Higher Technological Institute

Mechanical Engineering Dep.

Combustion
(Lectures)

Dr. Hassanin Khalil

Dr. Ahmed Abd EL Badie

Mar.2021
1.1 Introduction:
This course covers the thermodynamics of combustion, fuels, chemical
kinetics, and fundamentals of gas dynamics, detonation& shock waves.
Normal & detonating combustion, combustion in I C engines, gas-turbines &
industrial furnaces, alternate fuels.
The objective of this course is to study systems involving chemical
reactions and combustion of hydrocarbon fuels occurs in most power-
producing devices. The fundamental concept is the conservation of energy.
Fuels, most of which consist of hydrocarbons, require oxygen in order to
burn, oxygen is usually supplied as a constituent of the intake air.

1.2 Thermodynamics of Combustion (General Review):

State of Matter:
There are three basic state of matter, solid, liquid, & vapor… for ex.
Water may exist as a solid (ice) or a liquid (tap water) & as a vapor (steam).

Heat & Matter:

Heat is a controlling factor in the state of matter, heat causes increased
molecular motion inside a substance, the hotter an object, the faster its
molecules move, and the colder an object, the slower its molecules move.
When water is hot enough, its molecules move fast and fast enough to
separate forming vapor, meanwhile when water is cold enough, the
molecules move slowly enough to join and form a solid chunk of ice.

Methods of heat transfer:

1. Conduction: is heat transfer through objects that are touching each other
(piston rings & cylinders).
2. Convection: is heat transfer caused by the air surrounding objects (air
through the radiator for cooling the engine).
Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page1
3. Radiation: Heating caused by infrared waves (for ex. Rays from Sun),
when sun shines through the closed windows of a vehicle, the interior
parts (seats, steering wheel… etc.) can become very hot because of heat
radiation. Radiant energy moves through space in waves, the energy is
absorbed by the object rising its temperature as a result of increasing
molecule's internal energy.

Heat Movement:
Heat always moves from a hotter object to a colder one. When you hold
a piece of ice, the ice removes heat from your hand, i.e. this makes your hand
feel cold. When one object is colder than another the colder one simply
contains less heat.

Heat Measurement:
The British thermal unit (BTU) is the unit of measurement of heat
transfer. For example When the Temperature of one pound of purely distilled
water increases by one degree Fahrenheit at sea level pressure, one BTU of
heat has moved into the water. The cooling potential of home air
conditioning unites is normally rated in BTU.
Vaporization: means a liquid changing into vapor (gas) state, i.e. heat is
absorbed enough by the liquid as it changes into vapor.
Condensation: The opposite of evaporation, i.e. vapor changes back into
a liquid. Heat is given off when a vapor changes into a liquid.

Pressure & Temperature:

When pressure acts on a substance, its temperature rises, i.e. substance
gives off heat as a result of increasing molecules movements & collisions.
Meanwhile when pressure removed, the temperature drops. i.e. substance
absorbs heat (cool). Pressure also affects change of state. When a liquid is

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page2
placed in a closed container and pressurized, its boiling point (vaporizing
point) increases.

Internal & External combustion engines:

If fuel combustion occurs inside the cylinder, this process is called
internal combustion engine, IC Engine, and also for the combustion outside
the cylinder is called external combustion.
Internal combustion always requires an open cycle, which is
characterized by cyclic gas exchange, i.e. supply of fresh charge & removal
of combustion gases.
In case of external combustion, the actual working medium remains
chemically unchanged, and can be returned to its initial condition by suitable
means (cooling, condensation). This enables to use of a closed process.

1.3 Basic Concepts of Combustion:

Any material that can be burned to release thermal energy is called a fuel.
Most familiar fuels consist primarily of hydrogen and carbon. They are
called hydrocarbon fuels and are denoted by the general formula C nHm.
Hydrocarbon fuels exist in all phases, some examples being coal, gasoline,
and natural gas.
The main constituent of coal is carbon. Coal also contains varying
amounts of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, moisture, and ash. It is
difficult to give an exact mass analysis for coal since its composition varies
considerably from one geographical area to the next and even within the
same geographical location. Most liquid hydrocarbon fuels are a mixture of
numerous hydrocarbons and are obtained from crude oil by distillation (Fig.
1). The most volatile hydrocarbons vaporize first, forming what we know as
gasoline. The less volatile fuels obtained during distillation are kerosene,

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page3
diesel fuel, and fuel oil. The composition of a particular fuel depends on the
source of the crude oil as well as on the refinery.

Fig. (1) Crude oil distillation.

Although liquid hydrocarbon fuels are mixtures of many different

hydrocarbons, they are usually considered to be a single hydrocarbon for
convenience. For example, gasoline is treated as octane, C8H18, and the
diesel fuel as dodecane, C12H26. Another common liquid hydrocarbon fuel is
methyl alcohol, CH3OH, which is also called methanol and is used in some
gasoline blends. The gaseous hydrocarbon fuel natural gas, which is a
mixture of methane and smaller amounts of other gases, is often treated as
methane, CH4, for simplicity.
Natural gas is produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. It
is composed mainly of methane, but it also contains small amounts of ethane,
propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate, and
water vapor. On vehicles, it is stored either in the gas phase at pressures of
150 to 250 atm as CNG (compressed natural gas), or in the liquid phase at -
162°C as LNG (liquefied natural gas). Over a million vehicles in the world,
mostly buses, run on natural gas. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a
byproduct of natural gas processing or the crude oil refining. It consists
mainly of propane and thus LPG is usually referred to as propane. However,

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page4
it also contains varying amounts of butane, propylene, and butylenes.
Propane is commonly used in fleet vehicles, taxis, school buses, and private
cars. Ethanol is obtained from corn, grains, and organic waste. Methonal is
produced mostly from natural gas, but it can also be obtained from coal and
biomass. Both alcohols are commonly used as additives in oxygenated
gasoline and reformulated fuels to reduce air pollution.
Vehicles are a major source of air pollutants such as nitric oxides,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons, as well as the greenhouse gas carbon
dioxide, and thus there is a growing shift in the transportation industry from
the traditional petroleum-based fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel to the
cleaner burning alternative fuels friendlier to the environment such as natural
gas, alcohols (ethanol and methanol), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and
hydrogen. The use of electric and hybrid cars is also on the rise. A
comparison of some alternative fuels for transportation to gasoline is given in
Table 1.

Note that the energy contents of alternative fuels per unit volume are lower
than that of gasoline or diesel fuel, and thus the driving range of a vehicle on
a full tank is lower when running on an alternative fuel. Also, when
comparing cost, a realistic measure is the cost per unit energy rather than

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page5
cost per unit volume. For example, methanol at a unit cost of $1.20/L may
appear cheaper than gasoline at $1.80/L, but this is not the case since the cost
of 10,000 kJ of energy is $0.57 for gasoline and $0.66 for methanol.
A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity
of energy is released is called combustion. The oxidizer most often used in
combustion processes is air, for obvious reasons it is free and readily
available. Pure oxygen O2 is used as an oxidizer only in some specialized
applications, such as cutting and welding, where air cannot be used.
Therefore, a few words about the composition of air are in order.
On a mole or a volume basis, dry air is composed of 20.9 percent
oxygen,78.1 percent nitrogen, 0.9 percent argon, and small amounts of
carbon dioxide, helium, neon, and hydrogen. In the analysis of combustion
processes, the argon in the air is treated as nitrogen, and the gases that exist
in trace amounts are disregarded. Then dry air can be approximated as 21
percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen by mole numbers. Therefore, each
mole of oxygen entering a combustion chamber is accompanied by 0.79/0.21
= 3.76 mol of nitrogen (Fig. 2). That is,
1kmol O2 + 3.76 kmol N2 = 4.76 kmol air

Fig. (2) Each kmol of O2 in air is accompanied by 3.76 kmol of N2.

During combustion, nitrogen behaves as an inert gas and does not react
with other elements, other than forming a very small amount of nitric oxides.
However, even then the presence of nitrogen greatly affects the outcome of a
combustion process since nitrogen usually enters a combustion chamber in

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page6
large quantities at low temperatures and exits at considerably higher
temperatures, absorbing a large proportion of the chemical energy released
during combustion. Throughout this chapter, nitrogen is assumed to remain
perfectly inert. Keep in mind, however, that at very high temperatures, such
as those encountered in internal combustion engines, a small fraction of
nitrogen reacts with oxygen, forming hazardous gases such as nitric oxide.
Air that enters a combustion chamber normally contains some water
vapor (or moisture), which also deserves consideration. For most combustion
processes, the moisture in the air and the H2O that forms during combustion
can also be treated as an inert gas, like nitrogen. At very high temperatures,
however, some water vapor dissociates into H2 and O2 as well as into H, O,
and OH. When the combustion gases are cooled below the dew-point
temperature of the water vapor, some moisture condenses. It is important to
be able to predict the dew-point temperature since the water droplets often
combine with the sulfur dioxide that may be present in the combustion gases,
forming sulfuric acid, which is highly corrosive.

Fig. (3) Reaction chamber

During a combustion process, the components that exist before the
reaction are called reactants and the components that exist after the reaction
are called products (Fig. 3). Consider, for example, the combustion of 1
kmol of carbon with 1 kmol of pure oxygen, forming carbon dioxide,
C + O2 → CO2 (1)
Here C and O2 are the reactants since they exist before combustion, and CO2
is the product since it exists after combustion. Note that a reactant does not
have to react chemically in the combustion chamber. For example, if carbon

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is burned with air instead of pure oxygen, both sides of the combustion
equation will include N2. That is, the N2 will appear both as a reactant and as
a product.
We should also mention that bringing a fuel into intimate contact with
oxygen is not sufficient to start a combustion process. (Thank goodness it is
not. Otherwise, the whole world would be on fire now.) The fuel must be
brought above its ignition temperature to start the combustion. The
minimum ignition temperatures of various substances in atmospheric air are
approximately 260°C for gasoline, 400°C for carbon, 580°C for hydrogen,
610°C for carbon monoxide, and 630°C for methane. Moreover, the
proportions of the fuel and air must be in the proper range for combustion to
begin. For example, natural gas does not burn in air in concentrations less
than 5 percent or greater than about 15 percent.

Fig. (4) The mass (and number of atoms).

As you may recall from your chemistry courses, chemical equations are
balanced on the basis of the conservation of mass principle (or the mass
balance), which can be stated as follows: The total mass of each element is
conserved during a chemical reaction (Fig. 4). That is, the total mass of each
element on the right-hand side of the reaction equation (the products) must
be equal to the total mass of that element on the left-hand side (the reactants)
even though the elements exist in different chemical compounds in the

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reactants and products. Also, the total number of atoms of each element is
conserved during a chemical reaction since the total number of atoms is
equal to the total mass of the element divided by its atomic mass.
A frequently used quantity in the analysis of combustion processes to
quantify the amounts of fuel and air is the air–fuel ratio AF. It is usually
expressed on a mass basis and is defined as the ratio of the mass of air to the
mass of fuel for a combustion process (Fig. 5). That is,
(2)

The mass m of a substance is related to the number of moles N through

the relation m = NM, where M is the molar mass.
The air–fuel ratio can also be expressed on a mole basis as the ratio of
the mole numbers of air to the mole numbers of fuel. But we will use the
former definition. The reciprocal of air–fuel ratio is called the fuel–air ratio.

Fig. (5) Air fuel ratio.

Example 1:
One kmol of octane (C8H18) is burned with air that contains 20
kmol of O2. Assuming the products contain only CO2, H2O, O2, and N2,
determine the mole number of each gas in the products and the air–fuel ratio
for this combustion process.
Solution
The chemical equation for this combustion process can be written as

C8H18 + 20(O2 + 3.76N2) →xCO2 + yH2O + zO2 + wN2

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page9
 Where the terms in the parentheses represent the composition of dry air
that contains 1 kmol of O2 and x, y, z, and w represent the unknown mole
numbers of the gases in the products. These unknowns are determined by
applying the mass balance to each of the elements that is, by requiring that
the total mass or mole number of each element in the reactants be equal to
that in the products:
C: 8=x → x=8
H: 18 = 2y → y=9
O: 20 × 2 = 2x + y + 2z → z = 7.5
N2: (20)(3.76) = w → w = 75.2
Substituting yields
C8H18 + 20(O2 + 3.76N2) →8CO2 + 9H2O + 7.5O2 + 75.2N2

Note that the coefficient 20 in the balanced equation above represents the
number of moles of oxygen, not the number of moles of air. The latter is
obtained by adding 20 × 3.76 = 75.2 moles of nitrogen to the 20 moles of
oxygen, giving a total of 95.2 moles of air. The air–fuel ratio (AF) is
determined from Eq. 2 by taking the ratio of the mass of the air and the mass
of the fuel,
( )
( ) ( )

( )( )
( ) ( )

That is, 24.2 kg of air is used to burn each kilogram of fuel during this
combustion process.

1.4 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes

It is often instructive to study the combustion of a fuel by assuming that
the combustion is complete. A combustion process is complete if all the

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carbon in the fuel burns to CO2, all the hydrogen burns to H2O, and all the
sulfur (if any) burns to SO2. That is, all the combustible components of a fuel
are burned to completion during a complete combustion process (Fig. 6).
Conversely, the combustion process is incomplete if the combustion
products contain any unburned fuel or components such as C, H 2, CO, or
OH.

Fig. (6) Complete Combustion.

Insufficient oxygen is an obvious reason for incomplete combustion, but

it is not the only one. Incomplete combustion occurs even when more oxygen
is present in the combustion chamber than is needed for complete
combustion. This may be attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion
chamber during the limited time that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact.
Another cause of incomplete combustion is dissociation, which becomes
important at high temperatures.
Oxygen has a much greater tendency to combine with hydrogen than it
does with carbon. Therefore, the hydrogen in the fuel normally burns to
completion, forming H2O, even when there is less oxygen than needed for
complete combustion. Some of the carbon, however, ends up as CO or just
as plain C particles (soot) in the products.
The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a
fuel is called the stoichiometric or theoretical air. Thus, when a fuel is
completely burned with theoretical air, no uncombined oxygen is present in
the product gases. The theoretical air is also referred to as the chemically

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correct amount of air, or 100 percent theoretical air. A combustion process
with less than the theoretical air is bound to be incomplete. The ideal
combustion process during which a fuel is burned completely with
theoretical air is called the stoichiometric or theoretical combustion of that
fuel. For example, the theoretical combustion of methane is
CH4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) → CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2
Notice that the products of the theoretical combustion contain no unburned
methane and no C, H2, CO, OH, or free O2.
In actual combustion processes, it is common practice to use more air
than the stoichiometric amount to increase the chances of complete
combustion or to control the temperature of the combustion chamber. The
amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount is called excess air. The
amount of excess air is usually expressed in terms of the stoichiometric air as
percent excess air or percent theoretical air. For example, 50 percent
excess air is equivalent to 150 percent theoretical air, and 200 percent excess
air is equivalent to 300 percent theoretical air. Of course, the stoichiometric
air can be expressed as 0 percent excess air or 100 percent theoretical air.
Amounts of air less than the stoichiometric amount are called deficiency of
air and are often expressed as percent deficiency of air. For example, 90
percent theoretical air is equivalent to 10 percent deficiency of air. The
amount of air used in combustion processes is also expressed in terms of the
equivalence ratio, which is the ratio of the actual fuel–air ratio to the
stoichiometric fuel–air ratio.
Predicting the composition of the products is relatively easy when the
combustion process is assumed to be complete and the exact amounts of the
fuel and air used are known. All one needs to do in this case is simply apply
the mass balance to each element that appears in the combustion equation,
without needing to take any measurements. Things are not so simple,
however, when one is dealing with actual combustion processes. For one

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page12
thing, actual combustion processes are hardly ever complete, even in the
presence of excess air. Therefore, it is impossible to predict the composition
of the products on the basis of the mass balance alone. Then the only
alternative we have is to measure the amount of each component in the
products directly.
A commonly used device to analyze the composition of combustion
gases is the Orsat gas analyzer. In this device, a sample of the combustion
gases is collected and cooled to room temperature and pressure, at which
point its volume is measured. The sample is then brought into contact with a
chemical that absorbs the CO2. The remaining gases are returned to the room
temperature and pressure, and the new volume they occupy is measured. The
ratio of the reduction in volume to the original volume is the volume fraction
of the CO2, which is equivalent to the mole fraction if ideal-gas behavior is
assumed (Fig. 7).

Fig. (7) Determining the mole fraction of the CO2 in combustion gases by
using the Orsat gas analyzer.

The volume fractions of the other gases are determined by repeating this
procedure. In orsat analysis the gas sample is collected over water and is
maintained saturated at all times. Therefore, the vapor pressure of water
remains constant during the entire test. For this reason the presence of water
vapor in the test chamber is ignored and data are reported on a dry basis.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page13
However, the amount of H2O formed during combustion is easily determined
by balancing the combustion equation.

Example 2:
Coal from Pennsylvania which has an ultimate analysis (by
mass) as 84.36 percent C, 1.89 percent H2, 4.40 percent O2, 0.63 percent N2,
0.89 percent S, and 7.83 percent ash (non-combustibles) is burned with
theoretical amount of air (Fig. 8). Disregarding the ash content, determine
the mole fractions of the products and the apparent molar mass of the product
gases. Also determine the air-fuel ratio required for this combustion process.

Fig. (8) Schematic for Example 2.

Solution
Coal with known mass analysis is burned with theoretical amount of air. The
mole fractions of the product gases, their apparent molar mass, and the air-
fuel ratio are to be determined.
The molar masses of C, H2, O2, S, and air are 12, 2, 32, 32, and 29 kg/kmol,
respectively (Table A-1). We now consider 100 kg of coal for simplicity.
Noting that the mass percentages in this case correspond to the masses of the
constituents, the mole numbers of the constituent of the coal are determined
to be

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Ash consists of the non-combustible matter in coal. Therefore, the mass of
ash content that enters the combustion chamber is equal to the mass content
that leaves. Disregarding this non-reacting component for simplicity, the
combustion equation may be written as
7.03C + 0.945H2 + 0.1375O2 + 0.0225N2 + 0.0278S + ath(O2 + 3.76 N2)
→ xCO2 + yH2O + zSO2 + wN2
Performing mass balances for the constituents gives
C balance: x = 7.03
H2 balance: y = 0.945
S balance: z = 0.0278
O2 balance: 0.1375 + ath = x + 0.5y + z → ath = 7.393
N2 balance: w = 0.0225 + 3.76ath = 0.0225 + 3.76 × 7.393 → 27.82
Substituting, the balanced combustion equation without the ash becomes
7.03C + 0.945H2 + 0.1375O2 + 0.0225N2 + 0.0278S + 7.393(O2 + 3.76 N2)
→ 7.03CO2 + 0.945H2O + 0.0278SO2 + 27.82N2
The mole fractions of the product gases are determined as follows:

Then, the apparent molar mass of product gases becomes

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page15
 ( )

Finally, the air-fuel mass ratio is determined from its definition to be

( )( )

Example 3:
A certain natural gas has the following volumetric analysis: 72
percent CH4, 9 percent H2, 14 percent N2, 2 percent O2, and 3 percent CO2.
This gas is now burned with the stoichiometric amount of air that enters the
combustion chamber at 20ºC, 1 atm, and 80 percent relative humidity, as
shown in Fig. 9. Assuming complete combustion and a total pressure of 1
atm, determine the dew-point temperature of the products.

Fig. (9) Schematic for Example 3.

Solution
A gaseous fuel is burned with the stoichiometric amount of moist air. The
dew point temperature of the products is to be determined.
The saturation pressure of water at 20ºC is 2.3392 kPa (Table A–4).
We note that the moisture in the air does not react with anything; it simply
shows up as additional H2O in the products. Therefore, for simplicity, we
balance the combustion equation by using dry air and then add the moisture
later to both sides of the equation. Considering 1 kmol of fuel,
(0.72CH4 + 0.09H2 + 0.14N2 + 0.02O2 + 0.03CO2) + ath(O2 + 3.76N2)
→xCO2 + yH2O + zN2

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The unknown coefficients in the above equation are determined from mass
balances on various elements,
C: 0.72 + 0.03 = x → x = 0.75
H: 0.72 × 4 + 0.09 × 2 = 2y → y = 1.53
O2: 0.02 + 0.03 + ath = x +y/2→ ath = 1.465
N2: 0.14 + 3.76ath = z → z = 5.648
Next we determine the amount of moisture that accompanies 4.76ath =
(4.76)(1.465) = 6.97 kmol of dry air. The partial pressure of the moisture
in the air is
( )( )
Assuming ideal-gas behavior, the number of moles of the moisture in the air
is

( ) ( )( )

Which yields

The balanced combustion equation is obtained by substituting the

coefficients determined earlier and adding 0.131 kmol of H2O to both sides
of the equation:
(0.72CH4 + 0.09H2 + 0.14N2 + 0.02O2 + 0.03CO2) + 1.465(O2 + 3.76N2)
+0.131H2O →0.75CO2 + 1.66H2O + 5.648N2

The dew-point temperature of the products is the temperature at which

the water vapor in the products starts to condense as the products are cooled.
Again, assuming ideal-gas behavior, the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the combustion gases is

( ) ( )( )

Thus,
Tdp = Tsat @ 20.88 kPa = 60.9ºC

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page17
Note: If the combustion process were achieved with dry air instead of moist
air, the products would contain less moisture, and the dew-point temperature
in this case would be 59.5ºC.

Example 4:
Octane (C8H18) is burned with dry air. The volumetric analysis of the
products on a dry basis is (Fig. 10)
CO2: 10.02 percent
O2: 5.62 percent
CO: 0.88 percent
N2: 83.48 percent
Determine (a) the air–fuel ratio, (b) the percentage of theoretical air used,
and (c) the amount of H2O that condenses as the products are cooled to 25ºC
at 100 kPa.

Fig. (10) Schematic for Example 4.

Solution
Combustion products whose composition is given are cooled to 25ºC. The
AF, the percent theoretical air used, and the fraction of water vapor that
condenses are to be determined.
The saturation pressure of water at 25ºC is 3.1698 kPa (Table A–4).
Note that we know the relative composition of the products, but we do not
know how much fuel or air is used during the combustion process. However,
they can be determined from mass balances. The H2O in the combustion

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gases will start condensing when the temperature drops to the dew point
temperature.
For ideal gases, the volume fractions are equivalent to the mole
fractions. Considering 100 kmol of dry products for convenience, the
combustion equation can be written as
xC8H18 + a(O2 + 3.76N2) →10.02CO2 + 0.88CO + 5.62O2 + 83.48N2 + bH2O
The unknown coefficients x, a, and b are determined from mass balances,
N2: 3.76a =83.48 → a = 22.20
C: 8x = 10.02 + 0.88 → x = 1.36
H: 18x + 2b → b = 12.24
O2: a = 10.02 + 0.44 + 5.62 +b/2→ 22.20 = 22.20
The O2 balance is not necessary, but it can be used to check the values
obtained from the other mass balances, as we did previously. Substituting,
we get
1.36C8H18 + 22.2(O2 + 3.76N2) → 10.02CO2 + 0.88CO + 5.62O2
+ 83.48N2 + 12.24H2O
The combustion equation for 1 kmol of fuel is obtained by dividing the
above equation by 1.36,
C8H18 + 16.32(O2 + 3.76N2) →7.37CO2 + 0.65CO + 4.13O2
+ 61.38N2 + 9H2O
(a) The air–fuel ratio is determined by taking the ratio of the mass of the air
to the mass of the fuel,
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )

(b) To find the percentage of theoretical air used, we need to know the
theoretical amount of air, which is determined from the theoretical
combustion equation of the fuel,
C8H18 + ath(O2 + 3.76N2) →8CO2 + 9H2O + 3.76athN2
O2: ath = 8 + 4.5 →ath = 12.5

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page19
Then,

( )( )
( )( )

That is, 31 percent excess air was used during this combustion process.
Notice that some carbon formed carbon monoxide even though there was
considerably more oxygen than needed for complete combustion.
(c) For each kmol of fuel burned, 7.37 + 0.65 + 4.13 + 61.38 + 9 = 82.53
kmol of products are formed, including 9 kmol of H2O. Assuming that the
dew-point temperature of the products is above 25ºC, some of the water
vapor will condense as the products are cooled to 25ºC. If Nw kmol of H2O
condenses, there will be (9 - Nw) kmol of water vapor left in the products.
The mole number of the products in the gas phase will also decrease to 82.53
- Nw as a result. By treating the product gases (including the remaining water
vapor) as ideal gases, Nw is determined by equating the mole fraction of the
water vapor to its pressure fraction,

Heating Values:
Heating values of a fuel (units of kJ/kg) are traditionally used to quantify
the maximum amount of heat that can be generated by combustion with air at
standard conditions (25 °C and 101.3 kPa). The amount of heat release from
combustion of the fuel will depend on the phase of water in the products. If
water is in the gas phase in the products, the value of total heat release is
denoted as the lower heating value (LHV). When the water vapor is
condensed to liquid, additional energy (equal to the latent heat of

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page20
vaporization) can be extracted and the total energy release is called the
higher heating value (HHV). The value of the LHV can be calculated from
the HHV by subtracting the amount of energy released during the phase
change of water from vapor to liquid.

1.5 Fundamentals of gas dynamics:

Compressible flows are encountered in many applications in Aerospace
and Mechanical engineering. Some examples are flows in nozzles,
compressors, turbines and diffusers. In aerospace engineering, in addition to
these examples, compressible flows are seen in external aerodynamics
aircraft and rocket engines. In almost all of these applications, air (or some
other gas or mixture of gases) is the working fluid. However, steam can be
the working substance in turbo-machinery applications. Thus, the range of
engineering applications in which compressible flow occurs is quite large
and hence a clear understanding of the dynamics of compressible flow is
essential for engineers.

Compressible and Incompressible Flows:

It is well known from high school physics that sound (pressure
propagates in any medium with a speed which depends on the bulk
compressibility. The less compressible the medium, the higher the speed of
sound. Thus, speed of sound is a convenient reference speed, when flow is
involved. Speed of sound in air under normal atmospheric conditions is 330
m/s. The implications of this when there is flow are as follows.
Let us say that we are considering the flow of air around an automobile
travelling at 120 km/hr (about 33 m/s). This speed is 1/10th of the speed of
sound. In other words, compared with 120 km/hr, sound waves travel times
faster. Since the speed of sound appears to be high compared with the
highest velocity in the flow field, the medium behaves as though it were

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page21
incompressible. As the flow velocity becomes comparable to the speed of
sound, compressibility effects become more prominent. In reality, the speed
of sound itself can vary from one point to another in the flow field and so the
velocity at each point has to be compared with the speed of sound at that
point.
This ratio is called the Mach number, after Ernst Mach who made
pioneering contributions in the study of the propagation of sound waves.
Thus, the Mach number at a point in the flow can be written as:
M = u /a
Where:
u …is the velocity magnitude at any point and
a….is the speed of sound at that point
1.6 Fuels:
I-Crude Oil Elements:

Fig. (11) Crude oil component.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page22
Crude oil elements:
1- Refinery fuel gas 2- Petrochemicals
3- Gasoline's 4- Naphtha's & specialties
5- Kerosene jet fuels 6- Heating oil & Diesel fuel
7- Lubricating oils 8- Greases
9- Wax 10- Carbon black & feedstock (tires)
11- Residual fuel oils
Sulfur in crude elements is essentially and it is a harmful substance
affecting engines estimated life time due to corrosion as a result of sulfuric
acid formation.

Fig. (12) Fractioning Tower.

II-Alternative Fuels:
Alternative fuels include gaseous fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, and
propane; alcohols such as ethanol, methanol, and butane; vegetable and
waste-derived oils; and electricity. These fuels may be used in a dedicated
system that burns a single fuel or in a mixed system with other fuels
including traditional gasoline or diesel, such as in hybrid-electric or flexible
fuel vehicles.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page23
Some vehicles and engines are designed for alternative fuels by the
manufacturer. Others are converted to run on an alternative fuel by
modifying the engine controls and fueling system from the original
configuration.

Biodiesel Fuel:
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel produced from agricultural resources such
as vegetable oils. In the United States, most biodiesel is made from soybean
oil; however canola oil, sunflower oil, recycled cooking oils and animal fats
are also used.

How biodiesel fuel made:

To make biodiesel, the base oil is put through a process called
―esterification‖ This refining method uses an industrial alcohol (ethanol or
methanol) and a catalyst (substance that enables a chemical reaction) to
convert the oil into a fatty-acid methyl ester fuel (biodiesel). Biodiesel in its
pure form is known as ―neat biodiesel‖ or B100, but it can also be blended
with conventional diesel, most commonly as B5 (5 percent biodiesel and 95
percent diesel) and B20 (20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent diesel).
Biodiesel is registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and is legal for use at any blend level in both highway and non-road
diesel vehicles. Most diesel engines can run on biodiesel without needing
any special equipment. If you are interested in using biodiesel in your vehicle
or equipment, check with the manufacturer for any recommendations and
information regarding engine warranties. In addition, once you have
determined the proper blend for your vehicle, make sure to purchase your
fuel from a reputable dealer selling commercial grade biodiesel. Biodiesel -
vs- Vegetable Oil In 1895, Dr. Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine with
the intention of running it on a variety of fuels, including vegetable oil. In

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page24
fact, when he demonstrated his engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in
1900, he fueled the vehicle with peanut oil. However, biodiesel and
vegetable oil are very different.

Performance:
Vehicles have similar horsepower and torque as conventional diesel
when running on biodiesel. Chemically speaking, biodiesel has a higher
cetane number, but slightly lower energy content than diesel. To the average
driver, this means better engine performance and lubrication, but a small
decrease in fuel economy (2-8 percent). Biodiesel vehicles can also have
problems starting at very cold temperatures, but this is more of an issue for
higher percentage blends such as B100 and easily solved the same way as
with conventionally fueled vehicles by using engine block or fuel filter
heaters or storing the vehicles in a building.

Maintenance:
Generally, the use of biodiesel does not cause many maintenance issues.
However, when used for the first time, biodiesel can release deposits
accumulated on tank walls and pipes from previous diesel fuel, initially
causing fuel filter clogs. As a result, vehicle owners should change the fuel
filter after their first tank of biodiesel. Also, biodiesel can degrade rubber
fuel system components, such as hoses and pump seals. This is especially
true with higher-percentage blends, and older vehicles. Many newer vehicles
have biodiesel-compatible components, but it is best to consult your owner’s
manual or contact your vehicle manufacturers for specific information.

1.7 Heat or I C Engines Story:

Firstly, it was a challenge for humans, how to get water from the well for
irrigation, then came the era of steam with the beginning of the nineteenth

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page25
century, then appeared the inventor Nicholas Otto in 1876 and his engine
working with gasoline. In 1878 Rudolf Diesel noticed the lack of mechanical
power of the petrol engine; Mr. Diesel tried to build another engine with
higher capabilities of mechanical power, in 1892 he received a patent on his
great invention Diesel Engine.
Operation of I C Engines and Cycles:
In all reciprocating-piston engines, air or air-fuel mixture is compressed
in the working cylinder, the mixture is ignited by a spark (petrol Eng.), or
fuel is injected and combusted into the hot compressed air in the cylinder
(Diesel Engines). The fuel ignition or combustion generates a high pressure
on the piston which converts into torque and power by the aid of the crank
mechanism & flywheel that is bolted at the end of the crankshaft.

Engine Types:

Fig. (13) Engine types.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page26
1- Mono-piston power unit:
In engines (1, 2, 3, 4); the working chamber is formed by the cylinder
head, cylinder sleeve and piston.
Shape number (1) In-line engine. The cylinders are arranged in a line.
Shape number (2) Vee engine. The cylinders are arranged in two planes in a
V configuration.
Shape number (3) Radial engine. The cylinders are arranged radially in one
or more planes.
Shape number (4) Opposed-cylinder engine. The cylinders are arranged
horizontally and opposed.

2- Multi-piston power unit:

In engines (5-6) more than one piston (usually two) shares a common
combustion chamber.
Shape number (5) U-engine pistons move in the same direction.
Shape number (6) Opposed piston engine pistons move in opposite
directions.

Engine Direction of Rotation:

Each engine rotates in one direction only, clockwise (CW) rotation or
counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation.

Numbering of Cylinders:
The Cylinders are numbered consecutively 1, 2, 3, 4, …..etc. as viewed
looking at the end opposite the power output end ( Crank shaft & fly wheel ).

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page27
 Fig. (14) Cylinder numbering and firing order.

Fig. (15) Volex Wagon Beatle Flat Engine.

Firing Order:
The firing order is the sequence in which the cylinders fire or the
sequence of power stroke. It is determined by the engine designer for equal

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page28
ignition intervals for balancing and makes easy design & production of
crankshaft, also to get favorable crankshaft loading.

Engine Actual Power Cycle:

The P-V (pressure - Volume) diagram indicates the change of pressure
inside the cylinders with the crank position or engine crank-angle. The useful
work so generated is converted by means of the crank-mechanism into torque
which is available at the end of the crankshaft.
The number of working cycles per unit time indicates the piston power
or the indicated power of the engine. The power generated by a
reciprocating-piston IC engine thus increases with engine speed (rpm).

Fig. (16) Actual cycles of I C engines.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page29
Valves Overlap Period:
It is the period during which both valves (exhaust & intake) are open
simultaneously at the end of exhaust stroke. This period is about 25 to 30º
degrees of crank angle.
The overlap period is a précised portion of time, if it is longed, engine
will be noisy, and if it is shortened, there will no good exhaust riddance from
the cylinders.

Fig. (17) Direct injection diesel engine piston.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page30
Spark Ignition Engines (Gasoline Engines):
Petrol, spark, gasoline engine is a mechanical engine converting the heat
fuel energy into mechanical work. In gasoline engine, fuel and air are mixed
external to the working cylinders volume. In gasoline engines the
compression ration must be limited (12:1 maximally), otherwise fuel will
auto-ignition, rattling of the engine parts, which is known by Knocking will
takes place as a result of mixture rise in temperature. Engine designers must
limit the compression ratio. This one factor that limits the efficiency & rated
power of the S.I. Engines.

Engine Measurements & Definitions:

b.. Cylinder Bore
l… Con. Rod length.
S.. Stroke (distance from TDC to BDC = 2 R)
θ.. Crank angle.
at θ = 0 piston at TDC
at θ = 180 piston at BDC
S/b = 0.6 to 1.5
at θ = 0º the volume above the piston is
minimum and called the clearance volume
(V0) or volume of combustion chamber.
at θ = 180º the volume above the piston
is maximum (V1) and it is the sum of
clearance volume & displacement vol.(Vd).
Displacement Volume (Vd) is the volume
displaced by the piston from TDC to BDC Fig. (18) Section view in
and also called Cylinder Swept Volume. Also piston cylinder.
displacement volume (Vd) is the difference
between max. & min. volume displaced by the piston at BDC & TDC.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page31
 Vd = V1 – V0 = (π/4). b2 . S (c. c.) (3)
Where (c.c) Volume per one Cycle or Cyclic Volume.
Total engine swept volume = N . Vd = Vt…. in liters
Where N is the number of engine cylinders.
Compression Ratio: is the ratio of the maximum to minimum volumes
over the piston at BDC & TDC consequently.
r = V1 / V0 = (Vd + V0) / V0 = (Vd/V0) + 1
Compression ratio is an important factor in engine performance,
increasing the comp. ratio increases engine power output; maximally it is
12…14:1.
Higher comp. ratio (more 9:1) can be achieved in Over-head valves
engines only because in Side-valves engines, valves need space to move and
this increase the clearance volume and thus reduce the compression ratio.
As the compression ratio increases, the thermal efficiency of the engine
increases also.

Engine Volumetric Efficiency:

Due to high reciprocating movements of the pistons, (100 strokes /
second at 3000 engine rpm) the actual air admitted in cylinders is less than
the actual displaced volume in cylinders, for normally aspirated engines ≈
55%, for turbo-charged one ≈ 70%, for super-charged engines ≈ 85%.
Volumetric Efficiency is the ratio actual air admitted in the cylinder to the
displaced volume.

Engine Mean Piston Speed:

vm = 2 S . n / 60 S.. stroke, n…. engine rpm.
The maximum piston speed ≈ 1.6 Vm. It must be limited because it has
harmful effects on engine internal stresses and finally engine estimated life-
time.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page32
 In Otto engine vm ≈ 8 ….. 16 m/s
In Diesel engine vm ≈ 9 …. 14 m/s

Example 5:
Calculate the mean piston speed at 5000 rpm if the engine crank
radius is 40 mm. (13,3 m/s)
Solution
R = S/2 S = R×2 = 0.08 m
Vm = 2×S×n/60 = 13.3 m/s

Piston Rings:
Piston rings are used to seal gases within the cylinder & keep oil out.
Gaps of rings for thermal expansion, the blow-by due to these gaps and due
to rings attrition degrade engine performance & power.
Fuel mixture or air are admitted and expelled from the cylinders by
valves that open and close at the proper times controlled by the camshaft
crosshatched with the crankshaft by the timing gears & timing belt.

Fig. (19) Piston rings.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page33
 Fig. (20) Connecting rod, journal bearings and tightening bolts.

Example: 7
A 4 stroke, 3 cylinders SI engine of comp. ratio 10:1, find the
clearance volume if its bore 80mm & stroke is 90mm, also find the mean
piston speed at 3000 rpm.
Solution
Vd = V1 – V0 = (π/4) . b2 . S = (π/4)(0.08)2(0.09) = 4.524 × 10-4 m3
r = V1/ V0 = (Vd + V0)/ V0
r = (Vd/ V0) + 1
V0 = 5.03 × 10-5 m3
Vm = 2× S × n/60 = 9 m/s

Example: 8
A 4 cylinders, 4 cycles engine of 10 : 1 comp. ratio, calculate its
piston cylinder dimensions if the clearance volume is 85 c.c. & stroke/bore =
1.4. (b = 88.60 mm & S = 124.1 mm).

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page34
 Solution
r = V1/ V0 = (Vd + V0)/ V0
10 = (Vd + 85 × 10-6)/ 85 × 10-6
Vd = 7.65 × 10-4 m3
= (π/4) . b2 . S
S/b = 1.4 → S = 1.4b
b = 88.60 mm , S = 124.1 mm

Example: 9
A four stroke, 4 cylinders petrol-engine of 9.6 m/s mean piston
speed at 2000 rpm, bore is 0.8 of the stroke, clearance volume is 135 cc,
calculate its compression ratio & total swept volume.
Solution
Vm = 2 × S × n/60
9.6 = 2 × S × 2000/60 → S = 0.144 m
b = 0.8 S = 0.1152 m
Vd = V1 – V0 = (π/4) × b2 × S = (π/4)(0.1152)2(0.144) = 1.501 × 10-3 m3
r = V1/ V0 = (Vd + V0)/ V0 = 12.11
Vt = Vd × N = 6 × 10-3 m3

Example: 10
A 4 cylinders diesel engine of 7.2 m/s mean piston speed at 1800
rpm, bore & stroke are equal, compression ratio is 24:1, calculate the
clearance volume and total swept volume of the engine.
(59 cc, 5.426 L)
Solution
Vm = 2 × s × n/60 → S = 0.12 m
b = S = 0.12 m
Vd = V1 – V0 = (π/4) × b2 × S = (π/4)(0.12)2(0.12) = 1.36 × 10-3 m3

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page35
r = (Vd/ V0) + 1
V0 = 5.902 × 10-5 m3
Vt = Vd × N = 5.44 × 10-3 m3

Fig. (21) Engine heat losses

Actually two-third or more of the fuel heat energy is lost as indicated
and only 20% produce power output from the engine output shaft. Also the
10% value is lost as 5% friction & 5% as heat emissions from engine body.

Engine thermal efficiency:

It is the ratio of heat gained (useful heat) to the total heat energy
consumed.
For S.I. Engine it is ≈ 25% maximally, C.I. Engine ≈ 37% maximally, Gas-
turbine ≈ 60%, Fuel-Cells ≈ 80%.

Characteristic Curves of I C Engines:

These curves indicate the rate of change of engine power, engine torque
& fuel consumption according to the engine speed (rpm).

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page36
 At higher speeds, volumetric efficiency is lowers, combustion pressures
are also lower, and thus torque is lower.
Also at high speeds, piston is moving so much faster and as a result less
thrust is exerted on the piston due to less pressure of combustion.

Fig. (22) Engine characteristic curves.

Engine Mechanical Efficiency:

It is the ratio of brake hp to indicated hp.,

ηm = bhp / ihp = (ihp – fhp) / ihp.

ηm……. mechanical efficiency
bhp…….brake, measured, or actual horse-power
ihp……..indicated, neat horse-power, theoretical, or calculated one.
fhp…….friction horse-power, or loss horse-power.

Example: 11
An engine of ihp 180 Kw and fhp of 25 Kw, what is the estimated
mechanical efficiency of the engine? (86,11%)

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page37
 Solution
ηm = bhp / ihp = (ihp – fhp) / ihp.
ηm= (180-25)/180 = 0.86.11%

Example: 12
An engine of 130 kw bhp, calculate its neat power if it’s
mechanical eff. Is 78%.
Solution
ηm = bhp / ihp = (ihp – fhp) / ihp.
0.78 = 130 / ihp
ihp =130/0.78 = 166.67 Kw

Fig. (23) Ships & Boats are using IC Engines as a Power Drives.

1.8 Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles:

Types of compressed natural gas vehicles (CNGV):
1- Dedicated vehicles: these vehicles are designed to run only on natural gas.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page38
2- Bi-fuel vehicles: These vehicles have two separate fueling systems that
enable them to run on either natural gas or gasoline.
3- Duel-fuel vehicle: these vehicles are traditionally limited to heavy-duty, it
has fuel system that runs on natural gas, and use Diesel Fuel for ignition
assistance.
Gasoline Engines equipped with CNG system needs an electronic ignition
system for easy starting & running, also the CNG tanks must equipped with
an indication pressure gage to indicate the amount of the natural gas.

Properties of CNG & liquid fuel:

Properties liquid fuel Natural gas
Density (gm/cm3) 0.75 0.0725
Octane number 95 120
Lower heating value (j/gm) 44 45
Auto ignition temp. (o C) 280 600

CNG reducer:
The pressure of CNG in the tank might reach 200 bar and in order to use
it safely to operate the engine, it go through 3 stages of pressure reduction ,
from 200 to 30 bar, second to 15 bar, finally to atmospheric pressure and
sucked to the intake manifold through the air filter.

Advantages of using bi-fuel system:

1- Running costs in CNG is about half than that on gasoline.
2- CNG system prove to be much safer alternative than both petrol & diesel
due to its high auto-ignition temperature & narrow range of flammability
that prevents accidental firing, also CNG tanks are designed to resist
explosion if it is shot with a rifle.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page39
3- CNG reduces CO2 emissions by more 90% & decreases NOx emissions by
35 to 60%.
4- Generally, CNG emissions are 20-30% lower than emissions from
gasoline powered engines.
5- Less engine vibration & less noisy, also engine smoother operation and
easy maintenance.
6- Longer engine oil life time.

Disadvantages:
1-Low engine power generated compared with gasoline fuel.
2- Low tank capacity.
3- Start with petrol fuel first in order to heat the water in the radiator so it
will heat the gas before it enters the combustion chamber.
4- CNG kit initial cost is high and the CNG tanks increase the car's weight.
5- Shortage of Gas refilling stations is a problem.

Fig. (24) Bi-fuel engine vehicle's circuit diagram.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page40
 Fig. (25) Sam Rockets Carrier Powered by a Diesel Engine.

1.9 General Idea about Engine Main Subsystems:

1-Fuel Feed System:
Types of Fuel Systems:
a- Normal (Carburetor) Fuel System.
b- Electronic (Modern) Fuel Injection System.
First understand that carburetion theory depends upon Vacuum
Operation, where fuel injection operates on pressure. When talking about
fuel injection compared to carburetor, we must take into consideration that
fuel injection is more efficient than the carburetor and creates a little more
power through the power band and it makes the motor run smoother than
carburetor system and usually gets a little more gas mileage.
In Otto cycle engines fuel must be sufficiently volatile and well
premixed as possible with the intake air before the starting of the ignition by
the spark from the plug. Air & fuel are introduced in the carburetor
according to vacuum generated on fuel jets.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page41
 Fig. (26) Solex evaporator (carburetor) sectional view.

Air to Fuel ratio (A/F):

It means the ratio of air mass to that of fuel mass entering the engine for
operation, the ideal ratio for minimum pollutant emissions is 14.6:1, in
carburetor system, it varies from 10:1 (rich mixture) to 20:1 (poor mixture),
but for electronic fuel injection system it is tends to be 14.6:1 by the lambda
sensor or oxygen sensor which try to correct this ratio for ever.
Gasoline Octane Number (O N):
It is a measure of gasoline antiknock characteristics, gasoline with a high
octane no. (92, 95, ) will resist knocking and perform better than gasoline
with a lower octane (80, 82, …)The owner's manual indicates the required
octane no. of the fuel recommended for the car's engine.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page42
93 Octane – Premium gasoline – High Octane – High antiknock.
85 Octane – Regular gasoline – Low octane – Low antiknock.

Engine Knocking & Detonation.

Knocking results when firing is earlier than the exact timing of spark ( 7
degrees BTDC ) or diesel injection ( 21 degrees BTDC ) which causes the
collision of fuel explosion wave with the piston head in up-word direction
decaying the engine power.
Detonation results when two flame fronts hit each other, one is from the
spark plug combustion, and one is from early fuel ignition caused by poor-
quality gasoline.
Note: low Octane gasoline is easier to fire, meanwhile High Octane gasoline
is highly resist to fire… it is used in engines of highly compression ratio.
Carburetors must perform 3 main basic functions:
1- Adjusting A/F ratio according to driver demand, this to control the power
delivered by the engine.
2- Keeping the F/A ratio in the optimum range over the working range to
save fuel from higher consumption.
3- To homogenize the air & fuel mixture in order to make the ignition &
combustion proceed properly with minimum exhaust pollution products.
Carburetor main demands (Starting – rich mixture, Idling speed, fast idling
or economic speed, Acceleration, Engine shut-off).

Electronic Fuel Injection System (EFI System):

EFI System Consists of Four Main Subsystems:
1- Fuel delivery system… includes an electric fuel pump, fuel filter, pressure
regulator, fuel injectors (injector valves), connecting lines and hoses. The
fuel pressure regulator (FPR) controls the value of pressure entering the

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page43
 injector valves, when sufficient pressure is attained, the regulator returns
excess fuel to the tank.
2- Air Subsystem air-filter (air cleaner) & intake (inlet – induction) manifold.
3- Sensors System which feeds engine operating data to the electronic
control unit (ECU).
4- Control Subsystem or (ECU) which uses the sensors data to operate the
fuel delivery system. The time-interval of power control module (PCM)
turns the fuel injectors on, is known as the pulse width, it varies depending
on the demand for fuel, from 2 milliseconds (0.002 second) during
deceleration, and 30 milliseconds (0.030 second) during acceleration.

Fig. (27) The four subsystem for an electronic gasoline injection system.

Fig. (28) Cutaway views shoes the major Parts of electronic injector.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page44
 Fig. (29) Pulse width.
Pulse width is used to control the amount of fuel injected into the engine.

2-Spark Ignition System:

An ignition system changes battery voltage (12 V) to a very high voltage
(Spark) (30.000 to 40.000 Volts) and distribute sparks to the spark-plugs
according to the engine firing order.
Ignition system is mainly consists of 2 circuits, the primary circuit &
secondary one. Primary circuit operates on low voltage (battery or alternator)
(12.6 volts). The secondary circuit is high-voltage section & normally range
from 4000 to 30.000 volts depending upon system design, also secondary
circuit uses thicker insulation wires to prevent electrical leakage & radio
noise.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page45
 Fig. (30) Spark ignition system.

Main Functions of an Ignition system:

1- Provides a method of turning a spark ignition engine on-off.
2- Operates on various supply voltages (battery or alternator voltage)
3-Produces high voltage arcs at the spark plug electrodes to start combustion.
4- Distributes high-voltage pulses to each spark plug in the correct sequence.
5-Times the spark so that it occurs as the piston nears TDC (7º) on
compression stroke.
6- Varies spark timing according to engine working conditions (load, speed,
Octane No., ………..etc.)

Types of Ignition Systems:

a- Contact-Points Ignition System.
b- Electronic Ignition System.
c- Distributor-less Ignition System.

a- Contact-Points Ignition System:

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page46
 It uses the breaker points & condenser to build up the magnetic field by
the opening & closed the points by the rotating cam of the distributor shaft,
and then it sends the voltage to the secondary circuit & to the spark plug.

Fig. (31) Rotating Cam & Contact Breaker.

b- Electronic Ignition System (Solid-State or Transistor System.)

This system uses an electronic pick-up coil or pulse generator with a
triggering wheel rather than the mechanical breaker points & condenser to
lessen the tune-up services and maintain equal energy sparks for all
cylinders.

Fig. (32) Electronic Ignition System.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page47
C- Distributor- less Ignition System:
This system uses multiple ignition coils, coil control unit, engine
sensors, engine main control (engine control module) to operate the spark
plugs.
Also a direct Ignition system has an ignition coil mounted on the top of
each spark plug.
Electronic & Distributor-less systems has a powerful sparks enough to
burn completely the fuel compared with the contact-pointes type. This of
course lowers the rate of fuel consumption and the exhaust pollution.

Fig. (33) Spark plug details.

3- Cooling System:
The cooling & lubricating systems are designed to prevent engine
damage and wear due to excess heat and over-wear. They are preventing the
engine from self-destructing.
The cooling system maintains a constant engine operating temperature.
It removes excess combustion & frictional heat to prevent engine over-
heating & damage, also speeds engine warming-up.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page48
 Fig. (34) Cooling System.

The water pump forces coolant (water & antifreeze solution) through the
inside of the engine, hoses & radiator. The coolant collects heat from the
engine hot parts and carries it back to the radiator to emit heat by the engine
fan which draws air through radiator. There are two types of radiators, down-
flow & cross-flow one. Also there are 2 heat exchanging operation, first is
from coolant to radiator & the 2nd from radiator to air.

The thermostat controls coolant flow and engine temperature. It is

usually located where the top radiator hose connects to the engine. In some
engines there is a 2 stage thermostat which controls coolant temperature
more precisely, sub -valve opens at 80 °C & the main valve opens at 90°C.
Coolant water must be distilled one mixed by antifreeze.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page49
4- Lubricating system:
Lubricating system reduces friction & wear between internal engine
parts by circulating filtered engine oil to high-friction points. Also helps cool
engine parts by pushing the pressurized oil to various moving parts of the
engine.
Shortly engine oil lubricates cools, cleans, and seals the pressurized
gases over the piston rings with the honed cylinder wall of the engine.

Contaminants in the engine collected by the engine oil are:

1- Road Dust & dirt.
2- Carbon & fuel soot.
3- Water contaminations.
4- Fuel contaminations.
5- Sulfur contaminations.

Oil Oxidation:
Less viscosity of the engine oil due to fuel contaminations makes the oil
less effective and increase wear & tear.
Acids in the engine oil due to presence of fuel sulfur tends to cause
corrosion & pitting in the crank journals and the like of other engine parts.

Engine Oil Classification:

According to Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE) and American
Petroleum Institute (API) engine oils classified according to viscosity related
to temperature and to be indicated to oil's bottle.
Ex: SAE 10 W – 30 API service…. It is suitable for low temperature (10
to 30) with low viscosity at 10 degrees for ease starting & more viscosity
index at 30 to lessen wear and tear of engine parts.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page50
 Fig. (35) Engine Lubricating System.

5- Exhaust System:
An exhaust system quiets engine operation and carries exhaust fumes to
the rear of the vehicle. It consists of:
1- Exhaust manifold connects the cylinder head exhaust ports to header pipe.
2- Header Pipe steel tubing that carries exhaust gases from the exhaust
manifold to the catalytic converter or muffler.
3- Catalytic converter, Intermediate pipe, Muffler, Tailpipe, Hangers, Heat
Shields, Exhaust system clamps.

Fig. (36) Exhaust System Details.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page51
 Fig. (37) An Exhaust silencing Tube.

Exhaust Back Pressure:

Is the pressure developed in the exhaust system during engine running.
High back pressure reduces engine power. A well-designed exhaust system
should have low back pressure.

Advantages of SI Engines:
Simple design, high power to weight ratio, Ideal heat release curve,
Good full-load fuel consumption, easy repair & maintenance

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page52
Disadvantages of SI Engines:
Poor part-load efficiency due to mixture quantity control, relatively high
amounts of pollutants NOx, HC & CO in the exhaust gases.

Fig. (38) An Electric Generator powered by SI Engine.

1.9 Compression Ignition Engines (Diesel Engines):

The basic difference between gasoline & diesel engines is the means by
which fuel and air are mixed and burned. In the gasoline engine, fuel and air
are mixed external to the cylinder volume, but in diesel engines fuel and air
are mixed internally, during suction stroke, air only is inducted into the
cylinders.
Diesel engines are able to operate at higher compression ratio that in
gasoline engines. This is to rise the temperature of the compressed air inside
the cylinders to enable the burn & auto-ignite of the injected diesel spray
from the diesel injection fuel system. The period between the start of fuel
injection and auto-ignition is called the ignition delay period. This delay time
must be small as possible to prevent knock or what is called detonation.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page53
Diesel fuel must possess the ability to auto-ignition easily, where as gasoline
must resist auto-ignition.

Fig. (39) Cutaway view of diesel engine.

Combustion Process:
The start of diesel injection (mixture formation) and start of exothermic
reaction (ignition) are separated by a certain period of time called ignition
lag or delay period. This time lag depends on many factors, the fuel quality
(cetan number), the compression ratio and final compressed air temperature
and engine operational load.
The combustion process can be sub-divided into two main phases, "a
pre-mixed flame phase" in which fuel injected prior the start of ignition and
mixed with air combusts, and the "diffusion flame phase" in which fuel is
injected after the start of ignition.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page54
 That portion of the combusted fuel which burns as a very rapid premixed
flame is primary responsible for the pressure increase, and cause the engine
noise and generation of oxides of nitrogen. The slower burning diffusion
flame is mainly responsible for soot formation and unburned hydrocarbons.
To reduce engine noise a pre-combustion & swirl combustion chambers used
rather than direct injection chambers.

Fig. (40) Sex Cylinders compression Ignition Engine (Diesel Engine).

Basic Diesel Fuel Injection System:

It consists of 4 main items:
1- Injection pump high pressure, mechanical pump that meters the correct
amount of fuel and delivers it to each injector nozzle at the proper time.
2- Injection lines high-strength steel tubing that carries fuel to each injector
nozzle.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page55
3- Injector nozzles spring-loaded valves that spray fuel into each combustion
chamber.
4- Glow plugs electric heating elements that warm air in pre-combustion
chambers to aid starting of cold engine.
The diesel fuel supply system feeds fuel to the injection pump, normally
using an inline electric pump. The injection pump controls how much fuel is
forced to the injector nozzles inside the engine cylinders to start combustion.
A return line carries excess fuel back to the fuel tank.

Fig.(41) cutaway view of in-line diesel injection pump.

Electronic Diesel Injection System:

The computer controlled diesel system uses a computer, sensors, and
actuator to increase the efficiency of mechanical diesel injection. The sensors
feed signals to the computer. This system is similar to that used for gasoline
injection but with higher pressure.

Turbo & Super Charger:

A normally aspirated engine, or atmospheric engines, uses atmospheric
pressure to push air into the engine. This makes a limited amount of fuel can
be burned on each power stroke.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page56
 A turbocharger is an exhaust-driven blower that forces air into the engine
under pressure. It is used on small gasoline & diesel engines to increase
power output. It improves engine efficiency, fuel economy & emission
levels. This is especially true with diesel engines.

Fig. (42) Turbocharger.

Superchargers:
It is a compressor or blower driven by a belt, chain, or gears. Unlike a
turbocharger, it is not driven by engine exhaust gases. It has a driven rotor
which compresses air inside the housing and force the air under pressure into
the engine intake manifold. Most passenger car superchargers are driven by a
belt on the front of the engine.

Fig. (43) Turbo-supercharge.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page57
 Fig. (44) Rail-way Locomotive using diesel engine.

Advantages of Diesel Engines:

1- Very low fuel consumption.
2- Long service life.
3- Low pollutant emissions.
4- Easy to supercharge.
5- Good volumetric efficiency for all engine speed range.
Disadvantages of Diesel Engines:
1- Valve control mechanism is highly complex.
2- Relatively low power to weight ratio.
3- Highly capital engine price & spare parts.
4- Un-easy repair & maintenance.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page58
1.10 Two Stroke Engine:
As the name implies, two stroke engines need only two strokes of the
piston or one revolution of the crank to complete one cycle. i.e. one power
stroke every one revolution instead of two for the 4-stroke engine. This type
of engines has no inlet or exhaust valves, but inlet mixture or exhaust gases
go in and out of the engine through ports in the cylinder opened & closed
through the reciprocations of the piston up and down.

Fig. (45) Two-stroke engine Cutaway.

Advantage of Two stroke engine:

1- Simple engine design & low weigh.
2- Low manufacturing costs.
3- More favorable tensional force diagram.

Disadvantages:
1- Higher fuel consumption.
2- Scavenging is not perfect.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page59
 3- Higher HC emissions.
4- Poor volumetric efficiency.

Engine Estimated Life Time:

Engine life time means the ability of the engine to operate continually
for certain time or certain mileage till some of inadmissible wear is appear,
for the estimation of the engine life time, these parameters may be used:

Revolution Coefficient (nr)

It is the number of crank revs per one Km distance path.
nr = 10³ × itotal / 2 π × rd
itotal .. total gear ratio from engine to derived wheels
rd …Tire radius.
Piston stroke Coefficient (Sp)
Piston path per 1 Km distance path with direct drive engaging.
Sp = S × nr / 500 = S × io / π × rd
S …. Stroke (mm)
nr… Coefficient of revolution.
rd..... Tire dynamic radius in meters.
io .....overall gear ratio (total or max.)
It is seen that the rate of engine wear and decay of engine life time is
proportional to the increase of revolutions & piston path per one Km road
distance.

1.11 Shock wave:

When the speed of a source equals the speed of sound (v = c) the wave
fronts cannot escape the source. The resulting pile of waves forms a large
amplitude "sound barrier" that makes sustained flight at this speed difficult
and risky.

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 The term "sound barrier" or "sonic barrier" first came into use during
World War Two. Fighter pilots engaged in high speed dives noticed several
irregularities as flying speeds approached the speed of sound: aerodynamic
drag increased markedly, much more than normally associated with
increased speed, while lift and maneuverability decreased in a similarly
unusual manner. Pilots at the time mistakenly thought that these effects
meant that supersonic flight was impossible; that somehow airplanes would
never travel faster than the speed of sound. They were wrong.
When the speed of a source exceeds the speed of sound (v > c) the wave
fronts lag behind the source in a cone-shaped region with the source at the
vertex. The edge of the cone forms a supersonic wave front with an
unusually large amplitude called a "shock wave". When a shock wave
reaches an observer a "sonic boom" is heard.
Unlike ordinary sound waves, the speed of a shock wave varies with its
amplitude. The speed of a shock wave is always greater than the speed of
sound in the fluid and decreases as the amplitude of the wave decreases.
When the shock wave speed equals the normal speed, the shock wave dies
and is reduced to an ordinary sound wave.

Fig. (46) Jet fighter planes with conical shock waves.

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The ratio of the speed of a moving object (v) to the speed of sound (c) in a
fluid is known as the Mach number in honor of Ernst Mach (1838–1916), the
Moravian physicist, psychologist, and philosopher who studied sound and
ballistics.

The Mach number is a dimensionless measure of speed common in

aerodynamics. Mach 0.5 is half the speed of sound, Mach 2 is twice the
speed of sound, and so on. Speeds less than the speed of sound have a Mach
number between zero and one and are described as subsonic. Those greater
than the speed of sound have Mach numbers greater than one are a described
as supersonic. Speeds approximately equal to the speed of sound have Mach
numbers approximately equal to one and are described as transonic.
The shock wave from a supersonic object is a cone composed of overlapping
spherical wave fronts. As any one of these wave fronts forms, it propagates
radially outward at speed c and acquires a radius ct. At the same time the
source, traveling at speed v moves forward vt. These two displacements form
the leg and hypotenuse, respectively, of a right triangle and can be used to
determine the Mach angle at the vertex of the shock cone.

When an object travels slower than sound, the ratio in this equation is
greater than one, and the equation does not have a real solution. This makes
absolute sense as there is no shock wave to speak of at subsonic speeds.
Traveling at the speed of sound makes the ratio equal one and results in a
Mach angle of ninety degrees. At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall
of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above
the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than
ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page62
pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a simple way
to determine the speed of a supersonic object.

Explosive detonation
 low explosive, subsonic combustion, deflagration speeds measured in
hundreds of m/s
o gunpowder (KNO3 or NaNO3 + C + S)
 high explosive, supersonic combustion, detonation speeds measured in
thousands of m/s
o TNT (trinitrotoluene) 6,900 m/s
o NG (nitroglycerine) 7,700 m/s — active ingredient in dynamite
o TATB (tri amino tri nitro benzene) 7,350 m/s — used to trigger
nuclear weapons, extremely insensitive to accidental detonation
o RDX (research department explosive, cyclo tri methyl entri
nitro amine) 8,750 m/s — active ingredient in plastic explosives
(e.g.; C-4)
o HMX (high melt explosive, octogen, octahydro-1,3,5,7-
tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane) 9,100 m/s — military explosive

1.12 Industrial Furnaces:

Electromagnetic spectrum:
It is known that Conduction and convection are heat transfer
mechanisms where energy is transported through molecular processes, i.e.
macroscopic movement of fluids, whereas heat radiation does not require any
medium since it is based on electromagnetic processes. The intensity and the
type of radiation, emitted from a gaseous, liquid or solid body depend on the
surface properties of the body and its temperature, yet they are independent
of its surroundings. If not only the emitted radiation is to be considered, but
also the heat exchange between the body and its surroundings then the type,

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page63
temperature and geometrical orientation in space of the surrounding bodies
must be taken into account. In spite of the fact that in most heat transfer
problems energy is simultaneously transported through conduction and/or
convection and radiation, we will deal henceforth, as far as possible, with
radiation only.

Fig. (47) Forced convection through impinging jets.

Next figure shows the electromagnetic spectrum and the wavelengths at

which heat radiation takes Place and heat the furnace.

Fig. (48) Electromagnetic spectrum.

Dr.Hassanin Khalil, Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Badie, HTI, Mech. Eng. Dept., Combustion, MEC 251, Mar. 2021 Page64
 References

1- Automotive Handbook (BOSCH) J W Willy.

2- Modern Automotive Technology. Anthony E. Schaller.

3- Handbook of Burner Technology for Industrial Furnaces.

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