VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.

|BSN 1-C
 Justice - giving what is due
ETHICS
 Importance of rules to human beings
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system
ETHICS
 It ensure product safety, employee safety, and product
 Is a branch of philosophy that studies morality or the
quality
rightness or wrongness of human conduct
 Regulate monopolies and competitiveness
 Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos which
means character, custom, or manners MORAL STANDARDS
 These are moral values and moral principles that
Ethical questions:
people have for kinds of actions they believe are
 What is the good and the bad?
morally right/acceptable and wrong/unacceptable,
 Who is a moral person?
 What makes an act right? NON-MORAL STANDARDS
 Rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
Ethics centers on norms of human conduct
considerationsà they are not necessarily linked to
morality or lack ethical sense
MORALITY
 E.g. rules of etiquette, fashion standards, games,
 Speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards to
house rules
standards of right or wrong behaviour
 Religious rules, some traditions, ordinances are
 Morality and ethics are oftentimes used
technically non-moral standards.
interchangeably but both carry the concept of moral
standards or rules with regard to behaviour DISTINCTIONS

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 Are you a moral person?  Moral Standards involve serious wrong or significant

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 Why do you do good things? benefits

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 Are humans by nature good or evil?  Example: lying, deception, killing

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 Are humans really altruistic?  Compared to non-moral standards for example;
violating rules in sports does not necessarily affect

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What influences the concept of morality?
one’s life or wellbeing
 Religion
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 Culture
figures- moral standards are not invented, formed, or
 Social contract to live in harmony
generated by authoritative bodies or persons for they
 Evolutionary trait to survive
are socially constructed
 Empathy
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 Moral standards cannot be nullified by the decisions

 Others
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of particular authoritative body

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Importance of rules to human beings  Concept of superiority and achieve social reality apart
 Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or from the individual
principles governing conduct within a specific  Moral Standards have the trait of universalizability -
activity or sphereà dictates what is allowed or not everyone should live up to moral standardsà must
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allowed in a particular situation apply to all who are relevantly in the same situation
 What would happen if there are no rules in a specific  E.g. murder is a criminal offense, stealing is wrong
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society? Consistency
 Importance of rules to human beings  Moral Standards are based on impartial consideration-
it goes beyond certain personal interests in which
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior
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each person’s interests are impartially counted as

 Rules limit behavior by imposing consequences to equal and giving equal consideration to the interests
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those who will violate them of all concerned parties

 To gain acceptance in a society  Impartiality- free of bias or prejudice
 Fear to be imprison  E.g. observance of laws-objectivity
 E.g. panopticon
DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA
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2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and

 Dilemma - refers to a situation in which a tough
freedom
choice has to be made between two or more options,
 Rules are framework for society
especially more or less equally undesirable ones, not
 Nation of lawsà Constitution
all dilemmas are moral dilemmas
 Checks and balance of power between government
 Moral/ Ethical Dilemmas - are situations in which a
and its people
difficult choice has to be made between 2 courses of
 Grants freedom and protection
action, either of which entails transgressing a moral
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings
principle. In short, it involves conflicts between moral
 Prevents exploitation and domination of the
requirements
strong/privilege
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 Rules provide justiceà richest and powerful people
have limitations that they need to abide like the rest
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
MORAL DILEMMA  Human have the ability to select his actions and is not
 A friend discovers her best friend’s boyfriend is led by blind instinct
cheating. She must decide whether to tell her friend or  Capable of self-respect through empathy
keep it a secret. b. Only humans can act morally or immorally
 Only beings that can act morally or
KEY FEATURES OF MORAL DILEMMA
immorally can sacrifice their interests for the
 The agent is required to do each of two (or more)
sake of others
actions;
 Other species do things out of instinct
 The agent can do each of the actions; but cannot do
c. Only human beings are part of the moral
both or all the actions
community
 Often condemned to a moral failure, no matter what
 The so-called moral community is not
he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do
defined in terms of the intrinsic properties
something that he ought to do.
that beings have, but rather in terms of the
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA essential social relations that exist between
1. Personal Dilemmas or among beings. Distinctively, only human
 Are those experienced and resolved on the personal beings can possess or practice values such as
level. love, honor, social relationships, forgiveness,
 Since many ethical decisions are personally made, compassion, and altruism.
many, if not most of, moral dilemmas fall under, or  Only human beings can communicate with
boil down to this level. each other in truly meaningful ways, and can

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2. Organizational Dilemmas form deep personal relationships with each

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 Refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by other (showing concern)
 Only humans has the ability to participate in

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social organizations. This category includes moral

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dilemmas in business, medical field, and public collective cognition
sector. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY

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 E.g. healthcare orgs - euthanasia, right to die
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 Business-related dilemmas - employee rights,
 Reason and Impartiality
 “Moral judgments must be backed by sound
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harassment, misleading advertising, job reasoning and that morality requires the impartial
discrimination, labor unions consideration of all parties involve” (Rachels, 1941)
 Public government - accepting gifts, transparency,
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REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

agenda setting
 Reason as a requirement for morality entails that
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3. Structural Dilemmas
human feelings may be important in ethical decisions,
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 Refer to cases involving network of institutions and

but they ought to be guided by reason. It helps us to
operative theoretical paradigm. As they usually
evaluate our feelings and intuitions
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and
 Impartiality known as even-handedness or fair-
organizations, they may be large in scope and extent
mindedness involves the idea that each individual’s
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than organizational dilemmas.

interests and point of view are equally important.
 E.g. prices of medicine in the Philippines (conflict
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Decisions must be based on objective criteria rather

between the buyers and involved researchers)
than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
POLITICAL DYNASTIES benefit to one person over another for improper
 Only human beings can be ethical reasons
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 One basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human

beings can be truly ethical. Most philosophers hold CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
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that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits

that make it possible for them to be moral.  Kayan Lahwi Tribe
a. Only human being are rational, autonomous, and (Thailand/Myanmar)
self-conscious
sh

 Known for wearing neck rings, brass

 These qualities are believed to confer a full coils that are placed around the
and equal moral status to those that possess neck, appearing to lengthen it.
them as these beings are the only ones  Lip Plate/Plug/Disc
 Form of body modification
capable of achieving certain values and  Located in Africa
goods.  Head Hunting Tribes of Luzon
 These qualities are deserve full and equal  These ethnic groups live chiefly in the
moral status. In short, these are only Cordillera Central of northern Luzon.
exclusive to humans.  These groups have traditionally been
 E.g. appreciation of art, literature, music that somewhat hostile towards each other
and didn’t trade much out of fear of
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being attacked.
 Ashura
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 Shiite muslims around the world will sometimes celebrate the Values, beliefs, cultural norms, and social structures
death of Imam Hussein, a descendant of the Prophet that transcend the individual and control them.
Muhammad, who was killed by dagger stabs to his skull.
 They call this day/celebration “Ashura”, and some will These are external to us and are outside of our
repeatedly hit their heads with daggers or knives or swords, control.
spilling their own blood to respect Imam Hussein.  Social Convention
 Dani Tribe of Indonesia  Those agreed upon by people in societyà these are
 Women cut off the tips of one of their the usual, customary, and acceptable ways through
fingers every time a family member
dies, evidently as a representation of
which things are done within a group. There is a
their grief (and to satisfy ancestral blanket of legitimacy.
ghosts).  Dual Reality of Social Life:
 Blackening (Scottish wedding custom)  Man creates social reality but is also a product of
 A traditional wedding custom performed social reality
in the days or weeks prior to marriages  So moral law is only a social convention
in rural areas of Scotland and Northern
Ireland.
 Covered in food MORALITY AS AN EFFECT OF SOCIAL
CONDITIONING
CULTURE
 Refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,  Social Conditioning is the sociological process of
experience, beliefs, ideas, values, attitudes, meanings, training individuals in a society to respond in a manner
hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial generally approved by the society.
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects  Conscience are due to societyà as society expresses

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 Are patterns of behavior implicit or explicit, acquired disapproval, people become aware of the reproof,

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and transmitted by symbols dissatisfaction or contempt that develop into a habit of

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 Is the sum total of learned behavior of a group of people conscience when one considers carrying out those

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 A cultivated behavior; totality of person’s learned and actions.

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experienced
C.S. LEWIS: MORALITY BELONGS TO THE SAME
 Is a symbolic communication
rs e CLASS AS MATHEMATICS
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 Includes all the things individuals learn while growing
up in a particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, A. Although there are differences between the moral ideas
rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, of one time or country and those of another, the
notions about the proper way to live, and other ideas differences are not really very great.
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about how the world worksà we call this cultural  Nations or cultures only have slightly different
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knowledge moralities but not quite different ones. We can

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CULTURE’S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR recognize the same moral law running through them
 Culture is way of life all (universal values)
 Includes moral values and behaviors, along with B. We affirm that the morality of a person is better or
knowledge, beliefs, symbols that they accept worse than that of another, which means that there is a
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“generally without thinking about them, and that are moral standard or rule by which we measure both
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passed along by communication and imitation from moralities and that standard is real.
one generation to the next”  Concept of real morality: thing that is right and
 Social Learning independent of what people think
 Process by which individuals acquire knowledge  Argues that moral law is not a mere social
is

from others in the groups to which they belong. convention to which each culture or society just
happens to approve
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People learn moral and aspects of right and wrong

from transmitter of cultures” parents, teachers,  Social Conditioning Theory of Morality is argued to be
novels, films, priests etc. People develop a set of problematic because there are in fact, plenty of
idea of what is right and wrong by observing, situations where a person, also conditioned and
influenced by his culture to adopt a particular course,
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communicating, and engaging to them

It is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society without feels the moral obligation to take an entirely different
being affected by culture action.
 We do not submit, nonetheless, that social conditioning
It is hard to grow up in a particular culture without being impacted by does not in any way affect our ethical knowledge. It is
how it views morality or what is ethically right or wrong
the intellect that remembers what actions are moral and
what are not, therefore, intellect can be molded or
This is the case because individuals are a product of their culture and learning socially conditioned and not the sense of moral
a culture is an essential part of human development (De Guzman and Pena, obligation or conscience
2016)
MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION
CULTURAL
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 Social Fact
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 Is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices  People in some societies (primitive tribes) believe that
should be understood based on that person’s own the Earth is flat, whereas Europeans hold that the Earth
culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of is (roughly) spherical. Therefore, there is no objective
another truth in geography. Belief in the shape of the earth is
 Other cultures are not wrong, rather different… only a matter of opinion, and opinions vary from
culture to culture.à is this argument valid?
CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ETHICS  With this, we can say that just because various societies
 Cultural Relativism, the most dominant form of moral disagree with something, it does not mean that there is
relativism, defines moral as what is socially approved no objective truth
by the majority in a particular culture. In short, an act is  Cultural Relativist goes wrong in sweeping a
ethical in a culture that approves of it, but immoral in conclusion about an issue from the mere fact that people
one that disapproves of it. disagree about it…
 Moral Subjectivism - the standard is a particular agent
JUST HOW MUCH DO CULTURES DIFFER?
 Cultural Relativism - the basis is the given society
 Cultural relativists observe that societies fundamentally  Example:
disagree about ethical issues. Morality differs in every  Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas
society as concepts of what is right and wrong vary we believe that infanticide is immoral. With this, the
from culture to culture. first assumption is that Eskimos have very different
values from ours however:
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: AN ANALYSIS  Eskimos protect its babies if conditions permit. They

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nurse their infant for very long time.

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1. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism:
 There is no universal truth, so this encourage  Infanticide especially among girls (males are primary

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tolerance by being open-minded food providers, hunters suffer high casualty rate) is a

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 Our feelings and beliefs are only products of recognition that drastic measures are sometimes needed
to ensure the family’s survival.

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cultural conditioning thus, it do not reflect the truth
 This shows that it is wrong to conclude that there is
rs e
 Believes that culture and morality is conventional
disagreement about values and morality just because
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2. The theory’s ethical faults
 Cultural Relativism discourages analytical thinking customs differ.
and independent decision making in ethics as it THE BAD CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL
requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription RELATIVISM
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to social norm. Thus, in order to be ethical,

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A. We could no longer say that the customs of other

folkways and cultural norms should be followed
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societies are morally inferior to our own

uncritically
 Example: We could not say that Anti-Semitism and
 Concept of tolerance is self-contradictory
Slavery are wrong
 It begs the question, then is the culture of slavery,
B. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just
racism, and oppression morally acceptable?
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by consulting the standards of our society

 Cultural Relativism ins only practicable if people
 The implication is that people will think that their
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do not belong to more than one institution

own society’s code is perfect, rather than thinking
 There are not absolutes is self-defeating
of ways it might be improved. In short, cultural
RACHEL’S EVALUATION of CULTURAL RELATIVISM relativism would stop us from criticizing our own
C. The ide a of moral progress is called into doubt
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 He explains that the cultural relativists’ approach is to  There is no standard by which we judge the new
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argue from facts about the differences between cultural ways as better or progressive. (e.g. Social reform)
outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality.
 Example: The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the ASIAN MORAL STANDING
dead, whereas the Callatians (an Indian Tribe) believed  Eastern Ethics:
sh

it was right. Therefore, eating the dead is neither  Is very much about the protocol of showing respect
objectively right nor objectively wrong. It is merely a and the notion that one must do what is right and
matter of opinion which varies from culture to culture. expected of him and the universe will take care of
 Cultural Differences argument - different cultures have the rest
different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective  Western Ethics:
truth in morality.  Is basically about finding truth or what is rationally
or logically true. It puts emphasis on justice and
law.
EAST VS. WEST
AGAINST THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
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ARGUMENT: Eastern Ethics
FOCUS Finding truth Protocol & Respect
 Another example:
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
BASIS Rational thought Religious teachings  Is derived from the Greek word ‘charaktêr’
Logic, cause and Respect towards which was initially used us a mark impressed
EMPHASIS upon a coin.
effect family
Hinduism,  The word character later came to mean a
Athens, Rome, distinct mark by which one thing was
Buddhism,
ROOTS IN Judeo, and distinguished from others, and then chiefly to
Confucianism, and
Christianity mean the assemblage of qualities that
Taoism
APPROACH Rational Holistic & Cultural distinguish one person from another
CONFLICT Good and bad, light  This stress on distinctiveness or individuality
& Good over evil and dark all exist in tends to merge “character” with “personality”
HARMONY equilibrium in modern usage.
 At the beginning the Book II of the Nicomachean
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTHS AND Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that
WEAKNESSES there are two distinct of human excellence;
 Filipino Cultural Morality centers on ideally having a a. Excellences of thought
smooth interpersonal relationship with others through: b. Excellences of character
1. Pakikisama - maintain good public relations  TERMINOLOGY
2. Hiya - concern with how one appears in the eye of  Êthikai aretai - often translated as “moral
others virtue(s)” and “moral excellence”
3. Amor Propio - comes from the tendency of a person  Êthikos (ethical)- the adjective cognate with

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to protect his or her dignity and honor ‘êthos’ (character)

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4. Utang na Loob - debt of gratitude, balance of  Moreover, philosophers usually think that moral
character traits have an irreducibly evaluative

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obligations and debts

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5. Filipino Hospitality - innate ability and trait of dimension; that is, they involve a normative
Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their judgement.

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guests
6. Respect for elders rs e 2. THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND
CHARACTER
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UNIVERSAL VALUES: VALUES GENERALLY  Virtues traits of character:
SHARED BY CULTURES  Stable and endure
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 Strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong  Not mere products of fortune
 Values that must be generally shared by many cultures  Product of learning, constant practice and
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are: cultivation
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1. Truth Telling - communication in all forms is  Are called excellences of human being
universal, saying the truth is the most important  Greek moralists believe virtuous acts complete or
reason on what someone is paying attention to what perfect human life.
anyone communicates  Greek philosophers think that it takes someone with
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2. Valuing or Respecting Life - necessitates the good moral character to:

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prohibition of murder. If everyone is trying to kill  Determine what individual acts are appropriate
each other, everyone is on guard and avoiding and reasonable on certain situations
people that will make societies impossible to  Decide how and when to secure goods and
emerge. resources for himself/herself and others
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 This proves that there are some moral rules that all  Aristotle states that it’s not easy to define in rules
which acts are deserve moral praise and blame.
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societies will have in common because those rules are

necessary for society to exist. Requires judgment of virtuous person (someone
with good moral character).
Lesson II: The Moral Agent 3. MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS
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Moral Agent  Moral Character

 Agent - morally responsible for having the moral  Is the existence or lack of virtues.
character or for the outcome of that trait.  Dispositions
 Is a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a
Developing Virtue as a Moral Habit state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a
 Moral Character - refers to the existence or lack of specified way that may be learned.
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and  Particular kinds of properties or characteristics
loyalty. that objects can possess.
 The moral character traits that constitute a person’s
1. This
MORAL CHARACTER
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100000830839217 moral
GMTcharacter
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 Character behavioral and effective dispositions.
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VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 In conclusion: are seen as potentially useful
mechanism that can maintain
 A good moral character is practically the general social order and
dispositions to do virtuous acts. protect individual rights,
rather than as absolute
4. SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT even in adults)
dictates that must be obeyed
simply because they are “the
 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) law”. People also recognize
 He is an American Psychologist who further the flexibility of rules; rules
that no longer serve society’s
developed the theory of moral development by best interests can and should
a Swiss clinical Psychologist Jean Piaget’s be changed.
Stage 6 is hypothetical,
(1896-1980). “ideal” stage that few people
 He employed Piaget’s storytelling involving ever reach. People in this
moral dilemmas. stage adhere to e few abstract,
universal principles (e.g.,
 Six Stages of Moral Development Stage 6: equality of all people, respect
 Kohlberg stated that these six stages involve the Universal for human dignity,
way a person reason out a decision that was ethical commitment to justice) that
principle transcend specific norms and
made. Decisions that are made by an individual rules. They answer to a strong
depend on the moral reasoning that the inner conscience and
willingly disobey laws that
individual thought to be right and justifiable but violate their own ethical
not ethical in concern to other parties. principles.
 He also stated that ethical reasoning of an
individual change through time as they grow as 5. GETTING TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL,

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er as
an adult from being a child. CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL DECISIONS
AGE NATURE OF MORAL

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LEVEL STAGE  Kohlberg and Piaget have combined theory:
RANGE REASONING

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People make decisions based another way of view.
Seen in on what is best for

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preschool themselves, without regard  Stage 1: Respect for Power and Punishment
children, most
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Stage 1: for others’ need or feelings.  A young child (age 1-5) choose what to do –
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Level I: elementary Punishment They obey rules only f what is right – according to what he/she wants
Preconventio school students, -avoidance established by more powerful
-nal Morality some junior high and individuals; they may disobey to do and can do without getting into trouble.
school students, obedience if they aren’t likely to get  In this level, to be right, one ought to be
and a few high caught. “Wrong” behaviors
obedient to the people in power and, thus, avoid
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school students. are those that will be

punished. punishment.
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People recognize that others  “Might makes right”

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also have needs. They may

try to satisfy others’ needs if  Stage 2: Looking out for #1
Stage 2: their own needs are also met  Children (age 5-10) are disposed to be egotistic
Exchange (“you scratch my back, I’ll
of favors scratch yours). They continue or self-serving.
to define right and wrong  Instead of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, the case
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primarily in terms of is more a matter of “you scratch my back and

consequences to themselves.
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People make decisions based I’ll scratch yours”.

Seen in a few on what actions will please  “What’s in it for me?”
older elementary others, especially authority
school students, figures and other individuals  Stage 3: Being a “Good Boy” or “Nice Girl”
some junior high with high status (e.g.,  People (age 8-16) have shifted from pleasing
is

Level II:
school students, Stage 3: teachers, popular peers). They
Conventiona
and many high Good are concerned about themselves to pleasing important others usually
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l Morality
school students boy/girl maintaining relationships parents, teachers, or friends.
(stage 4 typically though sharing, trust, and  When charged of doing something wrong their
does not appear loyalty, and they rake other
until the high people’s perspectives and behavior is likely to be justified by stating
school years) intentions into account when “everyone else is doing it” or “I didn’t intend to
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making decisions.
People look to society as
hurt everyone”.
whole guidelines about right  “I want to be nice”
and wrong. They know rules
necessary for keeping society  Stage 4: Law and order thinking
Stage 4: running smoothly and believe  The majority of people (16 years old and older)
Law and it is their “duty” to obey have internalized society’s rules about how to
order them. However, they perceive
rules to be inflexible; they behave.
don’t necessarily recognize  Social control in this age is exercised through
that society’s needs change,
rules should change as well.
guilt associated with breaking a rule; though the
Level III: Rarely seen Stage 5: People recognize that rules guilt in this case is an automatic emotional
Postconventi before college Social represent agreements among response,
This study source was downloaded by 100000830839217 from [Link] on 08-31-2021 [Link] GMT -05:00 not a rational reaction or conscience
-onal (stage 6 is Contract many individuals about
Morality extremely rare appropriate behavior. Rules
based on moral principles.
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 VILLANUEVA, ERICA S.|BSN 1-C
 In this stage, individuals believe that anyone
breaking the rules deserve to be punished and
“play his/her debt to society”.
 “I’ll do my duty”
 Stage 5: Justice through democracy
 In this stage, people understand the underlying
moral purposes that are supposed to be served
by laws and social customs.
 Respect for the law and a sense of obligation to
live by the rules are present as long as rules
established in a fair manner and fulfill a moral
purpose.
 It is said that only 20-25% of today’s adults
ever reach this stage and most of those that do
not supposedly only get there after their mid-
twenties.
 “I’ll live by the rules or try to change them”
 Stage 6: Deciding on basic moral principles buy
which you will live your life and relate to everyone
fairly

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 In this stage, rare people have evaluated many

er as
values and have rationally chosen a philosophy

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of life that truly guides their life.

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 Social control in this stage is exercised through

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guilt associated with the rational reaction of

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conscience based on moral principles.
 Reaching this stage is thus seen, at least on
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Hohlberg ad Piaget’s theories, as getting to the
highest level, conscience-based moral
decisions.
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