Generator Model

The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine magnetization curve, and its
terminal voltage is dependent on the generator load. In the linearized model, the transfer function

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relating the generator terminal voltage to its field voltage can be represented by a gain 𝐾𝐺 and a
time constant 𝜏𝐺 , and the transfer function is
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐺
= 1.29
𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠
These constants are load dependent, 𝐾𝐺 may vary between 0.7 to 1, and 𝜏𝐺 between 1.0 and 2.0
seconds from full-load to no-load.

1.3.4 Sensor Model

The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and, in one form, it is rectified through a
bridge rectifier. The sensor is modelled by a simple first order transfer function, given by
𝑉𝑆 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑅
= 1.30
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠
𝜏𝑅 is very small, and we may assume a range of 0.01 to 0.06 seconds. Utilizing the above models
results in the AVR block diagram shown in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22: A simplified automatic voltage regulator block diagram.

The open-loop transfer function of the block diagram in Figure 1.22 is

𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 1.31
(𝟏 + 𝝉𝑨 𝒔)(1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠)
and the closed-loop transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage 𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) to the
reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) is
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 (1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) = =
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) (𝟏 + 𝝉𝑨 𝒔)(1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠) + 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅

or
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) 1.32

For a step input, 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) = 1⁄𝑠. Using the final value theorem, the steady-state response is
𝐾𝐴
𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = 1.33
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐾𝐴
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2.0 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
2.1 Introduction
The main concern and important operating factors in power system operation are (i) to minimize
the operating cost and (ii) to maintain system security.

Power system security is the probability of the system's operating point remaining within
acceptable ranges, given the probabilities of changes in the system (contingencies) and its
environment.

2.2 Operating States of Power System

The operating states of a power system are: (i) preventive state (ii) restorative state, and (iii)
emergency state.

(i) Preventive state: This is actually the normal state.

(ii) Emergency state: This is an operating state in which some of the components operating
limits are violated. The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve the system
stress by appropriate actions.
(iii) Restorative state: This is the condition when some parts (or whole) of the system has
lost power. The control objective in this state is to steer the system to a normal state
again by taking appropriate actions.

2.3 Functions of System Security

There are four major functions of system security. These are: (i) System monitoring (ii)
Contingency analysis (iii) Preventive and corrective actions (iv) Security-constrained optimal
power flow analysis.

(i) System monitoring: This is the most important function of the four. It provides the
operators with up-to-date information on the condition of the power systems by
measuring critical quantities such as voltages, currents, power flows, and the state of
circuit breakers and switches, etc. These measurements are the sent to the control
central via telemetry system. Computers collect the telemetric data, process and store
them, and display information for the operators. It checks incoming information against
pre-selected limits and annunciates alarms in the event of overloads or out-of-limit
voltages. State estimation combines the telemetric system data with the system’s
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 network model to produce the “best estimate” of the current power system condition or
state. The system normally combines monitoring functions with supervisory control
functions to form the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. The
SCADA system allows a few operators to monitor the generation and high-voltage
transmission systems and to take action to correct overloads or out-of-limit voltages.
(ii) Contingency analysis: This allows the system to be operated defensively. Many
problems in power systems can cause serious trouble within a rapid time period and the
human operator cannot respond fast enough. Contingency analysis therefore models
possible system troubles before they arise. Using a model of the power system, a
computer algorithm predicts future operating states and gives alarms to any potential
overloads or out-of-voltage limits.
Tools for Contingency Analysis
 DC power flow
 Linear sensitivity factors
 Line outage distribution factor
(iii) Preventive and corrective actions: Preventive and corrective actions are needed to
maintain a secure operation of a system or to bring it to a secure operating state.
Corrective actions such as switching of VAR compensating devices, changing
transformer taps and phase shifters etc. are mainly automatic in nature, and involve
short duration. Preventive actions such as generation rescheduling involve longer time
scales. Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example of rescheduling the
generations in the system in order to ensure a secure operation.
(iv) Security-constrained optimal flow analysis: Analysis provides a solution to the
optimal dispatch of generation with a large number of system constraints.

Security analysis involves the power system to operate into one of four operating states:

(i) Optimal dispatch: State of the system prior to any contingency. The system may be
optimal with respect to economic operation, but may not be secure.
(ii) Post contingency: State of the power system after contingency has occurred. This
condition has a security violation (line overload, voltage limit)

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 (iii) Secure dispatch: State of the system at no contingency with dispatch schedule
corrections to account for security violations.
(iv) Secure post contingency: State of the system when the contingency is applied to the
base-operating condition-with correction. It is a state after a contingency with no
resulting security violations.

Illustration of states

(a) Optimal Dispatch

Suppose the trivial power system consisting of two generators, a load, and a double circuit line, is
to be operated with both generators supplying the load.

Assume that the system is in economic dispatch, that is 500MW from unit 1 and the 700MW from
unit 2 is the optimum dispatch. Further, assert that each circuit of the double circuit line can carry
a maximum of 400MW, so that there is no loading problem in the base-operating condition.

(b) Post Contingency

State of the power system after contingency has occurred.

Postulate that one of the two circuits making up the transmission line has been opened because of
a failure. This results in post contingency. The overload line may cause a cascaded outage

(c) Secure Dispatch

Assume for this example that we do not want this condition to arise and that we will correct the
condition by lowering the generation on unit 1 to 400 MW. Now there is an overload on the
remaining circuit.

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 (d) Secure Post Contingency

Consider the same contingency, resulting in no violations

Post-contingency line overloading is avoided by adjusting the generation on unit #1 and unit #2
before an event.

Programming tools that make control adjustments to the pre-contingency operation to prevent
violations in the post contingency condition are called “security-constrained optimal power
flows” or SCOPF. The programs can take account of many contingencies and calculate
adjustments to generator MW, generator voltages, transformer taps, interchange, etc.

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 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Write the two types of VAR generators.
(a) Give some observations of rotating VAR generators.
(b) What is tap changing transformers?
(c) Write the types of tap changing transformers.

Q2(a) Write about load frequency mechanism.

(b) Give an important reason for voltage control

(c) What is the one distinct difference between P-f and Q-V  control?

Q3 (a) What is the use of secondary loop?

(b) What is the advantage of AVR loop over ALFC loop?

Q4 Consider an interconnected 50-Hz power system that contains four turbine-generator units
rated 750 MW, 500 MW, 220 MW and 110 MW. The regulating constant of each unit is 0.05 per
unit based on its own rating. Each unit is operating on 75% of its own rating when the load is
suddenly dropped by 250 MW. We shall choose a common base of 500 MW and calculate the rise
in frequency and drop in the mechanical power output of each unit.

Q5 Consider three interconnected areas shown in figure Q5. The connected load at 60Hz is
20,000MW in Area 1, 30,000MW in Area 2, and 40,000MW in Area 3. Respectively in Area 1,
Area 2 and Area 3, the load varies 1%, 1.5% and 2% for every 1% change in frequency. Area 1
is exporting 1,200MW, Area 2 is importing 1,500MW, and Area 3 is exporting 300MW. The
speed regulation, R, is 4% for all units. If the load in Area 3 decreases by 1000MW, and there are
no supplementary load frequency controls, determine:
a. the new steady-state system frequency
Area 1
Area 2

b. the new generation and load of each area

Area 3

c. the new MW export or import of each Fig Q5

area

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Q6 A generating unit has a simplified linearized AVR system as shown in the figure Q6. If
R=0.03 sec ,G=0.8 sec, E=0.4 sec, A=0.07 sec, . KR=1, KE=1 and KG=0.9.

(a) Use the Routh-Hurwitz array to find the range of KA for control system stability

(b) If KA is set to 2/3 of the upper limit determined from 3.a, then estimate the steady-state step
response

Q7 Consider a small system with two areas, say area 1 and area 2, whose area control errors are
ACE1=∆P12+B1∆ω and ACE2= -∆P12+B2∆ω. If B1 for area 1 is set to be smaller than its β1,
i.e. frequency bias factor. If area 2 experiences a 100MW increase in load, which of the five
statements is (are) correct, and why?
(i) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes positive
(ii) AGC will decrease generation in area
(iii) ACE1 will always go back to zero
(iv) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes negative
(v) AGC will increase generation in area 1
Q8 (a) Define system blackout problem.

(b) What is meant by cascading outages?

(c) What is the function of system monitoring?

(d) Define scada system.

(e )What are the states of power system?

(f) Define alert mode

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 QUESTION 1
(a) The two types of VAR generators are:
(i) Static VAR generator
(ii) Rotating VAR generator
(b) The following observations can be made about rotating VAR generators:
(i) The can provide both positive and negative VARs which are continuously
adjustable
(ii) VAR injection at a given excitation is less sensitive to changes in bus voltage
(c) Tap changing transformers are power transformers and many distribution transformers
which have taps in one or more windings for changing the turns ratio.
(d) The following are types of tap changing transformers:
(i) Off-load tap changing transformers
(ii) On-load tap changing transformers
QUESTION 2
(a) Load frequency control (LFC) is the basic control mechanism in the power system
operation and control. The main purpose of the load frequency is to keep the uniform
frequency during the load change. The variation in Load Frequency is an index for normal
operation of the power systems. When the load perturbation takes place, it will affect the
frequency of other areas also. In order to control frequency of the power systems, various
controllers are used in different areas, but due to the non-linearity in system components
and alternators, these conventional feedback controllers could not control the frequency
quickly and efficiently. The problem of controlling the real power output of generating
units in response to changes in system frequency and tie-line power interchange within
specified limits is known as load frequency control (LFC).
(b) Voltage control is important because real line losses depend very much on the real line
power flow. It is possible to minimize these losses by selecting an optimum power flow, in
term of real and reactive powers
(c) The surplus of megavars tend to increase the frequency of the system. The changes are not
uniform but will be greatest at the buses where the megavar is greatest

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 QUESTION 3

(a) A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the frequency and also by “reset”
action maintains proper megawatt interchange in other pool members. This loop is
insensitive to rapid load and frequency changes but focuses instead on drift-like changes
which take place over periods of time.
(b) The advantage of the AVR loop over ALFC is that AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC
loop and therefore there is a tendency for the AVR dynamic to settle down before they can
make themselves felt in the slower load frequency control channel.

QUESTION 4

To convert the regulating constants given in per unit in the base of each generator to a common
base, we use
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑑 ×
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑
Therefore,
500
𝑅1 = 0.05 × = 0.033
750
500
𝑅2 = 0.05 × = 0.05
500
500
𝑅3 = 0.05 × = 0.1136
220
500
𝑅4 = 0.05 × = 0.2273
110
But
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝛽= + + + = + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 0.033 0.05 0.1136 0.2273
Therefore
β = 63.2 pu
Now, the per unit drop in load is
250
∆PL = − = −0.5 pu
500
Therefore, per unit change in frequency is

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 ∆𝑓 ∆𝑃𝐿 −(−0.5)
=− = = 0.0079 𝑝𝑢
𝑓 𝛽 63.2
Hence the rise in frequency is ∆𝑓 = 0.0079 × 50 = 0.3956 𝐻𝑧

Change in mechanical power of a unit is given by:

∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝑚𝑖 = − × ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑅𝑖
Therefore,
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚1 = − × 500 = −118.67 𝑀𝑊
0.033
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚2 =− × 500 = −79.11 𝑀𝑊
0.05
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚3 =− × 500 = −34.81 𝑀𝑊
0.1136
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚4 =− × 500 = −17.41 𝑀𝑊
0.2273

QUESTION 5

Given the three interconnected areas shown in Figure Q5

Figure Q5
With no supplementary control, we will assume that all the generating units in the three areas
respond to the loss of load in area 3.

A 4% regulation on 21,200 MW generating capacity in Area 1 corresponds to:

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 1 1 21,200
= × = 8833.33 MW/Hz
R1 0.04 60

A 4% regulation on 28,500 MW generating capacity in Area 2 corresponds to:

1 1 28,500
= × = 11875 MW/Hz
R 2 0.04 60

A 4% regulation on 40,300 MW generating capacity in Area 3 corresponds to:

1 1 40,300
= × = 16791.67 MW/Hz
R 3 0.04 60

Total regulation due to 90,000 MW generating capacity in the three areas is:

1 1 1 1
= + + = 37,500 MW/Hz
R R1 R 2 R 3

Load damping due to 20,000 MW load in Area 1 is:

1 100
D1 = × 20,000 × = 333.33 MW/Hz
100 60

Load damping due to 30,000 MW load in Area 2 is:

1.5 100
D2 = × 30,000 × = 750 MW/Hz
100 60

Load damping due to 39,000 MW load (after the loss of 1000 MW) in Area 3 is:

2 100
D3 = × 39,000 × = 1,300 MW/Hz
100 60

Total effective load damping of the three areas is:

D = D1 + D2 + D3 = 333.33 + 750 + 1,300 = 2383.33 MW/Hz

(a) Change in system frequency due to loss of 1000 MW load in Area 3 is:

∆𝑃𝐿 −(−1000)
∆𝑓 = − = = 0.02507 Hz
1 37500 + 2383.33
+ 𝐷
𝑅

Therefore, the new steady-state frequency of the system is 60.02507 Hz

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 (b) Generation changes in the three areas due to speed regulation are:

1
∆PG1 = − ∆f = −8833.33 × 0.02507 = −221.45 MW
R1

1
∆PG2 = − ∆f = −11875 × 0.02507 = −297.71 MW
R2

1
∆PG3 = − ∆f = −16791.67 × 0.02507 = −420.97 MW
R3

Therefore, new generation in the areas are as follows:

PG1 = 21,200 − 221.45 = 20,978.55 MW

PG2 = 28,500 − 297.71 = 28,202.29 MW

PG3 = 40,300 − 420.97 = 39,879.03 MW

Load changes in the three areas due to frequency increase are:

∆PD1 = D1 ∆f = 333.33 × 0.02507 = 8.3566 MW

∆PD2 = D2 ∆f = 750 × 0.02507 = 18.8025 MW

∆PD3 = D3 ∆f = 1,300 × 0.02507 = 32.591 MW

Therefore, the new load of each area is:

PD1 = 20,000 + 8.3566 = 20,008.3566 MW

PD2 = 30,000 + 18.8025 = 30,018.8025 MW

PD3 = 40,000 − 1000 + 32.591 = 39,032.591 MW

(c) Tie line power flow from Area 1 to Area 2 is 970.1934 MW and tie line power flow from
Area 3 to Area 2 is 846.439 MW.

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 QUESTION 6
Given the simplified linearized AVR system of a generating unit as shown in Figure Q6

Figure Q6

If 𝜏𝑅 = 0.03 sec, 𝜏𝐺 = 0.8 sec, 𝜏𝐸 = 0.4 sec, 𝜏𝐴 = 0.07 sec, . 𝐾𝑅 = 1, 𝐾𝐸 = 1 and 𝐾𝐺 = 0.9,
then,
Gain of the amplifier is
𝐾𝐴
𝐺𝐴 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.07𝑠
Gain of the exciter is
1
𝐺𝐸 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.4𝑠
Gain of the generator is
0.9
𝐺𝐺 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.8𝑠
Gain of the feedback sensor is
1
𝐺𝑅 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.03𝑠
Therefore, the total gain of the forward path is
𝐾𝐴 1 0.9
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺𝐴 (𝑠)𝐺𝐸 (𝑠)𝐺𝐺 (𝑠) = ( )( )( )
1 + 0.07𝑠 1 + 0.4𝑠 1 + 0.8𝑠
This gives
0.9𝐾𝐴
𝐺(𝑠) =
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
The closed-loop transfer function of the system is

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 0.9𝐾𝐴
𝐺(𝑠) 0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
𝑇(𝑠) = [ ]=[ ]
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐺𝑅 (𝑠) 0.9𝐾𝐴 1
1+( ) ( )
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1 1 + 0.03𝑠
This gives the characteristic equation for this system as:
0.9𝐾𝐴 1
1+( ) ( )=0
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1 1 + 0.03𝑠
Or
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 1 + 0.9𝐾𝐴 = 0
Dividing the equation by 0.000672 gives:
𝑠 4 + 51.36𝑠 3 + 657.88𝑠 2 + 1934.52𝑠 + 1488.10 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴 = 0
(a) Using the Routh-Hurwitz array, we have

𝑠4 1 657.88 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

𝑠3 51.36 1934.52 0

𝑠2 620.21 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

𝑠1 1123358.649 − 68785.9344𝐾𝐴
620.21

𝑠0 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

From the 4th row of the Routh-Hurwitz array, the system will be stable if:

1123358.649 − 68785.9344𝐾𝐴
>0
620.21

Solving this inequality gives 𝐾𝐴 < 16.33

Again, from the 5th row,

1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴 > 0

Solving this yields:

𝐾𝐴 > −1.11

Hence, the range of values of 𝐾𝐴 that will guarantee the stability of this system is:

−1.11 < 𝐾𝐴 < 16.33

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 2
(b) If 𝐾𝐴 = 3 × 16.33 = 10.89, then the closed-loop gain of the system will be
0.9 × 10.89
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
𝑇(𝑠) =
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 1 + 0.9 × 10.89
(0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1)(1 + 0.03𝑠)

This simplifies to:

9.801(1 + 0.03𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) =
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 10.801
Hence,
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)
If the reference signal is a unit step, then:
1
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) =
𝑠
Therefore,
9.801(1 + 0.03𝑠) 1
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = ( )( )
0.000672𝑠 4 3 2
+ 0.03452𝑠 + 0.4421𝑠 + 1.3𝑠 + 10.801 𝑠
Using the final value theorem:
9.801
𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = = 0.907
𝑠→0 10.801

QUESTION 7

Given a small system with two areas, say area 1 and area 2, whose area control errors are 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 =
∆𝑃12 + 𝐵1∆𝜔 and 𝐴𝐶𝐸2 = −∆𝑃12 + 𝐵2∆𝜔. If 𝐵1 for area 1 is set to be smaller than its 𝛽1, i.e.
frequency bias factor and area 2 experiences a 100MW increase in load:

(j) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes positive. This is CORRECT. As a result of the
increase in Area 2 load, there will be a decrease in system frequency according to the equation:
−∆𝑃𝐿2
∆𝜔 =
𝛽1 + 𝛽2
This will result to a flow from Area 1 to Area 2 giving rise to a tie line flow deviation of
∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1
∆𝑃12 =
𝛽1 + 𝛽2

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 Hence,
∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1 −∆𝑃𝐿2 ∆𝑃𝐿2
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 = + 𝐵1 ( )= (𝛽 − 𝐵1)
𝛽1 + 𝛽2 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 1

But 𝐵1 < 𝛽1, then 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 will be a positive quantity.

(ii) AGC will decrease generation in area 1. This is CORRECT. Since 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 in area 1 is
positive, the appropriate control action is to decrease generation in area 1.
(iii) ACE1 will always go back to zero. This is CORRECT. Any combination of area control
errors containing components of tie line power deviation and frequency deviation will result
in steady-state restoration of the tie line flow and frequency since the integral control action
ensures that ACE is reduced to zero.
(iv) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes negative. This is NOT CORRECT.
(v) AGC will increase generation in area 1. This statement is NOT CORRECT.

QUESTION 8

(a) System blackout may be defined as a short-term or long term state of electric power loss
in a given area or section of the power grid.
(b) A cascading outage is a process in a system of interconnected parts in which the failure of
one or few parts can trigger the failure of other parts and so on. In other words, it is the
uncontrolled successive loss of system elements triggered by an incident at any location. It
results in widespread electric service interruption that cannot be restrained from
sequentially spreading beyond an area predetermined by studies.
(c) System monitoring provides the operators with up-to-date information on the condition of
the power systems by doing the following:
(i) Measuring critical quantities such as voltages, currents, power flows, and the state
of circuit breakers and switches, frequency, generator outputs, and transformer tap
positions
(ii) Sending the measurements to the control central via the telemetry system
(iii) Computers collect the telemetric data, processes and stores them, and displays
information for the operators.

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 (d) The operating states of a power system are:
(i) Normal state
(ii) Preventive state
(iii) Emergency state
(iv) Restorative state
(v) Alert state
(e) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) may be defined as a control system
architecture that uses computers, networked data communications and graphical user
interfaces for high-level process supervisory management.
(f) Alert mode is an operating state of power system which notifies operators when security
level falls below a certain limit of adequacy because of a disturbance.

REFERENCES

Kundur, P. (1994); Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Saadat, H. (1999); Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Magaji, N. (2018); ELE8331 Lecture Notes, (Unpublished)

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