Propositional logic in Artificial
intelligence
Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the
statements are made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative
statement which is either true or false. It is a technique of knowledge
representation in logical and mathematical form.
Example:
a) It is Sunday.
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
d) 5 is a prime number.
Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:
Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and
1.
In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the
logic, and we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition,
such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and
logical connectives.
These connectives are also called logical operators.
The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the
propositional logic.
Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two
sentences.
A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it
is also called a valid sentence.
A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction. ⇧
A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not
propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your
name", are not propositions.
Syntax of propositional logic:
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the
knowledge representation. There are two types of Propositions:
a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple
propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are
the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.
Example:
a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or
representing a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions
with the help of logical connectives. There are mainly five connectives,
which are given as follows:
⇧
1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can
be either Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is
called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is
called disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨
Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.
Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P
→Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,
example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔
Q.
Following is the summarized table for
Propositional Logic Connectives:
Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all
possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with
logical connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a
tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all
logical connectives:
⇧
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This
truth table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition
symbols.
Precedence of connectives: ⇧
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional
connectors or logical operators. This order should be followed while
evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence
order for operators:
Precedence Operators
First Precedence Parenthesis
Second Precedence Negation
Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)
Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)
Fifth Precedence Implication
Six Precedence Biconditional
Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure
of the correct interpretations. Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be
interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.
Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two
propositions are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in
the truth table are identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write
it as A⇔B. In below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B,
are identical hence A is Equivalent to B
Properties of Operators:
⇧
Commutativity:
P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
Associativity:
(P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
(P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
Identity element:
P ∧ True = P,
P ∨ True= True.
Distributive:
P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
DE Morgan's Law:
¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
Double-negation elimination:
¬ (¬P) = P.
Limitations of Propositional logic:
We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with
propositional logic. Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of
their properties or logical relationships.
⇧
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