Case Study: Chernobyl
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant in on April 26, 1986. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant disaster in history. A
nuclear meltdown in one of the reactors caused a fire that sent a plume of radioactive fallout that
eventually spread all over Europe.
Introduction
On April 26, 1986, a test was scheduled at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant to test a method
of keeping the reactors properly cooled in the event of a power grid failure. If the test had gone
as planned, the risk to the plant was very small. When things did go wrong, though, the potential
for disaster was miscalculated and the test was continued even as serious problems arose.
Meltdown occurred at 1:23 AM, starting a fire that dispersed large quantities of radioactive
materials into the atmosphere. The amount of radioactive material released was 400 times more
than the amount the atomic bombing of Hiroshima released. The fallout would be detected in
almost all parts of Europe.
Before the accident
Nuclear reactors require active cooling in order to remove the heat generated by radioactive
decay. Even when not generating power, reactors still generate some heat, which must be
removed in order to prevent damage to the reactor core. Cooling is usually accomplished through
fluid flow, water in Chernobyl's case.
The problem at the Chernobyl plant was that following an emergency shutdown of all power,
diesel generators were needed to run the cooling pumps. These generators took about a minute to
attain full speed, which was deemed an unacceptably long time for the reactor to be without
cooling. It was suggested that the rotational momentum of the winding down steam turbine be
used to power the pumps in the time between shutdown and the generators being ready. A test
was devised to test this method in 1982, but the turbine did not prove to be successful in
providing the required voltage as it spooled down. Two more tests would be conducted in the
following years, but would also be unsuccessful. The fourth test was scheduled to be run on
April 25, 1986.
The experiment was devised in such a way that if it had gone as planned, the disruption and
danger to the plant would be very minimal. First, the reactors would be brought down to low
power, between 700 and 800 megawatts. Then the steam turbine would be run up to full speed
and then turned off. The power generated by the winding down generators would then be
measured to determine if it was sufficient to power the cooling pumps in the time before the
diesel generators got up to full speed.
By 1986, the plant had been running for two years without the implementation of a method to
keep the cooling pumps running continuously following an emergency shutdown. This was an
important safety measure that the plant was lacking, which presumably gave the plant managers
a considerable amount of urgency in completing another test.
The experiment
The experiment was started at 1:23:04 AM. The steam to the turbines was shut off, causing the
turbines to start spooling down. Four of the eight cooling pumps were also shut down. The diesel
generator was started and began powering the cooling pumps after at 1:23:43. Between this time,
the four pumps were powered by the slowing steam turbines. As the turbines slowed down, their
power output decreased, slowing the cooling pumps. This lead to increased formation of steam
voids in the core, reducing the ability of the cooling water to absorb neutrons. This increased the
power output of the reactor, which caused more water to boil into steam, further increasing the
reactor's power. However, during this time the automatic control system was successful in
limiting power increase through the insertion of control rods.
At 1:23:40, a button was pressed that initiated the emergency shutdown of the reactor and the
insertion of all control rods. It is believed that this was done as a routine method to shut down the
reactor to conclude the experiment and not as an emergency measure.
The process of inserting the control rods was initiated, but it took about 20 seconds for the rods
to be completely inserted. A flawed design in the graphite-tip control rod meant that coolant was
displaced before the neutron absorbing material could be fully inserted and slow down the
reaction. This meant that the process of inserting the control rods actually increased the reaction
rate in the lower half of the core.
A massive power spike occurred, causing the core to overheat. Some of the fuel rods fractured,
causing the control rods to become stuck before they were fully inserted. Within three seconds
the core's power output rose to above 500 MW. According to simulation, it is estimated that
power output then rose to 30 GW, ten times the normal power output. This was caused by the
rising power output causing massive steam buildup, which destroyed fuel elements and ruptured
their channels.
It is not possible to know precisely what sequence of events led to the destruction of the reactor.
It is believed that the steam buildup entered the reactor's inner structure and lifted the 2000 ton
upper plate. This steam explosion further ruptured fuel channels, resulting in more coolant
turning into steam and leaving the reactor core. This loss of coolant further increased the
reactor's power. A nuclear excursion (an increasing nuclear chain reaction) caused a second,
even more powerful explosion.
The explosion destroyed the core and scattered its contents in the surrounding area, igniting the
red-hot graphite blocks. Against safety regulations, a flammable material, bitumen, had been
used in roof of the reactor. When this was ignited and scattered into the surrounding area, it
started several fires on reactor 3. Those working there were not aware of the damage that had
been done and continued running the reactor until it was shut down at 5:00 AM.
Crisis Management
Radiation Levels
In the worst-hit parts of the reactor building, radiation levels were high enough to cause fatal
doses in a matter of minutes. However, all dosimeters available to the workers did not have the
ability to read radiation levels so high and thus read "off scale." Thus, the crew did not know
exactly how much radiation they were being exposed to. It was assumed that radiation levels
were much lower than they actually were, leading to the reactor crew chief to believe that the
reactor was still intact. He and his crew would try to pump water into the reactor for several
hours, causing most of them to receive fatal doses of radiation.
Containment
Fire crew were called in to protect the remaining buildings from catching fire and to extinguish
the still burning reactor 4. While some firefighters were not aware of the harmful doses of
radiation they were receiving and had assumed it to be a simple electrical fire, others knew that
they would probably receive fatal doses of radiation. However, their heroic efforts were
necessary in order to try to contain the large amounts of radiation being released into the
atmosphere. The fires in the surrounding buildings were extinguished by 5:00 AM, but it would
take firefighters until May 10 before they could fully extinguish reactor 4.
In order to prevent a steam explosion from occurring, volunteers were needed to swim through
radioactive water and drain a pool of water under the reactor core. While they were successful,
they would later succumb to the high doses of radiation that they had received.
The worst of the radioactive debris was shoveled back into the reactor by crew wearing heavy
protective gear.
In total, 600,000 people worked in the cleanup, about 250,000 of which received their lifetimes'
limit of radiation. It is estimated that over 10,000 eventually died from the radiation.
By December, a concrete sarcophagus had been completed that sealed off the reactor. This was
never meant to be a completely permanent solution, however, and is now in danger of collapsing.
A collapse could cause a large amount of radioactive material to once again be released and
spread around the world. This is why it is necessary that a new structure be constructed to
contain reactor 4.
Evacuation of Pripyat
Pripyat, a city nearby the power plant, was not immediately evacuated. At first, the government
denied that the reactor had exploded and insisted that it was only a small accident. By April 27,
though, investigators were forced to acknowledge that the reactor had exploded and ordered
Pripyat to be immediately evacuated.
Effects
400 times more radiation was released by the disaster than had been by the atomic bombing of
Hiroshima. The radiation would later be detected in almost all parts of Europe. Over one million
people could have been adversely affected by the radiation. The radiation would cause numerous
problems, including Down's Syndrome, chromosomal aberrations, mutations, leukemia, thyroid
cancer, and birth defects.
Timeline of a disaster
February 1986:
Ukraine’s Minister of Power and Electrification Vitali Sklyarov tells Soviet Life magazine that
the odds of a meltdown at Chernobyl’s nuclear power plant are “one in 10,000 years.”
April 25, 1986:
The plant’s operators prepare to conduct a special test to see how an emergency water cooling
system would fare in the event of a complete loss of power.
April 26, 1986:
The test begins at 1:23.04 a.m.
Fifty-six seconds later, pressure builds in the reactor No. 4 in the form of steam. This causes an
explosion that lifts a 1,000-ton lid that covers volatile fuel elements. Radiation is immediately
released into the air.
As oxygen pours into the reactor, a graphite fire begins. A chemical reaction causes a second
explosion, and burning debris lands on the roof of reactor No. 3.
Meanwhile, the engineer responsible for the night shift, Alexander Akinhov, does not yet think
the reactor’s core is damaged. “The reactor is OK, we have no problems,” he says. Akinhov
subsequently dies from radiation illness.
Thirty separate fires develop. An alarm goes off at a local fire station.
At 1.45 a.m. firefighters arrive. They know nothing about radiation and aren’t wearing any
protective clothing. Driver Grigory Khmel later recalls: "We saw graphite lying everywhere. I
kicked a bit of it. Another fireman picked up a piece and said 'hot.' Neither of us had any idea of
radiation. My colleagues Kolya, Pravik and others all went up the ladder of the reactor. I never
saw them again."
On April 26, 1986, an explosion destroyed reactor No. 4 at Chernobyl's nuclear power
station in the former Soviet Union. See what happened next.Kim Hjelmgaard, USA TODAY
At 3:12 a.m. an alarm goes off at an army base deep in the Soviet Union. The general in
charge decides to send troops. They arrive in Ukraine’s capital of Kiev at 2 p.m.
At 5 a.m. reactor No. 3 is shut down. Reactors No. 1 and 2 are stopped about 24 hours later.
April 27, 1986:
As more emergency response teams arrive, evacuations begin in a radius of 6 miles around the
plant.
April 28, 1986:
The Soviet Union publicly admits for the first time that an accident happened but gives few
details.
An alarm goes off at a Swedish nuclear plant after the soles of shoes worn by a nuclear safety
engineer there test positive for radioactivity. The radiation is traced to Chernobyl.
May 1, 1986:
May Day parades to celebrate workers go ahead as planned in Kiev and Belarus’ capital Minsk
despite huge amounts of radiation continuing to be released. Wind, and radioactive clouds,
blow back toward Kiev after initially drifting northwest toward Europe. Authorities believe that
by holding these celebrations they will prevent panic.
May 14, 1986:
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev talks about the accident live on television. He subsequently
mobilizes hundreds of thousands of people, including military reservists from all parts of the
Soviet Union, to help in the cleanup.
They become known as "liquidators." Many will become ill and die from radiation-related
diseases.
Gorbachev, in a 2006 memoir, says Chernobyl "was perhaps the real cause of the collapse of the
Soviet Union."
