1.

7 Tensor Product, Representation of a Tensor with Respect to a Basis 17

[(a + b) ⊗ c] x = (a + b) (c · x) = a (c · x) + b (c · x)

= (a ⊗ c) x + (b ⊗ c) x = (a ⊗ c + b ⊗ c) x,

(αa) ⊗ (βb) x = (αa) (βb · x)

= αβa (b · x) = αβ (a ⊗ b) x, ∀x ∈ En .
For the “left” mapping by the tensor a⊗ b we obtain from (1.73) (see Exercise
1.19)
y (a ⊗ b) = (y · a) b, ∀y ∈ En . (1.80)
We have already seen that the set of all second-order tensors Linn repre-
sents a vector space. In the following, we show that a basis of Linn can be
constructed with the aid of the tensor product (1.75).
Theorem 1.7. Let F = {f 1 , f 2 , . . . , f n } and G = {g 1 , g 2 , . . . , g n } be two
arbitrary bases of En . Then, the tensors f i ⊗ g j (i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n) represent
a basis of Linn . The dimension of the vector space Linn is thus n2 .
Proof. First, we prove that every tensor in Linn represents a linear combi-
nation of the tensors f i ⊗ g j (i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n). Indeed, let A ∈ Linn be an
arbitrary second-order tensor. Consider the following linear combination

A′ = f i Ag j f i ⊗ g j ,
where the vectors f i and g i (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) form the bases dual to F and G,
respectively. The tensors A and A′ coincide if and only if
A′ x = Ax, ∀x ∈ En . (1.81)
Let x = xj g j . Then
   
A′ x = f i Ag j f i ⊗ g j xk g k = f i Ag j f i xk δjk = xj f i Ag j f i .

On the other hand, Ax = xj Ag j . By virtue of (1.27-1.28) we can repre-

j j
sent
! i the
 vectors
" Ag
 (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) with respect to the basis F by Ag =
f · Ag j f i = f i Ag j f i (j = 1, 2, . . . , n). Hence,

Ax = xj f i Ag j f i .
Thus, it is seen that condition (1.81) is satisfied for all x ∈ En . Finally,
we show that the tensors f i ⊗ g j (i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n) are linearly independent.
Otherwise, there would exist scalars αij (i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n), not all zero, such
that
αij f i ⊗ g j = 0.
The right mapping of g k (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) by this tensor equality yields then:
αik f i = 0 (k = 1, 2, . . . , n). This contradicts, however, the fact that the vec-
tors f k (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) form a basis and are therefore linearly independent.
18 1 Vectors and Tensors in a Finite-Dimensional Space

For the representation of second-order tensors we will in the following use

primarily the bases g i ⊗ g j , g i ⊗ gj , g i ⊗ gj or g i ⊗ g j (i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n). With
respect to these bases a tensor A ∈ Linn is written as

A = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Ai·j g i ⊗ g j = Ai·j g i ⊗ g j (1.82)

with the components (see Exercise 1.20)

Aij = g i Ag j , Aij = g i Ag j ,

Ai·j = g i Ag j , Ai·j = g i Ag j , i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. (1.83)

Note, that the subscript dot indicates the position of the above index. For
example, for the components Ai·j , i is the first index while for the components
Aj·i , i is the second index.
Of special importance is the so-called identity tensor I. It is defined by

Ix = x, ∀x ∈ En . (1.84)

With the aid of (1.25), (1.82) and (1.83) the components of the identity tensor
can be expressed by

Iij = g i Ig j = g i · g j = g ij , Iij = g i Ig j = g i · g j = gij ,

Ii·j = Ii·j = Iij = g i Ig j = g i Ig j = g i · g j = g i · g j = δji , (1.85)

where i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Thus,

I = gij g i ⊗ g j = g ij g i ⊗ g j = g i ⊗ g i = g i ⊗ g i . (1.86)

It is seen that the components (1.85)1,2 of the identity tensor are given by
relation (1.25). In view of (1.30) they characterize metric properties of the
Euclidean space and are referred to as metric coefficients. For this reason, the
identity tensor is frequently called metric tensor. With respect to an orthonor-
mal basis relation (1.86) reduces to
n
#
I= ei ⊗ ei . (1.87)
i=1

1.8 Change of the Basis, Transformation Rules

Now, we are going to clarify how the vector and tensor components transform
with the change of the basis. Let x be a vector and A a second-order tensor.
According to (1.27) and (1.82)

x = xi g i = xi g i , (1.88)
 1.9 Special Operations with Second-Order Tensors 19

A = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Ai·j g i ⊗ g j = Ai·j g i ⊗ g j . (1.89)

With the aid of (1.21) and (1.28) we can write
 
xi = x · g i = x · g ij g j = xj g ji , xi = x · g i = x · gij g j = xj gji , (1.90)

where i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Similarly we obtain by virtue of (1.83)


Aij = g i Ag j = g i A g jk g k
 
= g il g l A g jk g k = Ai·k g kj = g il Alk g kj , (1.91)

Aij = g i Ag j = g i A gjk g k
 
= gil g l A gjk g k = Ai·k gkj = gil Alk gkj , (1.92)
where i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. The transformation rules (1.90-1.92) hold not only for
dual bases. Indeed, let g i and ḡ i (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) be two arbitrary bases in
En , so that

x = xi g i = x̄i ḡ i , (1.93)
ij
A = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Ā ḡ i ⊗ ḡ j . (1.94)
By means of the relations

g i = aji ḡ j , i = 1, 2, . . . , n (1.95)

one thus obtains

x = xi g i = xi aji ḡ j ⇒ x̄j = xi aji , j = 1, 2, . . . , n, (1.96)

 
A = Aij g i ⊗ g j = Aij aki ḡ k ⊗ alj ḡ l = Aij aki alj ḡ k ⊗ ḡ l
kl
⇒ Ā = Aij aki alj , k, l = 1, 2, . . . , n. (1.97)

1.9 Special Operations with Second-Order Tensors

In Sect. 1.6 we have seen that the set Linn represents a finite-dimensional
vector space. Its elements are second-order tensors that can be treated as
2
vectors in En with all the operations specific for vectors such as summation,
multiplication by a scalar or a scalar product (the latter one will be defined
for second-order tensors in Sect. 1.10). However, in contrast to conventional
vectors in the Euclidean space, for second-order tensors one can additionally
define some special operations as for example composition, transposition or
inversion.
20 1 Vectors and Tensors in a Finite-Dimensional Space

Composition (simple contraction). Let A, B ∈ Linn be two second-

order tensors. The tensor C = AB is called composition of A and B if

Cx = A (Bx) , ∀x ∈ En . (1.98)

For the left mapping (1.73) one can write

y (AB) = (yA) B, ∀y ∈ En . (1.99)

In order to prove the last relation we use again (1.73) and (1.98):
y (AB) x = y · [(AB) x] = y · [A (Bx)]

= (yA) · (Bx) = [(yA) B] · x, ∀x ∈ En .

The composition of tensors (1.98) is generally not commutative so that AB )=
BA. Two tensors A and B are called commutative if on the contrary AB =
BA. Besides, the composition of tensors is characterized by the following
properties (see Exercise 1.24):

A0 = 0A = 0, AI = IA = A, (1.100)
A (B + C) = AB + AC, (B + C) A = BA + CA, (1.101)
A (BC) = (AB) C. (1.102)
For example, the distributive rule (1.101)1 can be proved as follows
[A (B + C)] x = A [(B + C) x] = A (Bx + Cx) = A (Bx) + A (Cx)

= (AB) x + (AC) x = (AB + AC) x, ∀x ∈ En .

For the tensor product (1.75) the composition (1.98) yields

(a ⊗ b) (c ⊗ d) = (b · c) a ⊗ d, a, b, c, d ∈ En . (1.103)

Indeed, by virtue of (1.75), (1.77) and (1.98)

(a ⊗ b) (c ⊗ d) x = (a ⊗ b) [(c ⊗ d) x] = (d · x) (a ⊗ b) c

= (d · x) (b · c) a = (b · c) (a ⊗ d) x

= [(b · c) a ⊗ d] x, ∀x ∈ En .
Thus, we can write
AB = Aik Bk·j g i ⊗ g j = Aik Bkj g i ⊗ g j

= Ai·k Bk·j g i ⊗ g j = Ai·k Bkj g i ⊗ g j , (1.104)

where A and B are given in the form (1.82).
Powers, polynomials and functions of second-order tensors. On
the basis of the composition (1.98) one defines by
 1.9 Special Operations with Second-Order Tensors 21

Am = AA . . . A' ,
$ %& m = 1, 2, 3 . . . , A0 = I (1.105)
m times

powers (monomials) of second-order tensors characterized by the following

evident properties
 k l
Ak Al = Ak+l , A = Akl , (1.106)
k
(αA) = αk Ak , k, l = 0, 1, 2 . . . (1.107)
With the aid of the tensor powers a polynomial of A can be defined by
m
#
m
2
g (A) = a0 I + a1 A + a2 A + . . . + am A = ak Ak . (1.108)
k=0

g (A): Linn *→Linn represents a tensor function mapping one second-order

tensor into another one within Linn . By this means one can define various
tensor functions. Of special interest is the exponential one
∞
# Ak
exp (A) = (1.109)
k!
k=0

given by the infinite power series.

Transposition. The transposed tensor AT is defined by:

AT x = xA, ∀x ∈ En , (1.110)

so that one can also write

Ay = yAT , xAy = yAT x, ∀x, y ∈ En . (1.111)

Indeed,
 
x · (Ay) = (xA) · y = y · AT x = yAT x = x · yAT , ∀x, y ∈ En .

Consequently,
 T T
A = A. (1.112)

Transposition represents a linear operation over a second-order tensor since

T
(A + B) = AT + BT (1.113)

and

(αA)T = αAT , ∀α ∈ R. (1.114)

The composition of second-order tensors is transposed by