LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

ENGINE LUBRICATING OILS

Properties and characteristics of lubricating oils vary

with the oil type. An oil with the correct
specifications must always be used in each engine
because use of the wrong oil could lead to damaged
or failed engine components. With that caution in
mind, consider the following discussion on oil
properties and the various oil types. Typical
applications of the different oil types are discussed,
as well as the methods used to grade aircraft engine
oils.

FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICATING OIL

Lubricating oil is often considered to be the life blood
of an engine. Without it, the friction and wear pro- Figure 9-1. Engine parts that appear smooth to the naked
eye reveal rough surfaces under a microscope. Lubricating
duced between moving parts would cause an engine oil separates these surfaces and minimizes wear.
to wear at a very rapid rate. In addition to reducing
friction, lubricating oil is responsible for removing a
great deal of engine heat. If fact, without an ample
supply of oil, most reciprocating engines will ciently and be thick enough to provide an adequate
overheat. Additional functions of lubricating oils protective film that will not break down and allow
include creating a seal between moving parts, metal-to-metal contact.
cushioning impact forces created by combustion,
cleaning the engine, and protecting against
corrosion. ABSORBS HEAT
In addition to reducing friction and wear, oil
REDUCE FRICTION absorbs some of the heat produced by combustion
as it circulates through the engine. The pistons and
Many of the metal parts inside an aircraft engine cylinder walls are especially dependent on
have surfaces which appear smooth to the naked lubricating oil for cooling. However, once the oil
eye. However, if you were to microscopically heats up, a means of cooling the oil must be
examine those same parts, you would see a rather provided. Therefore, several engine lubrication
rough surface consisting of several peaks and systems contain an oil cooler. An oil cooler is
valleys. When those engine parts rub against one basically a heat exchanger that transfers the heat
another, the resulting friction soon wears away the contained in the oil to the outside air.
metal. In order to reduce this friction, a film of
lubrication oil is placed between the moving parts.
Oil wets the surfaces, fills in the valleys, and holds SEALS
the metal surfaces apart as long as the oil film Oil also exhibits excellent wetting characteristics
remains unbroken. The engine parts then slide over because the oil film has an ability to evenly coat
each other on a film of oil rather than grind metal surfaces. This characteristic of oil makes it a
together. Therefore, friction is reduced and part good sealing agent between moving parts. For
wear is minimized. [Figure 9-1] example, the oil film on cylinder walls forms an
effective seal with the piston rings in a cylinder.
The amount of clearance between moving parts is a This helps prevent gas leakage during the
determining factor "when choosing the proper type combustion process.
and grade of oil. An oil must adhere to a part suffi-
Lubrication Systems 9-3

CUSHIONS VISCOSITY
The same characteristic of oil that makes it a good One of the most important properties of an oil is
sealing agent also provides a cushioning effect viscosity, which is a measure of an oil's resistance
between metal parts. For example, the thin film of to flow. An oil that flows slowly is viscous, or has
oil between a rocker arm and its bushing absorbs a high viscosity. On the other hand, oil that flows
some of the hammering shock from the valve action. freely has a low viscosity.
The cushioning action also helps reduce some of the
impact force between a crankshaft and its Oil viscosity is measured using an instrument
connecting rods. known as the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. To
measure an oil's viscosity, a specific quantity of oil
CLEANS must be heated to an exact temperature. Then, the
The oil in a lubrication system also reduces engine number of seconds required for 60 cubic
wear by serving as a cleaning agent. As the oil centimeters of the heated oil to flow through a
circulates, it picks up foreign particles such as dirt, calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the
dust, carbon, and small amounts of water. These oil's viscosity. The recorded time is known as the
particles are held in suspension by the oil and Saybolt Seconds Universal viscosity or S.S.U.
carried to a filter where they are trapped and Typical aviation oils have an S.S.U. of 80, 100, or
removed. 120 when heated to 210℃.

PROTECTS AGAINST CORROSION Of all the factors that impact the viscosity of
lubricating oil, temperature has the greatest effect.
Metal engine parts which are exposed to moist air In fact, it is not uncommon for some high viscosity
and various chemicals have a tendency to rust or oils to become almost semi-solid in cold weather.
form other types of surface corrosion. This is When this happens, engine component drag
especially true for cylinder walls and crankshafts increases and oil circulation dramatically decreases.
which have been hardened by nitriding. The oil film On the other hand, low viscosity oils can become so
which coats internal engine parts acts as a barrier, thin at high temperatures that the oil can no longer
preventing oxygen and moisture from reaching the maintain a solid film. When this happens, rapid
metal surface and causing it to corrode. wear and lower than normal oil pressure results.
For these reasons, lower viscosity oils are
OIL CONSUMPTION typically used in cold climates and higher viscosity
oils are usesd in warm climates.
In the performance of all the previously mentioned
functions, a portion of the lubrication oil is
consumed. The amount of oil consumed depends Oils used in reciprocating engines usually have a
on several factors such as engine rpm, engine relatively high viscosity for several reasons. One
temperature, operating clearances, and lubricant reason is that most reciprocating engines have large
characteristics. Generally, higher rpm and operational clearances and high operating
temperatures, larger clearances and less viscosity temperatures. Therefore, a high viscosity oil is
correspond to higher consumption rates. Larger required to ensure an adequate oil film between the
clearances are one reason why reciprocating moving parts. In addition, most reciprocating
engines typically consume more oil than turbine engines operate at relatively high temperatures and,
engines. therefore, a high viscosity oil is needed to keep the
oil from getting too thin at operating temperatures.
Furthermore, high bearing pressures in
OIL PROPERTIES reciprocating engines require the cushion that
Theoretically, the perfect engine oil is thin enough higher viscosity oils provide.
to circulate freely, yet heavy enough to stay in place
and maintain a reasonable film strength. However,
in practice, a compromise must be made and several VISCOSITY INDEX
factors must be considered in determining the In addition to having a viscosity rating, many oils
proper grade of oil to use in a particular engine. are assigned a viscosity index, or VI number. The
Some of these factors include engine operating viscosity index is a standard used to identify an oil's
loads, rotational speeds of bearings, and operating rate of change in viscosity for a given change in tem-
temperatures. When determining the proper grade perature. The index itself is based on a comparative
of oil to use there are several properties which must analysis of the temperature-induced viscosity
be considered.
9-4 Lubrication
Systems

changes of two reference oils, arbitrarily chosen by POUR POINT

the American Society of Testing and Materials, or
ASTM. One oil is assigned a viscosity index rating An oil's pour point represents the lowest tempera-
of 100, and the other is rated at zero. The smaller the ture at which the oil can flow or be poured. Pour
change in the viscosity for a given temperature point is an oil property which determines a given
change, the higher the viscosity index. oil's ability to lubricate at low operating tempera-
tures. As a general rule, the pour point of an oil
should be within five degrees Fahrenheit of the
SPECIFIC GRAVITY average ambient starting temperature to ensure oil
circulation.
An oil's specific gravity is a comparison of the
weight of an oil to the weight of an equal volume of
distilled water at a specified temperature. For FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
example, water weighs approximately 8 pounds per
gallon. Therefore, an oil with a specific gravity of An oil's flash point is the temperature at which it
0.9 weighs 7.2 pounds per gallon (0.9 x 8 = 7.2). begins to emit ignitable vapors. As temperature
increases beyond the flash point, the oil's fire point
The American Petroleum Institute or API has is reached and sufficient vapors are emitted to sup-
formulated a measurement for the specific gravity port a flame. A typical lubricating oil has a fire
of oils which is an expansion of the regular specific point approximately 50 to 60℃ higher than the flash
gravity scale. The API scale is considered to be a point. An oil must be able to withstand the high
more accurate measure of an oil's gravity because it temperatures encountered in an operating engine
provides more detail on that portion of the specific without creating a fire hazard. Therefore, these two
gravity where lubricating oils fall. However, in most temperature ratings are important when selecting
cases, an oil's API number can be converted to a the proper oil for an engine.
specific gravity number using a conversion chart.
CARBON RESIDUE TEST
COLOR In the carbon residue test, a given amount of oil is
Oil color is determined by the amount of light that placed in a stainless steel receptacle and heated to a
passes through an oil sample in a glass container controlled temperature until it evaporates. The con-
when placed in front of a light of known intensity. tainer is weighed before and after the test. The dif-
The color test is conducted with a device known as ference in weight is then divided by the weight of
an ASTM union colorimeter. The color is then the original oil sample to obtain the percertage of
compared to an ASTM color chart. A color reference carbon, by weight, in the oil.
number of 1.00 on the chart is pure white, and a ref-
erence number of 8.00 is darker than claret red. ASH TEST
With oils that are darker than number 8.00, the oil is An ash test is an extension of a carbon residue test
diluted with kerosene to form a mixture which is 85 in that it requires the carbon residue to be burned
percent kerosene and 15 percent oil by volume. The until only ash remains. The amount of ash remain-
mixture is then given a color rating in the same ing is then expressed as a percentage by weight of
manner as other oils. If indirect, or reflected light is the carbon residue. New oil which leaves almost no
used to perform a color test, the oil color is referred ash is considered to be pure. On the other hand, the
to as a bloom and can be used to determine the ori- ash left by used oil can be analyzed for iron and lead
gin of the oil. content. The amount of iron and lead found provide
clues to the amount of internal engine wear.

CLOUD POINT
ENGINE OIL GRADING SYSTEM
Another property of lubricating oil is known as
cloud point. A particular oil's cloud point is the Most commercial aviation oils are assigned
temperature at which paraffin wax and other numerical designations such as 80,100, or 120 that
solids normally held in a solution of oil begin to approximate an oil's viscosity. This practice has
solidify and separate into tiny crystals. At this proven to be much more workable than using actual
temperature, the oil begins to lose clarity and Saybolt values to designate viscosity. The reason
appears cloudy or hazy. for this is that oil viscosity varies enough among
commonly
Lubrication Systems 9-5

ments. An SAE number indicates only the relative

viscosity of an oil and does not indicate quality or
other essential characteristics. There are good oils
and inferior oils which have the same viscosities at
a given temperature and, therefore, are classified as
the same grade. Always bear in mind that an SAE
rating on an oil container is not an endorsement or
recommendation of that particular oil by the Society
of Automotive Engineers. The only way to be sure
that an oil meets the requirements of a particular
Figure 9-2. This chart illustrates how a similar oil can have engine is to be familiar with the individual charac-
an SAE rating, a commercial aviation rating, and a Military teristics of a given oil. [Figure 9-3]
rating.

used oils to produce several hundred grades when TYPES OF OIL

using Say bolt values. Oils from a variety of sources have been used in
aircraft. For example, the earliest aircraft engines
To further simplify the oil grading process, a system used castor oil as a lubricant, which is a pure
designed by the Society of Automotive Engineers vegetable oil derived from castor beans. However,
(SAE) was designed. The SAE system scale divides vegetable based lubricants have poor chemical
all oils into seven groups, ranging from SAE 10 to stability and tend to oxidize when used in
SAE 70. The groupings are based on an oil's reciprocating engines. Because of this, vegetable
viscosity at either 130℃ or 210℃. In addition, an based oils were soon replaced with mineral based
SAE rating with the letter "W," such as 20W oils. Mineral based oils tend to be much more
indicates the oil is acceptable for use in cold, or chemically stable than vegetable based lubricants
winter, climates. and are still the most widely used oils in
reciprocating engines. A final type of oil that is used
Although SAE ratings are used with most oils, there in aircraft engines is synthetic oil. Although
are still some oils that carry commercial aviation or synthetic oils are mostly used in turbine engines, a
military designations. It is important to note that few synthetic lubricants are approved for use in
SAE ratings are purely arbitrary and bear no direct reciprocating engines.
relationship to other ratings. [Figure 9-2]

Use of the SAE system scale has eliminated much of STRAIGHT MINERAL OIL(矯正油)
the confusion in the designation of lubricating oils.
However, it must not be assumed that an SAE des- MIL-L-6082E is a straight mineral oil that has no
ignation covers all the important viscosity require- additives and, for many years, the principle type of

Figure 9-3. This chart illustrates the characteristics of various oils. However, it is important to note that a given SAE rating only
indicates a specific viscosity and does not guarantee any other characteristic.
9-6 Lubrication
Systems

oil used in aircraft. Although straight mineral oil is example, if an SAE 10 oil is used in a warm climate,
an effective lubricant, it does have some limitations. it will get too hot and lose its ability to maintain an
For example, when exposed to elevated tempera- adequate film on moving parts. On the other hand,
tures in an aerated condition, straight mineral oil has if an SAE 30 oil is used in a cold climate, the oil will
a tendency to oxidize. In addition, if straight mineral not circulate properly, especially when an engine is
oil becomes overly contaminated, a sludge can form first started.
that may clog filters and passages as well as score
engine components. Because of this, the use of Multi-viscosity oils differ from single viscosity oils
straight mineral oil has been limited to new or newly in that they provide adequate lubrication over a
overhauled engines during their break-in period. wider temperature range. This allows multi-viscos-
ity oils to flow more quickly in cold weather and
keep from thinning in hot weather. A typical multi-
ASHLESS-DISPERSANT OILS(除灰燼的油) viscosity oil, such as SAE 15W50, can generally be
The most commonly used oil in reciprocating safely used over the combined temperature range of
engines is ashless-dispersant, or AD oil that an SAE 15 and SAE 50 oil.
conforms to MIL-L-22851D. It does not have the
carbon forming restrictions of straight mineral oil SYNTHETIC OILS
nor does it form ash deposits like detergent oils. In
addition, all ashless-dispersant oils contain a Synthetic oils have multi-viscosity properties due
dispersant that causes sludge-forming materials to to their chemical composition and are similar to
repel each other and stay in suspension until they automotive grades SAE-5 to SAE-20. They are a
can be trapped by the oil filter. This provides blend of chemical additives and certain diesters,
several advantages in that oil passages and ring which are synthesized extracts of mineral, veg-
grooves remain free of harmful deposits. etable, and animal oils. Stated in another way, syn-
thetic oils are made by synthesizing raw materials to
In addition to a dispersant, several ashless- form a base stock rather than refining base stock
dispersant oils contain an anti-wear, anti-foam from crude oil.
additive. However, these additives are unique in
that they do not leave metallic ash deposits in an Because of their chemical make up, synthetic oils
engine. Ash deposits are bad because they can lead have an extremely low internal friction. In addition,
to preigni-tion and spark plug fouling. they have a high resistance to thermal breakdown
and oxidation. Because of this, synthetic oils are
Since ashless-dispersant oils are such an effective ideal for use in turbine engines and can typically go
lubricant, most engine manufacturers do not longer between oil changes. In addition, the wear
recommend their use during an engine's break-in characteristics of synthetic oil appears to be about
period. The reason for this is that, when an engine the same as ashless-dispersant oil and superior to
is first broken-in, some component wear must straight mineral oil.
occur. For example, before a set of piston rings can
effectively seal against a cylinder wall, the two One problem with synthetic oils is that they do not
surfaces must wear against each other to produce a disperse and suspend contaminants as well as ash-
sealable junction. If sufficient wear does not occur, less-dispersant oils. Therefore, synthetic oils have a
the engine will consume excessive amounts of oil tendency to cause sludge build-up in reciprocating
throughout its operating life. Therefore, to promote engines, especially in engines that are not operated
some degree of wear, most manufacturers frequently. Another problem with synthetic oil is
recommend that new and newly overhauled that, in some cases, it can soften rubber products and
engines be operated on straight mineral oil for the resins. In fact, because of this, one manufacturer
first 10 to 50 hours of operation or until oil requires more frequent replacement of the inter-
consumption stabilizes. After this, the straight cylinder drain lines when synthetic oil is used. In
mineral oil should be drained and replaced by a addition, pleated paper oil filters must be examined
quality ashless-dispersant oil for the remaining more closely to be sure that the oil does not dissolve
engine life. the resins and allow the filter to collapse.

As a general rule, synthetic oils are not compatible

MULTI-VISCOSITY OILS with, and cannot be mixed with, mineral based oils.
Multi-viscosity oils were developed to help address In addition, most manufacturers recommend against
some of the drawbacks of single viscosity oils. For
Lubrication 9-7
Systems

mixing different brands or types of synthetic oils. If with a 5 centistoke rating has a viscosity approxi-
any mixing is allowed, it should follow strict guide- mately equal to an SAE 5W10 multi-viscosity min-
lines of same-type and certain compatible brands. eral-based oil. Likewise, a 7 centistoke oil has a vis-
cosity approximately equal to an SAE 5W20 multi-
Another negative characteristic of synthetic oil is its viscosity oil rating.
tendency to blister or remove paint wherever it is
spilled. If a spill occurs, wipe it up immediately EXTREME PRESSURE LUBRICANTS
with a petroleum solvent. When servicing an engine
filled with synthetic oil, you must avoid excessive Extreme pressure (EP) lubricants, also known as
or prolonged exposure to your skin. Synthetic lubri- hypoid lubricants, are specially formulated to pro-
cants contain additives which are readily absorbed vide protection under high loads. A hypoid lubri-
through the skin and are considered highly toxic. cant contains additives that bond to metal surfaces
to reduce friction under high pressures or high rub-
Synthetic oils are given a Kinematic Viscosity bing velocities. A typical hypoid lubricant consists
Rating in centistokes (cSt))(合成油的計量單位 ) of a mineral-based oil containing loosely held mol-
rather than an SAE rating. Some synthetic lubricant ecules of sulfur or chlorine. A propeller reduction
container labels are marked with the centistoke case is one example where a hypoid lubricant is
value, or metric viscosity measurement. For needed. The spur-type gears in propeller reduction
example, a synthetic oil with a 3 centistoke rating cases operate under high tooth pressures and often
is roughly equivalent to an SAE-5 oil rating. On require EP lubricants to prevent gear failure.
the other hand, synthetic oil
 RECIPROCATING ENGINES

OIL DISTRIBUTION SPRAY LUBRICATION

As discussed in the previous section, the primary Some large reciprocating engines are physically too
purpose of a lubrication system is to lubricate the big for splash lubrication to be effective. In this case,
internal engine components. To do this, lubricating some form of spray lubrication is typically used.
oil must be distributed throughout an engine. Spray lubrication uses the same pressurized oil in a
Common ways of distributing oil include using pressure lubrication system; however, instead of
pressure, splash, and spray lubrication techniques. routing the oil to a component through an oil pas-
sage, the oil is sprayed on to a component through a
nozzle. Engine components that are lubricated by
sprayed engine oil include some cylinder walls and
PRESSURE LUBRICATION camshaft lobes.
Pressure lubrication is the primary type of lubrica-
tion used in reciprocating engines. All pressure
lubrication systems rely on a pump to supply pres- COMBINATION SYSTEM
surized oil to critical engine parts. In most cases, the
pump used in a pressure system is a positive dis- In order to ensure adequate lubrication, all recipro-
placement, engine driven pump. The term positive cating engines rely on a combination of pressure
displacement indicates that the pump moves a spe- and splash lubrication. However, on larger engines,
cific amount of fluid for each revolution of the adequate oil circulation can only be accomplished
pump. Once oil passes through an oil pump, it through the use of pressure, splash, and spray lubri-
passes through several passages within the cation. [Figure 9-4]
crankcase where it is distributed to various engine
components. Typical components within an engine
that are lubricated by pressurized oil include all
plain bearings, crankshaft and camshaft main bear- SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
ings, lower connecting rod bearings, and valve Reciprocating engine lubrication systems are gener-
assemblies. ally classified as either a wet-sump or dry-sump sys-
tem. With a wet-sump system, all the oil is carried
in the engine crankcase, much the way it is in a car.
SPLASH LUBRICATION With this type of system, the oil is picked up by a
pump and distributed throughout the engine. Once
In addition to pressure lubrication, many recipro- the oil has circulated, it drains down into the sump
cating engines depend on some splash lubrication. where it is picked up and recirculated. Some advan-
Splash lubrication is produced by the movement of tages of wet-sump systems include their relative
internal components which splash oil around. This simplicity and light weight. However, wet-sump
method of lubrication is very effective in engines systems do have some disadvantages in that their oil
where oil is stored in the crankcase. In this configu- capacity is limited by the sump size and it is more
ration, as a piston reaches the bottom of a stroke, its difficult to cool the oil since it is contained within
associated crank throw partially submerges in oil the engine which is a source of heat. Dry-sump
and splashes it onto other components. systems differ from wet-sump systems in that the oil
Components that are often lubricated by splashed is stored in a separate oil tank. This typically allows
oil include cylinder walls, camshaft lobes, upper a larger quantity of oil to be carried. This makes
bearings of connecting rods, piston pins, and acces- dry-sump systems well suited to large radial
sory gears. engines. In this type of system, an oil pump
Lubrication Systems 9-9

Figure 9-4. As you can see in the diagram above, a combination of lubrication methods are used in a typical wet-sump system.

pulls the oil from the oil tank and circulates it LUBRICATING SYSTEM
throughout the engine. Once circulated, the oil COMPONENTS
accumulates in the bottom of the crankcase where a
scavenge pump picks up the oil and pumps it back A typical pressure lubrication system consists of an
to the tank. If the oil tank is installed so that it is oil reservoir, oil pump, oil pressure relief valve, oil
higher than the engine oil inlet, check valves must filter, oil cooler, vent lines, and all the necessary
be installed to prevent oil from draining back into piping and connections. In addition, on engines
the engine crankcase. that incorporate a dry-sump system, a scavenge
9-70 Lubrication
Systems

Figure 9-5. This figure illustrates the relationship of the various components in a typical horizontally opposed aircraft engine with a
dry-sump lubrication system.

pump is required to move the oil back to the oil maximum acceptable oil consumption rate plus a
reservoir. To allow an operator to monitor the oper- margin to ensure adequate circulation, lubrication,
ation of a given lubrication system, most systems and cooling. In the absence of a valid determination
also include an oil temperature and oil pressure of aircraft range, several ratios of fuel-to-oil quantity
gauge. [Figure 9-5] may be used, for example, an aircraft without an oil
reserve or transfer system must have a fuel-to-oil
ratio of at least 30:1. However, if an aircraft has a
OIL RESERVOIR transfer system, the ratio is reduced to 40:1.
An oil reservoir must be large enough to hold an
adequate supply of oil to lubricate an engine. The As discussed earlier, the oil reservoir on a wet-sump
amount of oil that is considered adequate is based engine is part of the engine crankcase. Therefore, a
on the maximum endurance of the airplane and the wet-sump oil reservoir is typically constructed of
Lubrication 9-11
Systems

basically a drain that is built into the filler cap well

that catches overflow oil and drains it overboard
when servicing the tank.

Most aircraft oil systems are equipped with a dip-

stick-type quantity gauge, sometimes referred to as a
bayonet gauge. However, some large aircraft may be
equipped with an oil quantity indicating system
that shows the quantity of oil during flight. One
such system consists of a float mechanism that rides
on the surface of the oil and actuates an electric
transmitter on top of the tank. The transmitter sends
a signal to a cockpit gauge, which indicates oil
quantity in gallons.

To prevent pressure buildup and ensure proper ven-

tilation in all flight attitudes, an oil reservoir must
be vented to the atmosphere. With a wet-sump sys-
tem, the vent consists of a crankcase breather.
However, on a dry-sump system, a vent line is typi-
cally run from the reservoir to the engine crankcase
to prevent oil loss through the vent. This way, the
vent line indirectly vents the reservoir to the atmos-
phere through the crankcase breather.

Some oil reservoirs, primarily those used with large

radial engines, have a built-in hopper, or tempera-
ture accelerating well. The purpose of a hopper is
to partially isolate a portion of the oil within the
Figure 9-6. The hopper in an oil reservoir separates circulat- reservoir during start-up. By doing this, a smaller
ing oil from the surrounding oil in the tank. This cuts down portion of the oil is circulated through the engine
on the amount of oil that is circulated and hastens the during start-up allowing the engine to warm up
engine's warm-up time.
faster. A typical hopper extends from the oil return
fitting on top of the oil reservoir to the outlet fitting
in the bottom of the reservoir. To allow oil into the
hopper from the main oil supply, the hopper tank is
cast aluminum alloy. On the other hand, oil reser- open at the lower end in some systems. However, in
voirs used in dry-sump systems are typically con- other systems, a series of flapper-type valves are
structed of an aluminum alloy. In addition, the used that allow oil into the hopper as oil is con-
reservoir in a dry-sump system is typically placed sumed. [Figure 9-6]
close enough to the engine and high enough above
the oil pump inlet to ensure reliable gravity feed.
The oil within an oil reservoir in a wet-sump system
According to FAR Part 23, all oil reservoirs must is typically drawn up to an oil pump through a pipe
have an expansion space at least 10 percent greater that sticks down into the reservoir. However, in
than the tank capacity, or 0.5 gallon, whichever is many dry-sump systems, an oil outlet is typically
greater. The expansion space provides sufficient located at the lowest point of the reservoir. An
room for oil to expand as it heats and allows room exception to this is aircraft that are equipped with
for the collection of foam. Another FAR requirement Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic feathering pro-
is that all oil filler caps or covers must be marked pellers. In this case, the oil reservoir feeds the pres-
with the word "OIL" and the permissible oil desig- sure pump through a standpipe which extends into
nations, or reference to the Airplane Flight Manual the oil tank while the supply line for propeller
for permissible oil designations. As an added fea- feathering is installed at the bottom of the reservoir.
ture, the oil reservoirs installed in some dry-sump This arrangement ensures that enough oil will
systems include a scupper drain. A scupper drain is remain in the reservoir to feather the propeller if an
9-72 Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-8. With a gear-type oil pump, two spur gears rotate
inside a housing to pump oil to an engine.

GEROTORPUMP
Another type of constant-displacement pump used
to move oil through an engine is the gerotor-type
pump. A typical gerotor-type pump consists of an
Figure 9-7. The oil reservoir used with a Hamilton-Standard
Hydromatic feathering propeller utilizes two oil outlets. engine driven spur gear that rotates within a free
Engine oil is supplied through a standpipe while propeller spinning rotor housing. The rotor and drive gear
leathering oil is drawn from the bottom of the tank. This ride inside a housing that has two oblong openings.
way, there is always a reserve of oil available for propeller One opening is the oil inlet while the other is the oil
feathering. 12,, ■.
outlet. [Figure 9-9]

oil line breaks and all of the engine oil is pumped SCAVENGE PUMP
overboard. [Figure 9-7]
In addition to a pressure pump, most dry-sump sys-
tems must utilize a scavenge pump to return oil to
OIL PUMPS the oil reservoir. A scavenge pump may be either a
gear- or gerotor-type pump that is driven by the
As mentioned earlier, all lubrication systems utilize engine. As a rule, scavenge pumps have a capacity
constant displacement pumps. If you recall, a con- that is greater than the pressure pump. The reason
stant displacement pump moves a fixed volume of for this is that, after oil flows through an engine it
fluid per pump revolution. The two types of con- typically has a greater volume due to foaming and
stant displacement pumps that are used in recipro- thermal expansion. Therefore, in order to ensure
cating engine lubrication systems include the gear that oil does not collect in the engine sump, the
and gerotor pump. scavenge pump must be capable of pumping a
greater volume of oil than the pressure pump.
GEAR PUMP
The gear-type oil pump is the most common type of PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
oil pump used in reciprocating engines. A typical In order to ensure adequate engine lubrication, an
gear-type pump consists of two meshed gears that appropriate oil pressure must be maintained at all
rotate inside a housing. The gears and housing are times. Therefore, in order for an engine driven oil
precisely machined to keep clearances between pump to maintain system pressure at low engine
them as small as possible. Oil is picked up by the speeds, it must produce excessive pressure at high
gears at the pump inlet and then becomes trapped engine speeds. To prevent excessive pressure from
between the teeth and the housing. As the gears damaging an engine, a pressure relief valve must be
rotate, the trapped oil is released at the pump out- installed in the oil system. A typical pressure relief
let. [Figure 9-8] valve consists of a spring loaded valve that is held
Lubrication Systems 9-13

Figure 9-9. As a gerotor-type pump rotates, the space between the drive gear teeth and rotor housing alternately increase
then decrease. As the space between the two increases at the oil inlet (A, B, and C), oil is drawn into the pump. However, as
the space closes up at the outlet (D and E), oil is forced out of the pump.

in the closed position. With this type of valve, when parts. For example, as the clearances between
oil pressure rises above a preset value, the valve off engine parts increase through normal wear, the
seats and returns excess oil to the reservoir or oil pump continues to supply a constant volume of oil
pump inlet. In a typical system, the relief valve is but the relief valve bypasses less oil back to the
installed between the main supply pump and the sump.
internal oil system. [Figure 9-10]
Most relief valves can be adjusted by turning a screw
Relief valves are typically set at a pressure that is that increases or decreases spring pressure. The
lower than the output pressure of the pressure greater the spring pressure, the higher the resulting
pump. Therefore, a small amount of oil constantly oil pressure. On some simple relief valves, spring
flows through the relief valve at cruise rpm. The tension is adjusted by either changing the spring or
exact amount of oil that is bypassed depends, in inserting one or more washers behind the spring.
part, on the clearances between an engine's moving However, it is important to note that, if an oil pres-
sure reading is low, you should not immediately
increase the spring tension on the relief valve.
Instead, it is best to determine why the pressure is
low in the first place. For example, if too light an oil
is used or if a piece of foreign material gets stuck
between the relief valve and its seat, the oil pressure
will indicate lower then normal. If this is the case,
the reason for the low pressure reading should be
corrected instead of making adjustments to the relief
valve.

Figure 9-10. On all pressure lubrication systems, a pres-

To help ensure adequate circulation during start up
sure relief valve is needed to maintain the proper system when the oil is cold, some engines utilize a compen-
pressure. sated oil pressure relief valve. A compensated oil
9-74 Lubrication
Systems

Figure 9-11. In a compensated oil pressure relief valve, when the oil is cold, a high- and low-pressure spring hold the relief valve
closed to maintain an elevated system pressure. However, once the oil has warmed, the thermostatic valve allows pressurized oil
to enter the relief valve and remove the high-pressure spring pressure from the relief valve.

pressure relief valve maintains a higher system remove solid particles that are suspended in the oil.
pressure when the oil is cold then, once the oil This filtration is required to protect the engine's
warms up, it automatically lowers pressure to the moving parts from solid contaminants.
normal operating range. This is accomplished
through the use of two springs and a thermostatic
valve. When the oil is cold, both springs hold the At the present time, the two types of filtration sys-
valve on its seat which, in turn, permits a higher tems that may be installed in aircraft engines are the
oil pressure. However, once the oil warms up, the full-flow system and the bypass system. In a full-
thermostatic valve opens a passage and allows oil flow filter system, all of the engine oil passes
to flow beneath a piston in the pressure relief through a filter each time it circulates through an
valve. As the piston is forced upward, it removes engine. To accomplish this, the filter is installed in
the spring pressure exerted by the high-pressure series with the oil pump between the pump and the
spring. Normal operating pressure is then main- engine bearings. [Figure 9-12]
tained by the force of the low-pressure spring
alone. [Figure 9-11] Although not as common, some older engines may
still use a bypass filtration system. With a bypass, or
partial flow system, the filter is installed in parallel
OIL FILTERS
with the engine bearings. In this type of system, only
Once oil is discharged from an oil pressure pump, it about 10 percent of the oil is filtered each time the
flows to an oil filter. The purpose of the filter is to oil circulates through the system. Howevei, over
Lubrication Systems 9-15

incorporate filter elements that are designed to col-

lapse if pressure become excessive.

FILTER ELEMENTS
There are several different types of filters used in
aircraft engines. However, there are only four meth-
ods of filtration that are approved for aviation use.
The approved filtration methods include depth fil-
tration, semi-depth filtration, surface filtration, and
edge filtration.

Depth Filtration
Depth filters consist of a matrix of fibers that are
closely packed to a depth of about one inch. Oil
Figure 9-12. In a full-flow filtration system, all of the engine
oil is filtered each time it circulates in an engine. flows through this mat and contaminants are
trapped in the fibers. Depth-type filters are very
effective because the large number of filters used
have the capacity to trap a large quantity of contam-
time, the entire oil supply will pass through the fil-
inants. However, one disadvantage of depth filters is
ter. [Figure 9-13] that high pressure oil may occasionally form a chan-
nel through the filter element. If this ever occurs,
FAR requirements dictate that all oil filters be con- the filter will lose a great deal of its effectiveness.
structed and installed in a way that permits full oil [Figure 9-14]
flow even if the filter becomes completely blocked.
On a bypass oil filter system this is not a big deal
since most of the oil bypasses the filter anyway. Semi-Depth Filtration
However, on a full-flow filter system some means of
bypassing the filter must be provided. One way to The type of filter used most often in today's general
meet this requirement is to incorporate an oil bypass aviation aircraft is a disposable, semi-depth filter
valve that automatically lets oil bypass the filter made of resin-impregnated fibers. These fibers are
entirely once it becomes plugged. Another way this formed into a long sheet, folded into pleats, and
is accomplished is to use a filter that is constructed assembled around a perforated sheet steel core. The
with a spring loaded bypass valve inside the filter, or pleats increase the surface area of the filter element
and allow greater filtering capacity in a smaller unit.
Furthermore, the uniformity of the filter surface
greatly reduces the ability of the oil to form a chan-
nel through the element. The filter element is

Figure 9-13. With a bypass filtration system, only about 10

percent of the oil passes through the filter each time the oil
circulates through the engine. This type of system is pri- Figure 9-14. A depth filter consists of a closely-packed fiber
marily installed on older engines. matrix-type element.
3-76 Lubrication
Systems

Figure 9-15. A typical spin-on type semi-depth filter consists

of a pleated sheet of resin impregnated fibers that are
assembled around a perforated sheet steel core. The entire
element is contained in a thin metal housing.

mounted in a cylindrical steel casing which forms

an integral part of the filter. A typical semi-depth fil-
ter mounts to the engine with a threaded fitting and,
therefore, is often referred to as a spin-on filter.
[Figure 9-15]
Figure 9-16. On some engines, the filter housing is reused
indefinitely while a disposable filter element is replaced as
On some engines, the semi-depth filter element is necessary.
installed in a removable can. In this case, the dispos-
able center element is removed and replaced as needed
while the can is used indefinitely. [Figure 9-16]

Surface Filtration
Several aircraft engines are equipped with a stan-
dard woven wire-mesh oil screen, or strainer. This
screen filter is useful for trapping some of the larger
contaminants that flow through the engine; how-
ever, it does little to catch the small contaminants.
Because of this, some engines that use an oil screen
also rely on a second, fine filter to catch any remain-
ing contaminants. Decreasing the size of the wire
mesh for better filtration is not a reasonable option Figure 9-17. Many aircraft engines are provided with a
because cleaning would be required too often to be screen-type surface filtration oil strainer. An oil strainer fil
practical. [Figure 9-17] ters out large particles and helps prevent other filtering ele
ments from becoming clogged. :
Lubrication Systems 9-17

Edge Filtration OIL COOLER

Edge filters may be either the spiral-wound or Cuno If you recall, one of the functions of oil is to cool the
type. A spiral-wound element consists of a long engine; however, to do this, the heat absorbed by the
strip of wedge-shaped metal that is wound into a oil must be removed. In most cases, excess heat is
tight spiral. Ridges along the entire length of the removed by an oil cooler, or oil temperature regula-
strip separate the turns of the spiral a uniform tor. An oil cooler is an oil-to-air heat exchanger.
amount. With this type of filter, the size of the par- When installed in a dry-sump system, the oil cooler
ticles filtered out of the oil depends on the thickness is typically located between the scavenge pump out-
of the ridges. The thick side of the wedge is on the let and storage reservoir. However, in a wet-sump
outside circumference of the spiral and contami- system, the oil cooler may be located wherever the
nants collect on this edge as oil flows from the out- manufacturer deems it appropriate.
side of the element to the inside. [Figure 9-18]
One type of oil cooler consists of a core with several
The Cuno filter consists of a large number of thin copper or aluminum tubes enclosed in a double-
metal disks that are stacked on a center shaft. Thin walled annular shell, or bypass jacket. When the oil
spacers, which are attached to the filter housing, is cold, it flows through the bypass jacket and
separate the disks so oil can pass between the disks. bypasses the core. However, once the oil heats up, it
As with the spiral-wound edge filter, oil flows from is routed through the core for cooling. The exact
the outside of the filter to the inside, leaving conta- amount of oil that flows through the core is con-
minants on the outside edge. The spacer thickness trolled by a thermostatic control valve, also referred
determines the size of the particle contaminants to as a bypass valve or a flow control valve. When
which are filtered out of the oil. Periodically, conta- the oil is cold, the bypass valve is fully open and oil
minants must be scraped from the outside edge of flows through the bypass jacket. However, as the oil
the disks. To do this, a handle is attached to the cen- warms up, the bypass valve slowly closes thereby
ter shaft and used to rotate the disks. Since the spac- forcing oil through the cooler core. [Figure 9-19]
ers are fixed rigidly to the filter housing, they
remain stationary and act as scrapers. Contaminants
scraped from the disks accumulate in the bottom of
the filter housing and are cleaned out during main-
tenance inspections. Cuno filters were commonly
used on many large radial reciprocating engines but
are seldom found on operational aircraft today.

Figure 9-18. With a spiral-wound edge filter, a long piece of

wedge-shaped metal is wound into a spiral. To permit oil Figure 9-19. (A) 17 When the engine oil is cold, the
to pass through the spiral, spacers are installed on every bypass valve opens and allows the oil to bypass the oil
turn of the element. In this configuration, contaminants cooler core. (B) 17 However, once the oil warms up, the
collect on the outside of the spiral as oil passes through bypass valve closes which, in turn, forces the oil to pass
the element. through the core where it transfers its heat to the passing
airstream.
9-18 Lubrication
Systems

In the example just discussed, the bypass valve is

part of the oil cooler. This is typical of oil coolers
installed on radial engines. However, on horizon-
tally opposed engines, the cooler and bypass valve
are typically two separate units that are installed in
parallel with each other. This eliminates the need
for a bypass jacket around the oil cooler. With this
type of system, when the oil is cold, it remains in
the engine's lubrication passages and bypasses the
cooler completely. On the other hand, once the oil
heats up, the bypass valve forces some of the oil to
flow through the cooler.

It is important to note that, if the bypass valve fails

in either the open or closed position, oil will con-
tinue to circulate in the engine. However, if the oil
cooler passages become partially clogged, oil flow
could be reduced. For example, if an oil cooler pas- Figure 9-20. If the oil within an oil cooler becomes con-
sage becomes partially clogged, less oil will flow gealed and excessive oil pressure builds at the oil cooler
through the core and oil temperatures will rise. inlet, the surge valve will open and allow the oil to bypass
the oil cooler.
However, as the oil temperature rises, the bypass
valve closes even further to direct more oil through
the partially restricted core. This, in turn, can limit
the amount of oil that circulates through the engine. requirements. For example, the engine oil will reach
its operating temperature more quickly if airflow to
the oil cooler is cut off during engine warm-up.
SURGE PROTECTION VALVE Airflow control to a radial engine oil cooler can be
accomplished through the use of shutters installed
When cold oil becomes congealed in a dry-sump on the rear of an oil cooler, or by a controllable flap
system, the scavenge pump can build up a very high on the air-exit duct.
pressure in the oil return line. To prevent this high
pressure from damaging the oil cooler or hose con- An oil cooler air exit may be opened and closed
nections, some oil coolers incorporate a surge pro- manually by a control in the cockpit or automati-
tection valve. A typical surge protection valve is cally. To provide automatic control, a floating con-
installed at the oil cooler inlet and is normally held trol thermostat that operates an electrical actuator is
in the closed position by spring pressure. However, typically used. With this type of system, a thermo-
if the oil within the cooler is severely congealed, oil stat inserted in the oil line leading from the cooler
pressure will build at the cooler inlet and overcome to the oil supply reservoir senses the oil tempera-
the spring pressure acting on the surge valve. Once ture and sends electrical impulses that automati-
the surge valve is forced open, oil bypasses the oil cally control the actuator.
cooler completely and continues circulating in the
engine. [Figure 9-20] On horizontally opposed engines, the oil cooler
bypass valve is generally sufficient to control oil
As the congealed oil in the engine and oil cooler temperatures. However, in instances where an air-
heats up, the oil pressure will decrease enough to craft flies in extremely cold climates, an airflow
allow the surge valve to seat. This, in turn, will restrictor may be installed to limit the amount of air-
allow oil to flow through the bypass jacket of the oil flow into an oil cooler. In this case, the airflow
cooler. As the engine reaches its operating tempera- restrictor typically consists of a metal plate that is
ture, the bypass valve closes and oil begins to flow either installed directly over the face of an oil cooler
through the oil cooler core. or in front of a blast tube hole in the rear engine baf-
fling.

AIRFLOW CONTROLS OIL SEPARATOR

By regulating airflow through the oil cooler, oil tem- On engines that use a wet-type vacuum pump,
perature can be controlled to meet various operating engine oil is used to lubricate and seal the vacuum
Lubrication Systems 9-19

pump. However, as oil circulates through this type a pilot to monitor the effectiveness of a given lubri-
of pump, air bubbles become trapped in the oil. To cation system, all aircraft engines are equipped with
eliminate this trapped air, an oil separator is an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in pounds
installed on the outlet side of the vacuum pump. A per square inch. Since inadequate oil pressure can
typical oil separator consists of several baffle plates lead to oil starvation in engine bearings and exces-
which cause the vacuum pump outlet air to swirl. sive pressure can rupture gaskets and seals, the oil
As the air swirls, centrifugal force pulls the oil out pressure in most reciprocating engines is typically
of the air and deposits it on the baffle plates. From regulated over a fairly narrow operating range.
the baffles, the oil drains back to the engine through
an oil outlet in the separator. By separating the air Many oil pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube,
and oil, two things are accomplished. First, oil is because its design enables the gauge to measure rel-
prevented from flowing into the air system and atively high fluid pressures. The gauge is connected
damaging any rubber components such as de-icing by a metal tube directly to a point immediately
boots; and second, excess air is not introduced into downstream from the engine oil pump. Therefore,
the oil system. an oil pressure gauge measures the oil pressure
being delivered to the engine. To protect the gauge
from occasional pressure surges, most gauges have a
OIL DILUTION small restriction at their inlet. In addition, most fit-
On some large reciprocating engines that are oper- tings that attach the oil line to the engine also have
ated in extremely cold temperatures, an oil dilution a small restriction to limit oil lost in the event the
system may be installed. The purpose of such a sys- oil line breaks.
tem is to dilute the oil with fuel within the engine
to help prevent the oil from congealing when it is One disadvantage of this type of oil pressure indi-
cold. With a typical oil dilution system, fuel is cating system is that it does not work well in cold
injected into the oil pump before the engine is shut weather because the oil in the line between the
down. This distributes diluted oil throughout the engine and cockpit gauge tends to congeal. The con-
lubrication system. This way, when the engine is gealed oil then causes false readings of either low or
started later, the diluted oil flows freely through the no oil pressure. This error can be minimized by fill-
engine, ensuring adequate lubrication. Once the ing the oil line with a very light oil.
engine and oil warm up, the gasoline evaporates out
of the oil and leaves the engine through the The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to
crankcase breather. replace Bourdon tube pressure instruments with
electrical transmitters. This allows long oil filled
A typical oil dilution system consists of an oil dilu- lines between engines and instruments to be
tion solenoid that is controlled from the cockpit, an replaced with lightweight wire. In addition to sav-
oil dilution valve, and the necessary plumbing. As a ing weight, electrical transmitters also provide
general rule, the fuel line that injects fuel into the greater accuracy. With a typical electric transmit-
oil is never installed between the pressure pump ter, pressurized oil enters the inlet port of a trans-
and engine pressure system. The reason for this is mitter and is then routed to a diaphragm assembly.
that pressurized oil could flow into the fuel supply As oil pressure increases or decreases, the
and contaminate the fuel. diaphragm expands and contracts appropriately.
The motion produced by the diaphragm's move-
On aircraft with an oil dilution system, engine oil ment is amplified through a lever and gear arrange-
pressure is an indirect indication of how the system ment that varies the electrical value of an indicat-
is operating. For example, when starting an engine ing circuit by positioning a potentiometer. The
that has diluted oil, the oil pressure will be lower position of the potentiometer is then reflected on
than normal. By the same token, if too much fuel is the cockpit indicator.
introduced into the oil or if the oil dilution valve is
leaking, the oil pressure will be excessively low Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical indica-
while oil temperature will be high. tor of engine operation and should be monitored fre-
quently, especially during engine starts. For example,
some aircraft manuals caution you to shut down an
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE engine after 30 seconds in warm weather or one
The engine lubrication system supplies oil under minute in extremely cold weather if no sign of oil
pressure to the moving parts of the engine. To allow pressure is present. Engine shutdown in this case is a
9-20 Lubrication
Systems

precaution taken to prevent possible damage to an ential, the greater the current flow through the indi-
engine until the reason for lack of oil pressure can be cator and the greater the needle deflection. Since
determined. On the other hand, excessive pointer indicator current flow is directly proportional to the
oscillation typically indicates that air is trapped in the oil temperature, an indicator calibrated in degrees
oil line leading to the instrument or that some unit in provides an accurate means of registering oil tem-
the oil system is functioning improperly, hi addition, perature.
low oil pressure or fluctuations from zero to normal
are often signs of low oil quantity. A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is
more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge, especially
when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE ratiometer circuit consists of two parallel branches
The oil temperature gauge allows you to monitor the powered by the aircraft electrical system. One
temperature of the oil entering the engine. This is branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the
important because oil circulation cools the engine other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil.
as it lubricates the moving parts. Most oil tempera- The two coils are wound on a rotor that pivots
ture gauges are calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit and between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a
sense oil temperature at the engine's oil inlet. meter movement in the gauge. [Figure 9-22]

Most modern oil temperature systems are electri- The shape of the permanent magnet provides a
cally operated and use either a Wheatstone bridge larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the
circuit or a ratiometer circuit. A Wheatstone bridge bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density,
circuit consists of three fixed resistors and one vari- or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from the
able resistor whose resistance varies with tempera- bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow
ture. [Figure 9-21] through each coil creates an electromagnet that
reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet,
When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge cir- creating torque that repositions the rotor until the
cuit and all four resistances are equal, no difference magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of
in potential exists between the bridge junctions. the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal,
However, when the variable resistor is exposed to current flow through each coil is the same and the
heat, its resistance increases, causing more current indicator pointer remains in the center position.
to flow through the fixed resistor R3 than the vari- However, if the probe temperature increases, its
able resistor. The disproportionate current flow pro- resistance also increases, causing a decrease in cur-
duces a voltage differential between the bridge junc- rent through the temperature sensing branch.
tions, causing current to flow through the gal- Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the tem-
vanometer indicator. The greater the voltage differ- perature sensing branch decreases, creating an

Figure 9-22. A ratiometer temperature measuring system

Figure 9-21. A typical Wheatstone bridge has three fixed operates with two circuit branches that balance electro-
resistors and one variable resistor. The temperature probe magnetic forces. One branch contains a coil and fixed resis-
contains the variable resistor, whose resistance varies with tor while the other contains a coil and variable resistor,
the temperature of the oil flowing past the probe. The located in the temperature sensing probe. The coils are
bridge in the circuit consists of a galvanometer that is cali- wound on a rotor which pivots in the center of a permanent
brated in degrees to indicate temperature. magnet air gap.
Lubrication Systems 9-21

imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each heated by the oil. As the liquid in the sensing bulb
coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached heats up, the capillary and Bourdon tubes also heat
to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature. up. This causes the vapor pressure within the capil-
lary and Bourdon tubes to increase, which, in turn,
Ratiorneter temperature measuring systems are causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. The motion of
especially useful in applications where accuracy is the Bourdon tube is then transmitted to an indicator
critical or large variations of supply voltages are through a mechanical linkage.
encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type oil
temperature sensing system is generally preferred
over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
engine manufacturers. The maintenance practices discussed in this section
are typical of those used on a horizontally opposed
Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor aircraft engine. However, the maintenance proce-
pressure, or Bourdon tube type instrument. With dures discussed here are by no means all inclusive.
this type of instrument, a Bourdon tube is connected Therefore, before conducting any maintenance on
by a capillary tube to a liquid filled temperature an aircraft's lubrication system you should consult
sensing bulb. The bulb is installed in the engine's oil the appropriate manufacturer's maintenance manu-
inlet line where the volatile liquid in the bulb is als and service bulletins. [Figure 9-23]

Figure 9-23. This figure illustrates the location of typical service items on a dry-sump system installed on a horizontally opposed
engine.
9-22 Lubrication
Systems

OIL CHANGE AND SERVICING

In routine service, oil is constantly exposed to
many substances that reduce its ability to protect
moving parts. The primary source of oil contamina-
tion in a reciprocating engine is combustion by-
products that escape past the piston rings and oil
carbonizing that occurs when oil becomes trapped
in the pores of the cylinder walls and is burned.
Additional contaminants that can become trapped
in lubricating oils include gasoline, moisture,
acids, dirt, carbon, and metal particles. If allowed
to accumulate over a period of time, these contam-
inants can cause excessive wear on internal engine
components. Certain clues that indicate internal
engine wear include excessive oil consumption
without evidence of any oil leaks. In this case,
excessive oil consumption is typically caused by
oil leaking past worn piston rings and being con-
sumed in the combustion chambers. To prevent this
type of engine damage, the entire lubrication sys- Figure 9-24. Most of the engine oil in a typical horizontally
tem is drained at regular intervals and refilled with opposed engine is drained by removing one or more oil
clean, fresh, oil. The recommended time interval drain plugs or opening a drain valve.
between oil changes is typically based on the man-
ufacturer's recommendations.
ficiently loosened and tilted to complete the oil
Prior to draining the engine oil, an engine should be drainage.
run-up. In addition to warming the engine oil, a pre-
inspection run-up allows you to verify that the oil The presence of an excessive number of metal parti-
temperature and pressure are within acceptable lim- cles in the oil itself generally indicates an internal
its. Furthermore, a run-up agitates the oil supply so failure. However, due to the construction of aircraft
it holds the maximum amount of contaminants in oil systems, it is possible for metal particles to col-
suspension. This way, when the oil is drained, most lect in the oil system sludge at the time of a previ-
of the contaminants will drain out of the engine ous engine failure. Furthermore, carbon buildup
with the oil. can break loose from an engine's interior and may be
mistaken for metal particles. In any case, the source
Whenever possible, you should drain the engine oil of any foreign particles in an engine's oil must be
into a clean container and place a large metal drip identified and corrected before the aircraft is
pan under the engine to catch any spills. released for flight.
Horizontally opposed ■wet-sump engines typically
have oil drains located at the lowest point of the One way to determine if a particle is metal or carbon
engine case. In many cases, the only way to gain is to place the material on a flat metal object and
access to an oil drain is to remove the lower cowl- strike it with a hammer. If the particle is carbon, it
ing. However, with the large variety of aircraft- will disintegrate, however, if it is metal, it will
engine combinations, it is always best to consult the remain intact or change shape, depending upon its
applicable aircraft maintenance manual for details. malleability. If you find some particles that are
[Figure 9-24] metal, use a magnet to determine whether the parti-
cles are ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous particles are
Before opening an oil drain, check the maintenance typically produced by wearing piston rings,
manual for instructions regarding aircraft position. whereas nonferrous particles are typically produced
This step is important because the normal ground by main bearings.
attitude of some aircraft may prevent the tank from
draining completely. On engines that use a dry- Another way to correctly identify the type and
sump engine, if it is not possible to position the air- quantity of foreign particles in an engine's oil is
craft as recommended and the amount of undrained through regular participation in a spectrometric oil
oil is excessive, the oil reservoir can usually be suf- analysis program, or S.O.A.P., which requires an oil
Lubrication 9-23
Systems

Figure 9-25. When replacing a disposable oil filter, it is a good practice to cut the filter open and inspect the filter element for
metal particles. To do this, a special filter cutter is used.

sample to be sent to a laboratory for analysis. When type filters are opened with a special roller-type can
this done, you are provided with a list of the type of cutter. The cutter removes the top of the container
particles found along with possible sources of the without introducing metal particles that could pro-
particles. In addition, if a laboratory observes a sud- vide false indications of impending engine prob-
den increase in the amounts of metal that the test is lems. [Figure 9-25]
designed to detect, they immediately contact the
operator by telephone. When using spectrometric oil When servicing an engine equipped with an oil
analysis, testing must occur on a regular basis to pro- screen, the screen must be removed, inspected, and
vide a baseline for comparison so accurate informa- cleaned. When removing an oil screen, place a suit-
tion can be obtained. A closely followed oil analysis able container under the screen housing to collect
program can detect problems before they become the oil that will drain from the filter housing or cav-
serious and prevent catastrophic engine failure. ity. The container must be clean to avoid contami-
nating the collected oil. Otherwise, contaminants
already present in the container could falsely indi-
OIL FILTER REPLACEMENT cate imminent engine failure, possibly resulting in a
Oil filter replacement and inspection is normally premature engine removal.
accomplished whenever the oil is changed. As dis-
cussed earlier, the two most common types of filter Once an oil screen has been removed, inspect it for
elements used in aircraft engines are disposable contamination and the presence of metal particles.
paper elements and a wire-mesh oil screen. When Metal particles large enough to be trapped by the
replacing a disposable filter, it is common practice screen could indicate impending internal engine fail-
to cut open the filter and inspect the element for the ure. After you have completed your inspection, the
presence of any metal particles which might indi- screen must be cleaned with an approved solvent
cate an impending engine failure. Sealed, spin-on prior to reinstallation in the engine. [Figure 9-26]

Figure 9-26. Some reciprocating engines employ reusable metal screens to trap sludge and large contaminants. If this is the case,
there is usually a screen installed in the pressure system and the scavenge system.
9-24 Lubrication
Systems

Once the screens or filters have been inspected and

the oil has been completely drained, replace the
drain plug or secure the drain valve. On aircraft that
utilize a disposable filter, a new filter must be
installed and secured. On the other hand, on aircraft
that use an oil screen, the screen must be cleaned,
re-installed, and secured. Once all filters and/or
screens are secured, the oil reservoir should be
refilled with the recommended grade of oil.
Once the reservoir is filled, run up the engine long
enough to warm the oil. After engine shutdown,
allow a few minutes for the oil to settle, then check
the oil level. If necessary, add oil to bring the level
up to the prescribed quantity. In addition, inspect
the areas around the oil drain plug, oil filter, and oil
screen fitting for leaks. Figure 9-27. When inspecting an oil cooler, any sign of oil
leakage may indicate a crack in the cooler's core. If this is
OIL RESERVOIR the case, or if an oil cooler loses its effectiveness, the cooler
should be removed, inspected, and pressure tested.
In some instances, the oil reservoir installed in a
dry-sump system must be removed for cleaning or
repair. To do this, begin by draining all the oil and Initial adjustment of an oil pressure relief valve is
disconnecting the oil inlet and vent lines. Once this made by the overhaul shop on a newly overhauled
is done, remove the scupper drain hose and bonding engine prior to the initial test run. However, once an
wire. Next, remove the safety wire and loosen the engine is installed on an aircraft and run, the relief
clamps of the securing straps which are fitted valve pressure setting may require a slight readjust-
around the tank. While supporting the tank, remove ment, hi addition, over time, the spring in a relief valve
the securing straps and lift the tank out of the air- may weaken enough to require some adjustment.
craft. The tank is reinstalled by reversing the step
sequence used in the tank removal. To adjust an oil pressure relief valve, remove the
cover nut, loosen the locknut, and turn the adjusting
OIL COOLER screw clockwise to increase the pressure, and coun-
Oil coolers are normally removed and cleaned during terclockwise to decrease the pressure. After each
an engine overhaul. However, if an oil cooler loses a pressure adjustment, tighten the adjustment screw
portion of its cooling effectiveness, there maybe accu- locknut and run-up the engine to check the oil pres-
mulations of sludge blocking portions of the cooler. If sure while the engine is running at an rpm specified
this is the case, the cooler must be removed and by the manufacturer. [Figure 9-28]
cleaned. Once the cooler is removed from the engine
and cleaned, visually inspect it for cracks and other
damage. Pay particular attention to all welded or sol-
dered seams since they are subject to damage from
excessive oil pressures. Once cleaning and repairs are
complete, the cooler should be pressure tested as per
the manufacturer's instructions. [Figure 9-27]

RELIEF VALVE ADJUSTMENT

During routine maintenance, you may be required
to adjust the oil pressure relief valve. Oil pressure
specifications typically vary from 35 to 90 psi
depending on the engine model. The oil pressure
must be high enough to ensure adequate lubrication
of the engine and accessories at high speeds and Figure 9-28. Oil pressure relief valves occasionally require
powers. On the other hand, the pressure must not be readjustment. On a typical relief valve, turning the adjust-
excessive, since leakage and damage to the oil sys- ing screw clockwise increases the maximum system pres-
sure while turning the adjusting screw counterclockwise
tem may result. decreases system pressure.
TURBINE ENGINES

The lubrication system on a turbine engine upper extremes. In addition, mineral-based oils
supplies oil to moving parts within the engine tend to leave lacquer and carbon, or coke deposits
which are subjected to friction and heating. In most when exposed to excessive temperatures. Because
cases, pressure lubrication is used to lubricate all of this, synthetic oils are used almost exclusively in
the necessary components within a turbine engine. turbine engines.
The reason for this is that, unlike reciprocating
engines that have several moving parts that In addition to its ability to lubricate over a wide
splash oil around the engine, a turbine engine has temperature range, synthetic oils have a low volatil-
one or two rotating shafts that ride on bearings and ity which helps prevent evaporation at high alti-
an accessory gear box. Another difference is that tudes. In addition, most synthetic oils contain an
turbine engines operate at much higher anti-foaming additive which helps reduce foaming
temperatures than reciprocating engines; therefore, and ensures positive lubrication. Additional charac-
the lubrication system must carry a greater amount teristics possessed by synthetic oils include having
of heat away from the components it lubricates. To a high viscosity index, high flash point, low pour
do this, oil typically circulates through a turbine point, and excellent cohesion and adhesion proper-
engine at a very high flow rate. ties. Cohesion is a characteristic of oil molecules
that causes them to stick together under compres-
One of the most notable differences between sion loads, while adhesion allows oil to adhere to
reciprocating and turbine engine lubrication surfaces under centrifugal loads.
systems is that the oil in a turbine engine is
completely sealed from combustion gases. As a Currently, there are two types of synthetic oils used
result, very little oil is consumed by the engine. in turbine engines: Type I, or MIL-L-7808 and Type
This allows a turbine engine oil reservoir to be II, or MIL-L-23699. Type I synthetic oil is an alkyl
smaller than that of a comparable size reciprocating diester oil with a 3 centistoke rating. This type of
engine. For example, the oil reservoir on a small synthetic oil has a very low viscosity and was used
turbine engine installed on a business jet typically primarily in early turbine engines. On the other
holds only three to five quarts of oil. Another hand, Type II synthetic oil is a polyester lubricant
benefit of being sealed from the combustion gases that has a 5 centistoke rating and is used in most
is that the oil remains cleaner and can generally go modern turbine engines.
longer between oil changes. As discussed in Section A, different types of syn-
thetic oil should not be mixed. In addition, since
LUBRICATING OILS some proprietary additives many not mix with oth-
ers, some manufacturers recommend that different
The large operating tolerances and high bearing brands of synthetic oil not be mixed.
pressures in reciprocating engines require the use of
a high viscosity oil. Turbine engines, on the other
hand, are built with extremely tight tolerances and SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
the ball and roller bearings used are subjected to rel-
atively low pressures. Because of this, low viscosity Like reciprocating engines, turbine engines may
oils are used in turbine engines. have either a wet-sump or dry-sump lubrication sys-
tem. Currently, wet-sump lubrication systems are
In addition to having a low viscosity, the oil used in primarily used on some auxiliary power units;
turbine engines must provide adequate lubrication however, they were used extensively on early tur-
over a wide temperature range, typically from -60℃ bine engines. In a typical wet-sump system, oil is
to +400℃. Given these temperature extremes, a con- stored in an engine sump or accessory gearbox.
ventional mineral-based oil would congeal at the From here, oil is pressurized and routed through
low temperature extremes and break down at the
9-26 Lubrication
Systems

Figure 9-29. In this wet-sump lubrication system, pressurized oil flows from the oil pump through several filters before reaching
the main rotor bearings and coupling. Once circulated through the bearings, one or more scavenge pumps return the oil to the
accessory case.

multiple filters before reaching the main rotor bear- OIL RESERVOIR
ings and couplings. Once the oil has lubricated the
main bearings, it drains to low lying areas where The oil reservoir in a dry-sump system is usually
scavenge pumps route the oil back to the sump or constructed of sheet aluminum or stainless steel
gearbox. Since the oil in a wet-sump system is gen- and is designed to furnish a constant supply of oil
erally stored in the accessory gearbox, the bearings to the engine during all approved flight maneuvers.
and drive gears within the accessory gearbox As mentioned earlier, in a dry-sump system, the oil
receive oil through splash lubrication. [Figure 9-29] reservoir may be mounted externally or internally.
When mounted externally, the reservoir may be
Today, the majority of turbine engines utilize a dry- attached to the engine case or mounted inside the
sump lubrication system consisting of pressure, aircraft structure. On the other hand, when
scavenge, and breather subsystems. Dry-sump sys- mounted internally, the oil reservoir is formed by an
tems differ from wet-sump systems in that the oil is internal space, or cavity, within the engine
stored in a separate oil reservoir mounted either structure. Common locations for internal oil
internally within the engine or externally on the reservoirs include cavities between major case
engine or in the aircraft. In this type of system, an sections and propeller reduction gear boxes.
oil pump pulls oil from the oil tank and provides
pressure and spray lubrication throughout the The oil supply for a wet-sump system is typically
engine. Once circulated, the oil accumulates in low located in the main gearbox at the lowest point
lying areas where scavenge pumps pick up the oil within the engine. This position permits splash
and pump it back to the reservoir. lubrication to be used on accessory gears and
bearings.
A typical pressure lubrication system consists of an
oil reservoir, pressure and scavenge pumps, pres- To ensure a positive flow of oil to the oil pump inlet,
sure relief valve, several oil filters, oil jets, an oil most oil reservoirs are pressurized. Pressurizing the
cooler, and vent lines. In addition, to allow an oper- reservoir also helps to suppress oil foaming which,
ator to monitor the operation of a given lubrication in turn, prevents pump cavitation. In most cases,
system, most systems include an oil temperature pressurization is accomplished by installing an
and oil pressure gauge. adjustable relief valve in the oil reservoir, vent line.
This way, reservoir pressure builds until the relief
Lubrication Systems 9-27

valve opens to relieve excess pressure. A typical layer, entrapped air separates from the oil. In oil
relief valve is adjusted to maintain a reservoir pres- reservoirs that are equipped with a dwell chamber,
sure of approximately three to six psig. the oil/air mixture enters the dwell chamber at the
bottom of the oil tank. Scavenge pump pressure
If you recall from the previous section, FAR Part 23 then forces the oil upward through the dwell cham-
requires that all oil reservoirs have an expansion ber and spreads it into a thin film facilitating the
space of at least 10 percent of the tank capacity, or release of entrained air. [Figure 9-30]
0.5 gallon, whichever is greater. The expansion
space provides sufficient room for oil to expand as The most common method of checking the oil level
it heats and allows room for the collection of foam. in the tank is with a dipstick. In lieu of a dipstick,
In addition, all oil filler caps or covers must be some oil tanks incorporate a sight gauge to satisfy
marked with the word "OIL" and the permissible oil the FAR requirements for a visual means of check-
designations. As an added feature, most of the oil ing oil level. However, these glass indicators tend to
reservoirs installed in some dry-sump systems cloud over after prolonged use and, therefore, many
include a scupper drain. operators rely on the dipstick method. [Figure 9-31]

As lubricating oil is agitated by an engine's moving

parts, air typically becomes entrained in the oil. To
remedy this problem, many oil tanks contain a some
form of deaerator, or air-oil separator. In some
engines, a separator may be installed in the
accessory gearbox while other systems rely on a
separator in the oil reservoir. One type of deaerator
that may be installed in an oil reservoir swirls the
air/oil mixture allowing centrifugal force to pull the
oil from the air. Once separated, the oil drains into
the reservoir while the air is vented overboard.
Another type of deaerator consists of a tray in the
top of the reservoir that the oil spreads out on
when it is returned to the reservoir. As the oil
spreads out into a thin

Figure 9-31. (A) 27 Many turbine engines utilize a conven-

tional dipstick such as this to indicate the oil level in the
Figure 9-30. In oil reservoirs that are equipped with a dwell main tank. (B) 27 Some tanks are equipped with a sight
chamber, oil enters the bottom of the oil tank and passes gauge on the side of the oil tank to provide a visual means
through a dwell chamber. As this happens, the oil is spread of checking oil level.
into a thin film to facilitate the release of entrained air.
9-28 L ubrication Systems

OIL PUMPS vanes decreases. This pressurizes the oil so that

when the vanes reach the pump outlet, the oil is
Like reciprocating engines, all turbine engine forced out of the pump. Of the pumps used in an oil
pressure lubrication systems utilize a constant system, the vane pump is considered to be more
displacement pump. If you recall, a constant tolerant of debris. This makes the sliding vane
displacement pump moves a fixed volume of fluid pumps ideal for use in a scavenge system. [Figure 9-
per revolution. The three types of constant 32]
displacement pumps that are used in turbine
engines include the gear, vane, and gerotor.
GEROTOR PUMP

GEAR PUMP Another type of constant-displacement pump used

to move oil through a turbine engine is the gerotor-
The gear-type pump is the most common type of oil type pump. As discussed in the previous section, a
pump used in turbine engines. A typical gear-type typical gerotor-type pump consists of an engine-dri-
pump consists of two meshed gears that rotate ven spur gear that rotates within a free spinning
inside a housing. The gears and housing are rotor housing. The rotor and drive gear ride inside a
precisely machined to keep clearances between housing that has two oblong openings. One opening
them as small as possible. Oil is picked up by the is the oil inlet while the other is the oil outlet.
gears at the pump inlet and then becomes trapped
between the teeth and the housing. As the gears
rotate, the trapped oil is released at the pump SCAVENGE PUMP
outlet.
In addition to a pressure pump, almost all turbine
engine lubrication systems must utilize a scavenge
VANE PUMP pump to return oil to the oil reservoir. A scavenge
pump may be a gear- vane-, or gerotor-type pump
A vane-type pump consists of a housing that con- that is driven by the engine. As a rule, scavenge
tains a steel sleeve with an off-center bore, four pumps have a capacity that is greater than a pressure
vanes, a hollow steel rotor, and a coupling that turns pump. The reason for this is that after oil flows
the rotor. In this type of pump, the rotor turns on its through an engine it typically has a greater volume
center axis while the vanes are free to slide in and due to foaming and thermal expansion. Therefore, to
out of the rotor. As each pair of vanes passes the ensure that oil does not collect in the engine sump,
pump inlet, the space between the vanes increases the scavenge pump must be capable of pumping a
and oil floods between the vanes. However, as the greater volume of oil than the pressure pump. One
vanes rotate toward the outlet, the space between the unique feature of many turbine engine oil pumps is
that the pressure pump and scavenge pump are often
enclosed in a single housing. [Figure 9-33]

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

Some turbine engine lubrication systems rely on a
pressure relief valve to regulate the oil pressure
within the system. On the other hand, some systems
do not use a pressure relief valve and allow full
pump pressure to circulate within the system.
Lubrication systems that have a relief valve are
often referred to as pressure relief valve systems,
while systems that do not incorporate a relief valve
are called full-flow systems.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM

In a pressure relief valve system, oil flow to the
Figure 9-32. In a vane-type pump, a set of vanes slide in and bearing chambers is regulated by a spring-loaded
out of the rotor as it rotates in the pump housing. Since the relief valve that is held in the closed position. With
rotor is offset in the housing, the volume between each set of
vanes alternatly increases and decreases allowing the pump
this type of valve, when the oil pressure rises above
to pull fluid in one side and force it out the other. a preset value, the valve off seats and returns excess
Lubrication Systems 9-29

Figure 9-33. To help eliminate the added size and weight of a separate scavenge pump, many turbine engines utilize a single
pump unit that houses both the pressure and scavenge pumps.

oil to the reservoir or oil pump inlet. The pressure bearings is directly related to how fast the engine
required to open the valve typically corresponds to and oil pump are run. In this case, the size of the oil
the oil pump's output capability when the engine is pump is determined by the oil flow required at the
running at idle speed. This guarantees adequate oil engine's maximum operating speed.
pressure throughout the engine's operating range.

In a turbine engine, the pressure within the bearing OIL FILTERS

chambers increases dramatically with increases in
engine speed. As the pressure within the bearing Once oil is discharged from an oil pressure pump, it
chambers increases, the pressure differential flows to an oil filter. The purpose of the filter is to
between the bearing chambers and the lubrication remove solid particles that are suspended in the oil.
system decreases. Therefore, as the pressure within The contaminants typically found in a turbine
the bearing chambers increases, less oil flows to the engine oil system include products of oil
bearings. To prevent this from happening, some of decomposition, metallic particles produced by
the pressurized air within the bearing chambers is engine wear, and corrosion. In addition, since
typically routed to the back side of the pressure large amounts of air move through a turbine engine,
relief valve to augment the spring pressure. This airborne contaminants can enter the oil system
way, as the engine speed increases, the pressure through the main bearing seals. Occasionally, dirt
within the lubrication system also increases. and other foreign matter may also be
inadvertently introduced into the oil supply during
servicing.
FULL-FLOW SYSTEM
In a full-flow system, no pressure relief valve is All turbine engines include an oil filter downstream
used; therefore, the amount of oil that flows to the from the oil pump. In addition, most engines force
the oil to pass through another filter just prior to
9-30 Lubrication
Systems

Figure 9-34. (A) 30 With a bowl-type filter, a screen-type filter element is inserted inside a removable filter bowl. (B) 30 In another
installation, the filter element is inserted into the gearbox and then covered with a simple cover plate.

entering the bearing chambers. This filter is lize screen-type filters include bowl-type in-line fil-
commonly referred to as a last chance filter ters and gearbox filters. [Figure 9-34]
because it represents the last opportunity to filter the
oil before it enters the bearing chamber. Since last The screen-disk type filter is more common to Pratt
chance filters are placed deep within an engine, & Whitney engines and consists of a series of wafer-
they are cleaned only when an engine is thin screens that are separated by spacers. The
disassembled for overhaul. screens are stacked on a perforated metal core and
oil is filtered as it passes from the outer edge to the
On some engines, filtration is also provided in the core. A typical rating on a screen disk filter is
scavenge subsystem. With this type of system, the approximately 20 microns. In addition, its
oil is filtered prior to reaching the reservoir. This construction permits the filter to be disassembled
way, any contaminants that are flushed out of the and cleaned. This type of filter is often used in the
bearing chambers do not make it back to the clean pressurized portion of an oil system and fits into
oil in the reservoir. an annulus provided in the main accessory
gearbox. [Figure 9-35]
The effectiveness of a turbine engine oil filter is
measured in microns. One micron represents a size Pleated-fiber filters are typically rated at about 15
or distance equal to one millionth of a meter, or microns and are similar to the filters used in
approximately .000039 inch. To put micron reciprocating engines. A typical pleated-fiber filter
measurements in perspective, consider that element consists of millions of resin-
objects must be approximately 40 microns or larger impregnated fibers that are formed into a long
to be distinguishable by the human eye. sheet, folded into pleats, and assembled around a
perforated steel core. Because of their construction,
Turbine engines utilize three types of filters; a wire- pleated-fiber filters are generally intended to be
mesh oil screen, a screen disk, or a pleated-fiber fil- replaced at specific time intervals.
ter. A typical wire-mesh filter is rated at 20 to 40
microns. In other words, particles larger than 40 FAR requirements dictate that all oil filters be
microns in size are filtered from the oil supply. To constructed and installed in a way that permits full
create a larger surface area for filtration, many oil oil flow even if the filter becomes completely
screens are pleated. Typically, installations that uti- blocked. Therefore, some means of bypassing the
filter must
Lubrication Systems 9-31

Figure 9-35. (A) 31 A typical screen-disk filter consists of several wafer-thin screens that are separated by spacers. (B) 31 This
configuration allows the filter to be easily disassembled and cleaned.

be provided. The most common way of meeting this engines that utilize oil dampened bearings. This
requirement is to incorporate an oil bypass valve type of bearing relies on an oil film between the
that automatically lets oil bypass the filter entirely outer race and bearing housing to reduce rotor
once it becomes plugged. Since the use of unfiltered vibrations and compensate for slight rotor
oil to lubricate main bearings can cause extensive misalignments.
damage, most turbine powered aircraft incorporate
a warning light in the cockpit to warn the operator The small nozzle orifices in the tips of oil jets
when the filter is being bypassed. become clogged easily and, because they are located
deep within an engine, they are not accessible for
cleaning except during engine overhaul. Therefore,
OIL JETS the oil must be free of particle contaminants. As dis-
An oil jet is basically a fixed nozzle that provides a cussed earlier, last chance filters are placed in the
relatively constant oil flow to the main bearings at oil line upstream from the oil jets to help prevent
all engine speeds. Oil jets are located in the pressure nozzle clogs. However, bearing failure will
lines adjacent to, or within, the bearing inevitably result if the last chance filter becomes
compartments and rotor shaft couplings. Due to clogged.
the high rpm and high loading placed on main
rotor bearings, constant oil flow to the bearings is
vital. This is especially true for the turbine bearings VENT SYSTEM
since they are subjected to the most heat. In many turbine engines, the bearing chambers and
accessory gearbox are vented to the oil reservoir.
Oil jets can deliver lubrication oil in the form of a The primary purpose of a vent system is to vent
solid oil spray or an air-oil mist. While an air-oil excessive pressure in the bearing chambers so the
mist is considered adequate for some types of pressure differential between the bearing chambers
bearings, a solid oil spray typically provides better and the lubrication system is maintained and the oil
lubrication. In fact, a solid oil spray is required in jets maintain the proper spray pattern. In addition,
(maintain proper spray)
9-32 Lubrication
Systems

the pressurized air within the bearing chambers and

accessory gearbox provides a source of pressuriza-
tion for the oil reservoir. If you recall, turbine engine
oil reservoirs are pressurized to help ensure a posi-
tive flow of oil to the pump and minimize oil foam-
ing. To control the amount of pressurization, the oil
reservoir is vented to the atmosphere through a
check relief valve that maintains a reservoir pres-
sure of three to six psig.

CHECK VALVES
A check valve is sometimes installed in the oil
supply line of dry-sump oil systems. The check
valve prevents supply oil from seeping through the
oil pump elements and high-pressure lines after
shutdown. Without the check valve, oil could
accumulate in the accessory gearbox, compressor
rear housing, and combustion chamber. Such
accumulations could cause excessive loading on
the accessory drive gears during an engine start,
contamination of the cabin pressurization air, or an Figure 9-36. An oil-to-fuel heat exchanger transfers heat
internal oil fire. Check valves are usually spring- from the engine oil to the fuel. This cools the hot oil before
loaded, ball-and-socket valves constructed to allow it re-enters the engine and warms the fuel to prevent the
the free flow of pressurized oil. The oil pressure formation of ice crystals.
required to open a check valve varies, but typically
ranges from two to five psi. :
ously. First, the oil is cooled to an acceptable oper-
ating temperature and second, the fuel is preheated
OIL COOLER which improves combustion. In addition, an oil-to-
fuel oil cooler is typically easier to install since it
As you know, one of the functions of oil is to cool
does not have to be exposed to ram air.
the engine; however, to do this, the heat absorbed by
the oil must be removed. In most cases, the excess
A typical oil-to-fuel heat exchanger consists of a
heat is removed by an oil cooler. The oil cooler in a
series of joined tubes with an inlet and outlet port.
turbine engine may be located in either the pressure
In a typical oil cooler, fuel flows through the cooler
subsystem or the scavenge subsystem. When
continuously while a thermostatic bypass valve
installed in the pressure subsystem, the lubrication
controls the amount of oil that flows to the oil
system is sometimes referred to as a hot tank system
cooler. When the oil is cold, the bypass valve allows
because the scavenge oil is not cooled before it
the oil to bypass the cooler. However, once the oil
enters the reservoir. On the other hand, when the oil
heats up, the bypass valve forces the oil to flow
cooler is placed in the scavenge subsystem, the
through the cooler. [Figure 9-36]
lubrication system is often referred to as a cold tank
system because the oil is cooled just before it enters
the reservoir. CHIP DETECTORS
The oil coolers used on some early turbine engines Many scavenge subsystems contain permanent
were simple oil-to-air heat exchangers similar to the magnet chip detectors that attract and hold
oil coolers used on reciprocating engines. Although ferrous metal particles. These chip detectors are
this type of oil cooler is effective, the cooler must be utilized for several reasons. First, any metal
installed near the front of the engine so it is exposed particles that are attracted to the detector are
to ram air. Modern oil coolers use fuel to cool the oil prevented from circulating in the engine and
and, therefore, are termed oil-to-fuel heat exchang- causing additional wear. Second, the collection of
ers. Using fuel to cool the oil is considered to be metal particles on a chip detector provide valuable
much more efficient than using air because two information when troubleshooting engine
important functions are accomplished simultane- problems.

As a general rule, the presence of small fuzzy parti-

cles or grey metallic paste is the result of normal
Lubrication Systems 9-33

Figure 9-38. With a chip detector that incorporates a warn-

ing light, the indicating circuit is completed when a suffi-
cient amount of ferrous debris collects on the magnet and
bridges the gap between the positive and ground elec-
trodes.

because it can discriminate between small wear-par-

ticles, which are considered non-failure related, and
Figure 9-37. A magnetic chip detector is typically located in larger particles, which can be an indication of
the oil return line where it collects ferrous particles sus- impending failure.
pended in the engine oil. During scheduled engine mainte-
nance, the chip detector is removed and visually inspected.
Pulsed detectors are designed to operate in a man-
ual mode, or in a combination manual/automatic
engine wear and, therefore, is not a cause for con- mode. In the manual mode, the warning light illu-
cern. However, metallic chips or flakes are an indi- minates each time the gap is sufficiently bridged,
cation of serious internal wear which must be regardless of the particle size. The engine operator
investigated further. [Figure 9-37] may then fire an electrical pulse which discharges
energy across the detector gap in an attempt to burn
As an added feature, some chip detectors off insignificant debris. After doing this, if the warn-
incorporate an electric circuit that operates an ing light extinguishes and does not re-illuminate,
indicator light in the cockpit. With this type chip the warning indication may be interpreted as a non-
detector, sometimes called an indicating chip failure related cause. However, if the warning light
detector, a positive electrode is placed in the remains illuminated, or repeatedly comes on after
center of the detector while a negative, or ground being cleared, maintenance should be scheduled to
electrode is placed on the detector shell. In this troubleshoot the cause.
configuration, when metallic debris bridges the
gap between the positive and ground electrodes, In the automatic mode, a time delay relay is
the indicator circuit is completed and the warning activated in the warning circuit. This relay prevents
light illuminates. The flight crew must then the warning light from illuminating immediately
respond to the warning and take the necessary after the electrode gap is bridged. This way, if the
precautions to prevent engine damage and ensure gap is bridged by small debris, a pulse of electrical
flight safety. Decisions on the proper response are energy has time to automatically discharge across
usually based, in part, on the readings obtained the gap before the warning light illuminates. If the
from other engine instrument readings and whether resulting burn-off opens the gap the light remains
or not the warning can be reset. [Figure 9-38] extinguished. However, if the debris is large
enough, it will remain in place after the burn-off
A more modern type of chip detector is the electric cycle is completed and the warning light will
pulsed chip detector. This type of detector is unique illuminate when the time-delay relay closes. [Figure
9-39]
9-34 Lubrication
Systems

option is possible because turbine engine lubrica-

tion systems have a flow rate of two to five times the
oil tank capacity per minute. As a result, tempera-
tures stabilize throughout the entire lubrication sys-
tem very rapidly.

Some engine manufacturers prefer the temperature

sensor to be installed in the scavenge subsystem.
Their reason for this is it provides a slightly quicker
indication of high friction buildup caused by failing
parts, such as bearings and gears. However, of the
two locations, it is more common to place the sen-
sor in the pressure subsystem to sense the oil tem-
perature at the engine's oil inlet.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
The maintenance practices discussed in this section
are typical of those used on a turbine engine.
However, the maintenance procedures discussed
Figure 9-39. With an electric pulse chip detector, the engine here are by no means all inclusive. Therefore, before
operator can fire an electrical pulse across the gap of the conducting any maintenance on an aircraft's lubri-
detector to burn off insignificant debris. In addition, by cation system you should consult the appropriate
incorporating a timer, the number of false warnings is manufacturer's maintenance manuals and service
greatly reduced.
bulletins.

OIL PRESSURE GAUGE Maintenance of turbine engine lubrication systems

usually consists of adjusting, removing, cleaning,
To allow you to monitor the effectiveness of a given
and replacing various components. For example,
lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped oil filters must be periodically cleaned or replaced
with an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in
and pressure relief valves may require occasional
pounds per square inch. A turbine engine pressure adjustments.
gauge is typically connected to the oil system
downstream of the main oil filter. This location
ensures an indication of the actual pressure being OIL CHANGE
delivered to the engine. As an additional feature,
some oil pressure systems incorporate a low-pres- In routine service, oil is constantly exposed to
sure warning light. When aircraft electrical power is many substances that reduce its ability to protect
turned on and the engine is not running, each moving parts. The primary source of oil
engine's low oil pressure light illuminates. contamination in turbine engines include gasoline,
However, when starting the engine, the warning moisture, acids, dirt, carbon, and metal particles.
light should extinguish once oil pressure increases If allowed to accumulate over a period of time,
above the low limit marked on the oil pressure these contaminants can cause excessive wear on
gauge. internal engine components.

The recommended time interval between oil

OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE changes is typically based on the manufacturer's
recommendations. However, since the oil in turbine
The oil temperature gauge allows you to monitor the
engines is sealed from the combustion gases, the
temperature of the oil. This is important because oil time interval between oil changes is typically quite
circulation cools the engine as it lubricates the mov-
long. For example, a typical oil change interval on
ing parts. The oil temperature sensor location in a many business jets is 300 to 400 hours or 6 months,
turbine engine lubrication system is less critical
whichever comes first. On larger turbine engines
than in a reciprocating engine. Therefore, engine that consume more than 0.2 quarts per hour, some
manufacturers place the sensor in either the pres-
operators rely on oil replenishment as an effective
sure subsystem or the scavenge subsystem. This method of changing oil. The logic behind this is that
Lubrication Systems 9-35

normal replenishment will automatically change should be disassembled, inspected, cleaned, and
the oil at regular 50 to 100 hour intervals. reinstalled. A disposable type filter must be
inspected for metallic particles and replaced.
Whenever possible, you should drain the engine oil
as soon as possible after the engine has been shut Contaminants which are large enough and heavy
down. This helps ensure that the oil reservoir is as enough to be seen in filter bowls or on filter screens
full as possible and that the maximum amount of are always a matter of concern. In such cases, follow
contaminants are held in suspension. This way, the manufacturer's recommended course of action
when the oil is drained, most of the contaminants to determine the source of the contaminants. If a
will drain out of the engine with the oil. spectrometric oil analysis program has been fol-
lowed, a read-out of the various metals present in
The oil in turbine engines is typically drained from the latest oil sample can be compared to earlier test
the oil reservoir, the accessory gearbox sump, the results. The results may affect the decision-making
main oil filter, and other low points in the system. process of whether or not there is sufficient cause to
In some cases, manufacturers recommend that the dismantle the engine for closer inspection.
lubrication system be periodically flushed. Flushing
procedures usually consist of filling the engine with Traditional methods of hand cleaning reusuable fil-
the proper oil or cleaning agent and motoring the ters in solvent are still commonly used and accept-
engine with the starter. Once this is done, the oil or able. However, several cleaning devices such as
cleaning agent is drained from the engine. ultrasonic cleaners or vibrator cleaners are also
available for filter and parts cleaning. With these
When draining the oil, inspect the oil closely for types of cleaners, the filter is placed in a solvent
signs of contamination. For example, if the engine bath and ultrasonic sound waves are pulsed through
oil is observed to be dark brown or even blackish, the solvent. The high frequency energy dislodges
but little or no contaminants are present, overheat- foreign materials and removes contaminants from a
ing is a likely cause. The discoloration is a chemical filter element. These units do a very thorough job of
reaction that occurs when excessive heat causes oil removing all contaminants from filtering elements.
decomposition. The cause of overheating could [Figure 9-40]
range from low oil quantity to engine malfunctions
such as clogged oil jets or disintegrating bearings. Once the screens or filters have been inspected and
Consult the engine logs for excessive oil consump- the oil has been completely drained, replace and
tion and thoroughly analyze other clues in accor- secure the drain plug. On aircraft that utilize a dis-
dance with the appropriate troubleshooting guides posable filter, a new filter must be installed and
in the maintenance manual. secured. On the other hand, on aircraft that use an
oil screen, the screen must be cleaned, re-installed,
and secured. Once all filters and/or screens are
Given the high costs associated with turbine engine
operation, the value of a spectrometric oil analysis
program (S.O.A.P.) is unquestioned. As with
reciprocating engines, a series of samples must be
analyzed before an accurate trend forecast can be
developed. On engines that do not receive regular
oil changes, regular oil analysis is still
recommended. To do this, samples must be drawn
from the oil reservoir. In this case, oil samples
should be drawn from the center of the oil tank
within 15 minutes after engine shutdown to ensure
that the sample retains wear materials and
contaminants in suspension.

OIL FILTER REPLACEMENT

The oil filter should be removed at every regular
Figure 9-40. If approved by the engine manufacturer,
inspection. The inspection, cleaning, and possible reusable oil filter elements can be thoroughly cleaned by
replacement is dictated by the type of filter element immersing them in a cleaning solution that is part of an
used. If the filter is the reusable type, the element ultrasonic cleaning device.
9-36 Lubrication
Systems

secured, the oil reservoir should be refilled with the Furthermore, when changing from one approved oil
recommended grade of oil. A sample list of typical to another, the system typically must be drained and
synthetic lubricants you are likely to see include:

Type-1 (MIL-L-7808)
Aeroshell 300 Type-2 (MIL-L-23699)
Mobil Jet I
Staufferl Castrol
3 c Enco 15
Exxon 15 Exxon
2389 Caltexl5
Shell 307 Exxon
274

Aeroshell 500 or 700

Mobel Jet II Stauffer II
Castrol 205 Enco 2380
Exxon 25 Exxon 2380
Caltex2380 Texaco
7388, Starjet-5 Caltex
Starjet-5 Chevron Jet-5
Sinclair Type-2

As the sample list illustrates, no standard identifica-

tion system is currently in use. In fact, you cannot
depend on every oil product to include the type
number or MIL Specification on the label. In some
cases, you must refer to oil company literature for
these specifications.

Synthetic oils for turbine engines are usually sup-

plied in one quart containers to minimize the oppor-
tunities for contaminants to enter the lubrication
system. However, many oil reservoirs are equipped
with pressure remote filling capability. To utilize
this feature, an oil pumping cart must be attached to
the reservoir so you can manually pump oil into the
reservoir. The oil filler cap is normally removed dur-
ing this operation to prevent overservicing. Filling
the oil tank by hand, however, is still practiced by
many servicing facilities.

Ground servicing personnel should ensure cleanli-

ness during servicing to avoid inadvertently conta-
minating the oil supply. When adding oil that is
supplied in cans with metal tops, use a clean oil
spout which penetrates the metal can top. Avoid
using a regular can opener tool since doing so could
deposit metal slivers in the oil. If bulk oil is used
rather than quart containers, the oil should be fil-
tered with a 10-micron, or smaller, filter as the oil is
poured in the reservoir.

If incompatible lubricants are accidently mixed

when filling an engine, many manufacturers require
the oil system to be drained and flushed.
flushed if the oils are not compatible. Whenever an
engine is filled with a new approved brand or type
of oil, check the oil placard near the filler opening.
If the new oil is not identified, change the placard or
stencil accordingly.

Once the reservoir is filled, run up the engine long

enough to warm the oil. After engine shutdown,
allow a few minutes for the oil to settle, then check
the oil level. If necessary, add oil to bring the level
up to the prescribed quantity. In addition, inspect
the areas around the oil drain plug, oil filter, and oil
screen fitting for leaks.

OIL SERVICING
Turbine engines do use some oil; therefore, periodic
oil servicing is required. When servicing the oil sys-
tem, ensure that servicing is accomplished within a
short time after shutdown. Manufacturers normally
require this in order to prevent overservicing.
Overservicing refers to filling the engine with too
much oil. This can occur on engines when some of
the oil in the storage tank seeps into lower portions
of the engine after periods of inactivity. After engine
runup, the oil supply is thoroughly agitated and
areas of pooled oil are circulated in the system. This
way, once the new oil is added, it is easier to estab-
lish the proper oil level in the oil reservoir.

Whenever you add oil to a turbine engine, you

should make a note in the aircraft logbook as to the
amount of oil added. A record of oil consumption
provides a valuable trend analysis of engine wear at
main bearing and seal locations.

When servicing the lubrication system, exercise care

to avoid accidental oil contamination caused by sil-
icone-based grease. Greases may be used at some
point in the servicing process to hold O-rings in
place during assembly; however, unapproved
greases or excess grease can cause silicone contami-
nation within a lubrication system. Silicone conta-
mination can cause engine oil to foam, resulting in
oil loss through oil tank vents. If severe enough, oil
loss can cause oil pump cavitation and eventual
engine damage.

OIL RESERVOIR
In some instances, the oil reservoir installed in a
dry-sump must be removed for cleaning or repair,
As you would expect, any repairs made to an oil
reservoir must restore it to its original specifica-
tions. Therefore, after a repair is made, the reservoir
Lubrication 9-37
Systems

must be pressure tested to its maximum operating

pressure plus five psi. Only after a lubrication sys-
tem component has successfully been tested can it
be reinstalled on an engine.

OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENTS

Oil pressure is normally adjusted with a screw-
driver at the oil pressure relief valve. The first step
in adjusting a pressure relief valve is to remove the
valve's adjusting screw acorn cap. Then, loosen the
locknut and turn the adjusting screw clockwise to
increase pressure, or counterclockwise to decrease
pressure. Oil pressure adjustments must adhere to
the specifications which are supplied by the engine
manufacturer. The adjustment is usually made
while the engine is idling, and the setting is then
confirmed with the engine operating at approxi-
mately 75 percent of normal rated thrust. Several
adjustments are typically required before the oil
pressure stabilizes at the desired pressure. Once the
correct pressure setting is achieved, the adjusting
screw locknut is tightened and the acorn cap is Figure 9-41. The oil pressure relief valve occasionally
requires adjustment. With the engine operating at idle
installed and secured. [Figure 9-41] speed, turn the adjusting screw clockwise to increase oil
pressure and counterclockwise to decrease oil pressure.