ISSN 2508-0865 (electronic) No.

2021-06 (August 2021)

Fake news, its dangers, and how we can fight it

Sheila V. Siar

As the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak

Salient Points:
began to wreak havoc on the Philippines and across the
globe, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of
• Fake news existed even in the olden days. But what
the World Health Organization, said at the 2020 Munich makes it different now is the ease with which it is
Security conference that the world is not just fighting a produced, spread, and multiplied, given modern
pandemic but also an infodemic (Lancet 2020). Ghebreyesus communication tools, particularly social media.
was referring to the barrage of false information that was
spreading faster than COVID-19, undermining efforts to • The damage inflicted by fake news can be serious,
arrest the transmission of the deadly disease. and its ramifications far and wide, as news could
travel more quickly on social media, especially
Infodemic is synonymous with misinformation and sensational stories, which most disinformation
disinformation, two different yet related concepts producers invent in selling fake news.
more widely known as ‘fake news’ and part of the
• Increasing awareness of available tools for
so-called ‘information disorder’.
fact-checking, engaging citizens, educating children
to be analytical early on in life, making media
But what really are they? Why would people believe
literacy part of the basic education curriculum,
in fake news and share it? How has fake news affected
and viewing the fight against fake news as a civic
the pandemic response? What has been the impact of and moral responsibility are crucial to combat the
fake news on the economy? How can it be controlled? proliferation of fake news in a sustainable manner.

This Policy Note explains the phenomena of

misinformation and disinformation, the dangers
they pose, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 Fake news and the motivations behind it
pandemic, and measures being implemented by the There are two kinds of fake news: (1) misinformation
public and private sectors to curb the spread of fake or “the dissemination of false information, even if
news. It also provides some policy recommendations not deliberate or malicious, based on unsubstantiated
on how to fight fake news with more sustained and conjecture and in light of various considerations”
lasting results as the end goal. and (2) disinformation or “false information [that] is
spread deliberately and maliciously for personal gain the summary of theories in Table 1, the reasons
or to cause damage to another party” (Schulman are linked to the perception of accuracy as a
and Siman-Tov 2020, p.2). Examples of content that result of repeated exposure to the information
fall under disinformation are false context, imposter (Vasu et al. 2018; Fazio et al. 2019); the perception
content, manipulated content, and fabricated content of the source’s credibility (Pornpitakpan 2004);
(Wardle and Derakhshan 2018). The distinction between the effect of delusion (Bronstein et al. 2019),
misinformation and disinformation suggests that the ideological predispositions (Vasu et al. 2018),
spread of fake news may not be intentional, but its beliefs and values (Vasu et al. 2018), and religious
production could be deliberate or planned. orientation (Bronstein et al. 2019); indifference
to truth, also known as ‘bullshit receptivity’
Belief in fake news (Pennycook and Rand 2019); the tendency to
Cognitive psychology and behavioral research offer overclaim one’s knowledge of general information
several explanations on why people would naively (Pennycook and Rand 2019); and the lack of
believe in false information. As can be gleaned from reflective reasoning (Pennycook and Rand 2019).

Table 1. Why people believe in fake news according to cognitive psychology and behavioral research

Theory Explanation
Illusory truth effect People tend to believe that the information is true when they are repeatedly
(Vasu et al. 2018; Fazio et al. 2019) exposed to it, increasing the perception of accuracy.

Source effect People tend to believe the information provided by those whom they perceive
(Pornpitakpan 2004) as credible.

Primary effect People tend to form conclusive opinions as a result of information that they
(Vasu et al. 2018) first acquired.

Ideology effect People tend to believe in information that is aligned with their
(Vasu et al. 2018) ideological predispositions.

Confirmation bias People tend to seek or interpret evidence that is aligned with their beliefs
(Vasu et al. 2018) and values.

Dogma or religion effect Dogmatic individuals and religious fundamentalists are more likely to believe
(Bronstein et al. 2019) false news.

Delusion effect Delusion-prone individuals are more likely to accept fake news because they
(Bronstein et al. 2019) have a low tendency to engage in analytic and open-minded thinking.

Lack of reflective reasoning People who often fail to distinguish truth from falsehood often lack careful
(Pennycook and Rand 2019) reasoning and relevant knowledge.

Bullshit receptivity People who have no concern for truth are more likely to believe in
(Pennycook and Rand 2019) fake news.

Overclaiming People who tend to “self-enhance” when asked about their familiarity with
(Pennycook and Rand 2019) general knowledge tend to believe in fake news.

Sources: Pennycook and Rand (2021) with additional references

2 w Fake news, its dangers, and how we can fight it

In an interview, Jeff Hancock, a scholar at Stanford physical and mental impairment and, consequently,
University, explained the connection between distressing less inclination to verify the information.
situations, such as a global health emergency and the
increased propensity to believe in fake news. According Moreover, Apuke and Omar (2021) analyzed the
to Hancock, people are particularly drawn to false factors that led to the sharing of misinformation
information unintentionally to ease their anxiety or on COVID-19 in Nigeria. Their results showed that
feeling of insecurity (De Witte 2020). altruism or the desire to help others was the
strongest predictor. Having a high altruistic attitude
Sharing of fake news increases the propensity of sharing misinformation
In terms of the motivations for sharing fake news, unknowingly to help others. This is consistent with
these can either be unintentional or deliberate. the results of their earlier study in the same country,
Again, drawing from cognitive psychology research, where they found that people unknowingly shared
it can be the effect of bullshit receptivity or the false information on the Ebola virus to offer a
“I don’t care if it is true or not” attitude. Individuals solution or provide a warning (Apuke and Omar 2020).
who exhibit this behavior have no regard for truth Next to altruism, the desire to share information
and may readily share information regardless of was the second strongest predictor. Other factors
whether they perceive it as truth or falsehood that they found were to build and keep social
(Pennycook and Rand 2019). connections (heightened by the lack of face-to-face
interaction during the pandemic), to seek information,
Another explanation is the concept of virtue signaling and to pass the time.
or demonstrating one’s good character by conveying
opinions that will be acceptable to others, especially on Social media: A potent channel for
social media (Cambridge Dictionary n.d.), or using ‘moral spreading fake news
talk’ to enhance one’s reputation (Westra 2021). When in False information existed even in the olden times.
excess, virtue signaling may lead one to make exaggerated It is as old as humanity. What makes fake news
claims to achieve status-seeking goals (Westra 2021). different now is the ease with which it is produced,
spread, and multiplied, given modern communication
Furthermore, both the production and dissemination tools, particularly social media. It is easy to disseminate
of fake news can be intentional, as stated earlier, information to a mass audience with social media, and
to cause harm (Wardle 2018) or for personal gain it is also easy to access information.
(Schulman and Siman-Tov 2020).
Social media is also driven by the so-called “attention
In addition, a study by Talwar et al. (2019) found economy”, whereby “anyone can become a vendor
several factors that determine fake news sharing on and profit from attention” (Ryan et al. 2020, p.8).
social media. These include high trust in the content First introduced by social scientist Herbert Simon,
on social media and openness to share information, this concept treats human attention as a scarce
even personal, online. Another predictor found is having commodity, with many information vendors vying
a FOMO (fear of missing out) attitude, thus the desire for its attention. For example, in business, advertisers
to remain active online and be updated on the latest are usually sought to employ strategies to increase
buzz, whether true or not. Finally, social media fatigue the audience’s awareness of a brand and make
resulting from information overload can result in them buy it repeatedly. The same is true with

PIDS Policy Notes 2021-06 w 3

disinformation, whereby its producers’ primary Hootsuite, out of a total global population of
objective is to capture the audience’s attention 7.75 billion in 2020, 49 percent are active social
and manipulate them to spread false information media users, 59 percent have access to the internet,
by sharing it. Baccarella et al. (2018) said that what and 67 percent have access to a mobile phone.
makes disinformation often appealing to many people Zeroing on the Philippines, while it may not have
is sensationalism. According to Petre et al. (2015), the highest internet and social media penetration
such a characteristic of disinformation is used by rates in Southeast Asia, Filipinos spend the longest
content producers to drive up web traffic for which hours online (Figure 1).
they gain through advertising revenues.
Fake news and COVID-19
Finally, the ubiquity and accessibility of social media Based on false information monitored by the
make it a potent channel for spreading fake news. International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), an
Based on statistics compiled by We Are Social and entity under the journalism research organization

Figure 1. Internet and social media penetration and use in selected Southeast Asian countries, 2020

Source: We Are Social and Hootsuite (2020)

4 w Fake new, its dangers, and how we can fight it

Poynter Institute, Dang (2021) classified the content Southeast Asian countries, with the addition of
of fake news about COVID-19 circulating in several false and misleading statistics in Thailand. Table 2
Southeast Asian countries as of May 25, 2020. shows some examples of myths that have circulated
As shown in Figure 2, most false information on about COVID-19.
COVID-19 circulating in the Philippines, Thailand,
and Myanmar was about symptoms, diagnosis, It is not easy to quantify the impacts of false
prevention, and treatment measures, which comprised information, but one thing is certain, its ramifications
32–46 percent of the fake news detected by IFCN in are serious, and the effects are far and wide since
these countries. In contrast, the topmost content in news could travel more quickly on social media.
Indonesia was political, religious, and ethnic-targeted In addition, sensational stories, which most
fake news. False information related to the disinformation producers invent in selling fake news,
government’s actions and regulation was the second have a mass appeal, explaining why fake news could
most prevalent fake news monitored in the four travel faster than real news.

Figure 2. Fake news detected in selected Southeast Asian countries, 2020 (% by type of content)

Source: Dang (2021)

PIDS Policy Notes 2021-06 w 5

Table 2. Examples of myths related to COVID-19

Category Example
Prevention or treatment Drink alcohol and alcohol-based cleaning products, bleach, and disinfectant
Gargle with warm saltwater
Inhale hot air from a hairdryer
Eat ginger
Use vitamins, teas, and essential oils
Eat less meat and follow a vegetarian diet (India)
Sit in the sun

Nature of COVID-19 Cannot withstand high temperatures

Cannot live in hot or temperate regions

Conspiracy theories The Chinese created the virus

The United States created the virus to undermine the Chinese
COVID-19 is a biological weapon

Vaccine side-effects and efficacy Toxic and can cause death

Can cause certain illnesses
Can alter human DNA
It is better to develop immunity by getting the disease than by getting vaccinated

Source: Author’s compilation

Fake news about COVID-19 can expose individuals and around 5,800 people in the US had been hospitalized
communities to further health risks from not following due to false information on social media, with many
the health protocols and not getting vaccinated. dying from consuming methanol or alcohol-based
Likewise, it can instigate public panic, fear, and anxiety, cleaning products (Coleman 2020).
creating a host of mental health issues.
News about the supposed health benefits of certain
In the United States (US), anti-ethnic sentiments plants, such as ginger, in preventing COVID-19
against Asians linking them to COVID-19 have infections also triggered an artificial spike in their
stimulated racial tensions and fueled xenophobic prices, causing a global shortage (Nichols 2021).
violence and discrimination (BBC 2021). In the early However, this sudden increase in world market
days of the pandemic, when little was known about demand has been beneficial for ginger farmers,
COVID-19 and a lot of false information was circulating as shown in a study in Northeast Thailand,
about prevention and treatment measures, there although this good fortune has been constrained
had been news of people drinking bleach or rubbing by transportation restrictions that affected input
alcohol (Reimann 2020). A BBC article in August 2020 supply chains during the lockdowns (Wannaprasert
reported that based on a study published in the and Choenkwan 2021). The opposite, however,
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, happened in India. Its meat traders, particularly

6 w Fake new, its dangers, and how we can fight it

poultry producers and sellers, were seriously affected Before the pandemic, several pieces of legislation to
by false claims circulated in April 2020 that eating fight misinformation were filed in Congress, such as
vegetarian food and eliminating meat from the diet House Bill 6022 and Senate Bill 1492. However, these
can prevent COVID-19 infections. According to Indian did not gain traction in the legislative mill. Globally,
authorities, this misinformation contributed to losses regulations purportedly against misinformation remain
of up to INR 130 billion or USD 1.8 billion to India’s contentious and controversial, given arguments that a
poultry industry (Menon 2020). fake news law could give the government too much
power over free speech.
False information on social media could also cause
unnecessary hoarding and panic buying. The usage of In terms of COVID-19, there have been websites dedicated
social media platforms was positively correlated with panic to COVID-19 information resources or a special section on
buying in a study by Arafat et al. (2021). In the health COVID-19 on the official websites of government agencies,
supply chain, Besson (2020) noted that the sudden increase international organizations, and the academe.
in the demand for health supplies, such as masks and
protective equipment, has disrupted the local and global Moreover, fact-checking initiatives of local and
supply, resulting in a market failure. It has become a seller’s international media organizations are also on the
market where sellers and distributors dictate the prices and rise. Among these initiatives are those of the
conditions. This situation, he explained, has reduced access IFCN ([Link] Google
to health supplies for low- and middle-income countries. ([Link]
The same can be said for the poor and marginalized groups [Link] ([Link]
within a country. Facebook ([Link]
journalismproject/programs/third-party-fact-checking/
Before the pandemic, a study estimated that the how-it-works), Rappler ([Link]
global economy loses USD 78 billion each year from moveph/webinar-fact-checking-coronavirus),
fake news circulating in the financial, public health, and Vera Files ([Link]
business sectors, and politics (University of Baltimore and FactRakers ([Link]
and CHEQ 2019). Public health misinformation has cost
the US alone USD 9 billion due to false information RAND Corporation has a comprehensive list of
about vaccines and vaccine-preventable diseases. disinformation tools, such as fact-checking websites,
applications, and browser extensions, that are publicly
What is being done to control fake news accessible (see [Link]
In the area of regulation, the Revised Penal Code of truth-decay/fighting-disinformation/[Link]).
the Philippines (Republic Act 10951) stipulated that
the publication by any person of “false news which What more can be done
may endanger the public order, or cause damage to Current interventions, particularly fact-checking
the interest or credit of the State” is punishable by initiatives, are undeniably helpful. However, more can be
law (Article 154, item 1). done to ensure sustained and lasting results.

Moreover, the Bayanihan to Heal as One Act, which 1. Increase awareness of available tools for
already expired, had a fake news provision. It was fact-checking. While online fact-checking tools
absent in the succeeding Bayanihan law. are available for free, familiarity and understanding

PIDS Policy Notes 2021-06 w 7

 of these tools are still low. Government agencies, References
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Philippine Institute for Development Studies policy issues. The treatise is holistic in approach and aims to provide useful
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Telephone: (+63-2) 8877-4000 Sheila V. Siar is the director of the PIDS Research Information Department. The
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10 w Fake new, its dangers, and how we can fight it