King Abdul-Aziz University

Faculty of Science
Physics Department

PHYS 281
General Physics Laboratory

Student Name:

ID Number:
Introduction
Advancement in science and engineering has emphasized the microscopic world, that is
the world of atoms and its parts. This required that scientist develop individual
initiatives to see, to question and, if possible, to find out why! This process is not a
straight forward procedure but demand a gradual and direct introduction to the
fundamentals methods of analysis.

The objectives of a physics laboratory, such as PHYS 281, are not just verification of
known laws or the blind substitution of data into a formula. The physics laboratory
should bridge the gap between idealized laws discussed in textbooks and the real world.
In order to achieve this, the student must master some fundamental tools that would
aid his/her curiosity. Nonetheless, the mastery of such tools depends on the attitude of
the student toward the laboratory work.

Objectives
The objectives of this laboratory are:

1. To introduce the student to the significance of the experimental approach

through actual experimentation.
2. To apply the theories to real-life problems to develop a better understanding.
3. To introduce the student to the methods of data analysis used in science and
engineering.
4. To develop an "error conscience" so that the engineer and scientist will at least
be aware of the relative worth of all measurements, whatever their type.
5. To familiarize the student, by direct contact, with a great many basic instruments
and their applications.
6. To make the student realize that such tools as graphing, use of algebra and
calculus, etc. are of fundamental importance.
7. To impress on the student that even an experiment which is apparently
unimportant to his/her professional future may contribute directly to the
student's mental development because of the analytics and mathematics
involved.
8. To improve the student's ability of self expression through report presentation.
9. To give the student direct contact with the instructor, and thus the advantages
of close direction and personal discussion of ideas and methods.

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 Laboratory Operation
1. Assignments

Each student will work in a team. Laboratory assignment requires the

performance of an experiment in the laboratory and the presentation of the
data, computations, etc. must be completely worked out in the laboratory
worksheets. All the work should be written up in a report and handed to the
instructor for inspection and grading no more than the next scheduled
laboratory meeting.

2. Data check

At the completion of the experiment, the laboratory worksheets are to be

presented to the instructor to be checked and signed. This permits obvious
errors to be found.

3. Student's responsibility toward equipment

Most equipment is sensitive and expensive. Therefore, apparatus must be

treated with respect. Students must leave their tables and apparatus in good
order: i.e. weighs put away, instruments returned to cases, water emptied, scrap
paper picked up, etc.

The Report
Most experimental work, records of the work done, data taken, and observations made
in the laboratory are kept in the laboratory worksheets. The final reports are abstracted
from such worksheets and this is the method that your laboratory lab work should be
presented to your instructor.

The laboratory report has generally eight parts:

1. Purpose of the experiment (Objective).

2. List of apparatus and a sketch if needed.
3. Equations and their explanation.
4. Procedure
5. Data
6. Computation outline
7. Graphs and results
8. Conclusion
9. Homework assignment questions.

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Errors in laboratory work
Physics is an exact science, but the pointer readings of the physicist's instruments do not
give the exact values of the quantities measured. No measurement in science is
absolutely accurate. The value of physical quantities such as a length, a time-interval or
a temperature, are accurate within a limit. The closer these limits, the more accurate
the measurement.

The difference between the observed value of any physical quantity and the 'standard'
value is called the error of observation. Such errors follow no simple law and, in general,
arise from many causes.

Classification of errors
An error which tends to make an observation too high is called a positive error and one
which makes it too low is called negative error. Errors can be grouped in two general
classes, systematic and random.

Systematic error
It is always produces an error of the same sign. Such errors can be subdivided into three
groups.

(i) Instrumental error: it is caused by faulty, poorly made or improperly

calibrated instruments. For example, a stop watch, that does not run at the
proper rate, will cause an instrumental error. A spring balance, which is not
properly calibrated, will cause an error to the mass of the body weighed by it.
An ammeter or voltmeter is accurate in limited sense. The dial instruments
have zero errors i.e., the pointer does not indicate zero when not in use.
(ii) Personal error: it includes errors of judgment, errors in reading instruments,
writing down the wrong figures, mistakes in arithmetic or using a calculator.
An error, due to parallax, come under this category.
(iii) External errors: these are usually caused by conditions over which the
observer has no control. Examples are:
a. Change in atmospheric pressure in Boyle's law experiment
b. Change in room temperature in velocity of sound experiment

Random errors
In random errors positive and negative errors are equally probable. As an example, we
can take the measurement of the diameter of a cylinder. Even if the readings are taken

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with utmost care, the values of the diameter slightly differ from one another. The best
value is obtained by taking their arithmetic mean. The observed values of the diameter
will be found to lie on both sides of this mean value. The fators causing such types of
errors are unknown are variable. The errors are assumed to be a matter of chance.
Therefore, positive and negative errors are equally probable. The effect of such errors,
on the experimental result, can be made quite small by taking a large number of
observations. However, a large number of observations have no effect on systematic
errors.

In our lab we will use the following equation to calculate the percentage error of our
final result relative to the known theoretical value of the calculated quantity:

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Measurements - Worksheet
1. Investigate some parameters we can measure in the lab and the
instruments required for these measurement. Fill in the below table
showing the different instruments in the lab and the parameter it
measures.

Parameter
Instrument

2. Look at the different measuring devices in front of you and answer the
following questions.

1. The ruler, vernier caliper and micrometer:

a. What is the physical quantity measured by each of them?

b. What is the measuring unit of each of them?

c. What is the value of the major mark?

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 d. What is the value of the minor mark?

e. Using the different object in front of you, take some measurements

by using each of them?

2. The mass balance:

a. What is the physical quantity measured by a balancing scale?

b. What is the measuring unit of a balancing scale?

c. How many scales does the balancing scale in front of you have?

d. In the front scale, what is the value of the major and minor marks?

e. In the middle scale, what is the value of the major and minor marks?

f. In the rear scale, what is the value of the major and minor marks?

g. Take some measurement using the balancing scale and the object
around you.

3. The stop watch:

a. What is the physical quantity measured by a stop watch?

b. What is the measuring unit of a stop watch?

c. What is the value of the major marks?

d. What is the value of the minor marks?

e. Using the stop watch, measure the number of pulses you heart makes
in one minute. Does your pulse rate falls in the normal heart pulse
rate?

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 4. The dynamometer:

a. What is the physical quantity measured by a dynamometer?

b. What is the measuring unit of the dynamometer?

c. What is the value of the major and minor marks in the dynamometer?

d. Take some measurements by using the dynamometer and some

objects in the lab.

Measurements

Precision Measurement Tools

The vernier caliper:

The vernier caliper is used in length measurements to gain an additional

digit of accuracy compared to a simple ruler. The details of the vernier principle
are shown in the illustrations below.

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1. Instructions on use

 Close the jaws lightly on the object to be measured.

 If you are measuring something with a round cross section, make sure that
the axis of the object is perpendicular to the caliper.
 Ignore the top scale, which is calibrated in inches.
 Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units.
 When the jaws are brought together the zero mark on the vernier should
coincide with zero on the rule, if not correction must be applied to readings
obtained with the callipers.

2. Reading the scale:

 Read the centimeter mark on the fixed scale to the left of the 0-mark on the
vernier scale. (2.1 cm)
 Look along the ten marks on the vernier scale and the millimeter marks on
the adjacent fixed scale, until you find the two that most nearly line up. (0.03
cm)
 To get the correct reading, simply add this found digit to your previous
reading. (2.13cm)

Example 1:

The measured length is 2 cm

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 Example 2:

The main scale=3.4 cm

The vernier scale=0.07

The measured length =3.47 cm

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The Micrometer:-
Micrometers are Instruments that measure the thickness or the diameter of
relatively small parts; it produces finer results than a vernier caliper.

1. How to use it?

In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the
thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is secured. Note that the ratchet
knob must be used to secure the object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the
instrument could be damaged or give an inconsistent reading.

2. How to read it?

The diagram to the right is a close-up of the micrometer showing the thimble.

The main scale reading (the last visible line )=8mm

The vernier scale=0

The measured length = 8mm.

Now imagine we turn the thimble just a little bit more, and end up with the situation
shown.

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The main scale reading(the last visible line )=8mm

The vernier scale=0.12

The measured length = 8.12 mm.

Exercise

The main scale reading (the last visible line )= ……mm

The vernier scale=………….

The measured length = ……………….

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Graphs - Worksheet
1. Look at the three different tables below. Can you determine the type of
relation between the parameters x and y in each table?

Table A:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

y 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Table B:

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

y 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512

Table C:

x 0 30 60 90 120 150 210 240 270 300 330 360

y 0 0.5 0.8 1 0.8 0.5 -0.5 -0.8 -1 -0.8 -0.5 0

2. In an experiment we studied the relation between the mass (m) and the
weight (w) for some objects. In each step we changed the mass and
measured the weight experimentally. The results of these
measurements are shown in the following table:

m (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
w (N) 10 20 30 40 50 60

From the above table answer the following questions:,

a. What is the weight of a 4.35 kg object?

b. What is the mass of a body that has a weight equal to 27.5 N?

c. Is the above table enough to find accurate answers for parts a and b?

d. How can you better visualize the results of this experiment and the
relation between its parameters?

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 e. Use a graph paper to plot the data by choosing a suitable scale. What
are the independent and dependant variables?

f. What scale will you use for the x and y axes? What are the values of
the major and minor marks in both axes? Remember to label the axes
correctly.

g. Repeat parts a and b. Are your answers different from the previous
ones? Explain.

h. Calculate the slope of the resulting line. What does this slope
represent?

3. Using the below table, plot the graph that represent these data. Make
sure you take the below points into consideration:
a. Correctly determine the dependant and independent data.
b. Determine the values of the major and minor marks in both axes.
c. Place the title of each axes and its measurement unit.

Table 1:
t(s) 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.45

v(m/s) 0.49 0.61 0.93 1.25 2.19

Table 2:
m(kg) 2 4 5 7 8

∆x (m) 0.245 0.53 0.625 0.888 1.095

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Graphs
Wherever possible, the results of an experiment should be presented in graphical
form. A graph provides the best means of averaging a set of observations. A graph
gives an immediate visual picture about the dependence of one variable quantity on
the other. In plotting the results, the dependent variable should be plotted as
ORDINATES on the Y axis and the independent variable as ABSCISSAE on the X axis.
The use of a graph to obtain readings between experimental points is called
INTERPOLATION. The extending of a graph to obtain values outside the
experimental range is called EXTRAPOLATION. One should be cautious in doing
extrapolation.

The most satisfactory 'shape' of a graph is the straight line. This is done more
accurately, and deductions from such a graph are more reliable than with curved
graphs. If the relationship between two quantities is not a simple linear one, the
quantities plotted are so chosen that the graph of the equation is a straight line.
Some of the methods of doing this are described below:

In equation of the form

y=ax2 or y=bx3

if y is plotted against x, curves are obtained. The resulting graph may be a straight
line if y is plotted against x2 or x3.

The time-period of a simple pendulum is given by T=2√ .

If T is plotted against 1, a quadratic curve is obtained. The equation can be

converted to the form T2 = 42· l/g to give a straight line between l and T2.

The curve, between the pressure p and the volume V of a given mass of gas at
constant temperature, is an inverse curve as the relation between them is expressed
as

pV = k , where k is a constant.

The equation can be written in the form

The graph of p, when plotted against 1/V, is a straight line.

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 GRAPHING Data

Steps in Plotting a Graph:-

1. Plotting the variables:

When a student is told to plot, say, S versus t, it is

important that he understands the following:
1

S
1- t is the independent variable, which is the quantity
that is deliberately varied or changed. The
independent variable is plotted on the "x" or
horizontal axis. 0
0 t
1
2- S is the dependent variable, which is the quantity
that changes due to the variation in the independent
variable. The dependent variable is plotted on the "y"
or vertical axis. This is a convention (agreement) which should be memorized.

S(m)
1

2. Labeling the axes:

0
The vertical and horizontal axes of the graph paper should carry 0 t(S)
1

labels indicating the quantities plotted, with units. In our previous example the
label on the y-axis would be: S (m).

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3. Choosing the scale:

The scale for a variable is the number of centimeters of

S(m)
length of the graph paper given to a unit of the variable 9
8
7
being plotted. For example, one might allow 1 cm for each 6
5
10 seconds of time. Note that in general the scales 4
3
along the x and y axes may be different. 2
1
0
Two things need careful consideration before choosing the 0 10 20 30 40 50

scales for a graph, the ranges of the variables, and t(S)

convenience in plotting:

a) Range of the variable-

Suppose a student has some data for a variable S which ranges from 5*10-2
m to 125*10-2 m. He then should choose a scale which allows him to plot S values
from zero to values somewhat greater than 125*10-2 m.

Notice in this case that, unless told to do so by the instructor, he does not choose to
suppress the zero and start the S scale from 5*10-2 m. The reason is that later he
may need to use the graph to find values extrapolated (continued) to the origin.
Also, he allows space on the graph for values somewhat greater than the largest
value in the data set (in our example, 125*10-2 m). He does this because later some
more data, with larger values, may be acquired, or he might need to extrapolate the
graph to larger values.

Finally, the scale should be chosen to most nearly use the whole of the graph paper.
Just because a simple choice (say, 1 cm to 1 second of time) makes a graph easy to
plot, this should not be done if it results in a tiny graph "hiding" in a corner of the
sheet of paper! Besides not looking "nice", such a graph is also inaccurate when
used to analyze the data.

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b) Convenience in plotting-

It turns out that scales of 1, 2, 5 and 10 (and multiples of 10 of these) per centimeter
are easiest to use; a scale of 4 per centimeter is somewhat more difficult but can be
used. Scales of 3, 6, 7, 9, etc. per centimeter are very difficult to plot and read and In
choosing scales it sometimes helps to turn the paper so that the "x-axis" is either the
long or short dimension of the paper.

Unsuitable scale for x- axes suitable scale for both

axes

Unsuitable scale for both axes Unsuitable scale for y-axes

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4. Circling the data Points:
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S(m)
12
When plotting graphs by hand use a pencil. Pencil marks 10
8
are easier to erase if you make a mistake! Use a dot 6
4
enclosed in a circle, or a cross. 2
0
0 10 20 30 40
5. Drawing a Straight Line through the Data Points
t(S)
When the data fall on a straight line (or are expected
theoretically to do so) a ruler may be used to draw a
straight line through the points. Observe the following
rules: the line is drawn to match the data trend, and for data with some "scatter"
balance some points above and below the line. In general, the best straight line is the
line that, on average, is closest to all of the points. Finally, points which fall far
outside the general data trend should be double-checked for correct plotting, then, if
found correctly plotted, ignored in drawing the line.

Graphical Analysis

Calculating the slope:

For data sets (x, y) obeying a linear relation y  mx  b , we can use a graph of the
data to determine the values of m and b. On the graph these are found to be:

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b: y-intercept of the graph (value of y when x = 0.)
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P*100 (N/m2)

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( b= V.I=5*100 N/m2) 8
6
y y2  y1 4
m: slope of the graph =  .
 x x 2  x1 2
0
0 10 20 30 40
(m= (7  5) *100  20 N/m2*C) T(C)
10  0

Note that in finding the slope we should choose the points (x1, y1 ), (x2, y2 ) relatively
far apart for accuracy. These values should not be chosen to correspond to data
points even if they appear to lie on the straight line

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