Necessity of discussion

 We are here to understand the Traction drive

 Nowadays we are using 3 phase Induction
motor as traction motor
•Available supply is single phase 25kV
•We want variable speed operation
•Speed control of Induction motor is not simple
as compared to DC motor
•Because of availability of advanced Electronics
components it has become easy
Scope of Discussion

 Basics of Power Electronics

 Power conversion and basic principle
 Categories of power conversion
 Power Semiconductor Devices: Thyristor,
GTO, IGBT etc
 Introduction to power converters
Power Electronics

 Definition
 Application of Electronics (solid state devices)
for conversion and control of power
 Power Electronics is used to change the
characteristics of electrical power to suit a
particular application
(voltage and current magnitude and/or
frequency)
 It is an interdisciplinary technology.
 Relation with multiple
disciplines
Systems & Control theory ;
Signal processing ;
Circuit theory;
Simulation & computing ;
Electronics (Analog and Digital);
Electric Machines;
Power Systems;
Electromagnetics ;
Solid State Physics;

So, Power Electronics is currently the most active discipline in

electric power engineering.
Power Electronics: Applications
 Application areas
 Sky is the lower limit!
 Power conversion techniques:
 Linear
 Switch Mode
 Resonant
 Simple Example
 Most of the converters are switch mode
converters
A Simple Example
A simple dc-dc converter example

I
10A
+
Vg
+
Dc-dc R V
100V - converter 5Ω 50V
-

Input source:100V
Output load:50V, 10A, 500W
How can this converter be realized?
 Dissipative realization
Resistive voltage divider

I
10A
+
Vg + 50V -

+ Ploss=500W R V
100V - 5Ω 50V
-
Pin=1000W Pout=500W
Linear Power Supply
Series pass regulator:
transistor operates in active region
I
+ 50V - 10A
+
Vg linear amplifier Vref
-
+ R V
+ And base driver
100V - 5Ω 50V
Ploss≈500W -
Pin≈1000W Pout=500W
Switch mode power supply
 Use of a SPDT switch I
10A
1 + +
Vg 2
Vs(t) R V(t)
+
100V - 50V
- -

Vs(t)
Vg
Vs=DVg
0
switch t
DTs (1-D)Ts
position:
1 2 1
The switch changes the dc voltage level

Vs(t)
Vg
D=switch duty cycle
Vs=DVg
0
- -
0<D<1

t Ts=switching period
switch DTs (1-D)Ts
position:
1 2 1 fs=switching frequency

DC component of Vs(t)=average value: =1/ Ts

∫
Ts
Vs = Vs(t) dt =DVg
0
 Addition of low pass filter
Addition of (ideally lossless) L- C low- pass filter, for removal of
switching harmonics:
I
1 10A
+ +
Vg 2 L
Vs(t) C R V(t)
+
100V - 50V
- -
Pin≈500W
Ploss small Pout=500W

Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than switching frequency

fs.
This circuit is known as the “buck converter”.
 Addition of control system for regulation of output voltage

Power Switching converter Load

input
+ i
Vg
+ sensor
V
- gain
H(s)
-
error
transistor
signal
gate driver
δ(t) Pulse-width Vc Ve -
δ modulator Gc(s) +
compensator
Reference Vref
dTs Ts t input
 Power Conversion
 Block Diagram

 Types of power converters

Power
 Rectifiers : AC –DC Conversion
Power Power
input Converter output
 Converters: AC – Controlled DC : Possibly control dc
voltage, ac current Control input
Feedforward Feedback
 Inverters
( measurements : DC - AC : Produce sinusoid
Controller of controllable
(measurements
magnitude
of input signals ) and frequency of output signals )
 Choppers : DC- DC :ChangeReference and control voltage magnitude
Power Switches

 Switch
 Ideal Characteristics
 Practical Characteristics
 Limitations of Electromechanical switches
 Power Semiconductor Devices as switches
 Diode
 Power BJT
 Power MOSFET
 IGBT
 Thyristors : SCR, Triac, GTO
 Ideal Switch

 ON resistance = 0
 Forward voltage drop = 0
 OFF resistance = ∞
 Leakage current = 0
 Conducts ∞ current in both forward and reverse direction
when ON
 Withstands ∞ forward and reverse voltage when OFF
 Instantaneous switching
 Power dissipation in the switch in both steady and transient
states is zero
 ON to OFF and OFF to ON transitions of the switch are fully
controllable
 Requires zero power to control or drive the switch
Limitations of Practical
switch
 Limits on the amount and direction of on-state
current
 A nonzero on-state voltage drop (such as diode
forward voltage)
 Some level of leakage current when the device is
supposed to be off
 Limitations on the voltage that can be applied
when off
 Operating speed: the time of transition between
the on and off states can be important
IGBT

 IGBT = Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

 Combine of BJT and MOS in Darlington
configuration
 Gate drive (voltage drive)
IGBT Characteristics
 Vertical cross section of an
IGBT cell

N+ buffer
layer reduces on breakdown
state voltage drop and
-
N type drift
region improves voltage capacity
shortens turn off time
 IGBT cont…
 Unidirectional
 Controlled switch
 Forward biased + sufficient Gate Voltage= switch in
ON condition
 Reverse biased = switch in OFF condition
 Forward biased + n0 or insufficient Gate Voltage =
switch in OFF condition
 Where do we use IGBTs in PE?
 Inverters (Fast Switching)
 Choppers (Fast Switching)
IGBT cont…
 Becoming the device of choice in 500-1700V
applications, at power levels of 1-1000kW
 Positive temperature coefficient at high current -easy
to parallel and construct modules
 Forward voltage drop: diode in series with on-
resistance. 2-4V typical
 Easy to drive —similar to MOSFET
 Slower than MOSFET, but faster than Darlington,
GTO, SCR
 Typical switching frequencies: 3-30kHz
 IGBT technology is rapidly advancing —next
generation: 2500V
 IGBT cont…
 Compared to BJT and Power-MOS, IGBT has
 Higher on-state voltage and current density
 Higher input impedance
 Rapid switching times
 Lower conduction losses
 Less silicon area because the gate driver circuit is
simpler
 Becomes a popular switching device in medium
and high power applications (>100W)
 To increase voltage rating (>1000V), need to use
series-connected IGBTs
Thyristors

 SCR
 GTO
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier

• A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a four layer solid state device

that controls current flow
• The name “silicon controlled rectifier” is a trade name for the
type of thyristor commercialized at General Electric in 1957
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier

• An SCR can be seen as a conventional rectifier controlled by a

gate signal
• It is a 4-layered 3-terminal device
• When the gate to cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold,
the device turns 'on' and conducts current
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
• The operation of a SCR can be understood in terms of a pair of
tightly coupled Bipolar Junction Transistors (Two Transistor
Analogy)
• SCR has three states:
– Reverse blocking mode, forward blocking mode, and forward
conducting mode
 Features
• Positive (regenerative action) feedback —a latching
device
• A minority carrier device
• Very low on-resistance, hence low forward voltage drops
attainable in very high voltage devices
• Simple construction, with large feature size
• Cannot be actively turned off
• A voltage-bidirectional two-quadrant switch
• 5000-6000V, 1000-2000A devices
V-I Characteristic Curve
 SCR Switching
Two conditions for triggering SCR into on- state:
 The device should be in its forward-blocking state;
 A pulse of positive gate current for a short duration should be
applied.

Condition for turning-off of SCR:

• To decrease the anode current (IA).
• When IA <IH , SCR will turn off
• Usually apply reverse voltage for a short duration.

Other methods to trigger SCR:

a) High voltage across anode and cathode——avalanche breakdown
b) High rising rate of anode voltage ——dv/dt too high
c) High junction temperature
d) Light activation
•Majority carrier devices, including the MOSFET and
Schottky diode, exhibit very fast switching times,
controlled essentially by the charging of the device
capacitances. However, the forward voltage drops of
these devices increases quickly with increasing
breakdown voltage.
•Minority carrier devices, including the BJT, IGBT, and
thyristor family, can exhibit high breakdown voltages
with relatively low forward voltage drop.
However, the switching times of these devices are
longer, and are controlled by the times needed to insert or
remove stored minority charge.
Gate Turn off thyristor
• Though SCR has very highest level of power
handling capacity it has always suffered from the
disadvantage of being a semi-controlled device
• Can be turned on by applying a gate pulse but to
turn it off the main current had to be interrupted
• Inconvenient in DC to AC and DC to DC conversion
circuits, where the main current does not naturally
becomes zero
• A bulky and expensive “commutation circuit” had
to be used to ensure proper turning off
• The switching speed of the device is slow even
with fast inverter grade thyristor
• The development of the Gate Turn off
thyristor (GTO) has addressed these
disadvantages of a thyristor to a large
extent
• Invented in 1973, the technology has
matured quickly to produce device
comparable in rating (5000V, 4000Amp)
• Like SCR, the GTO is a current controlled
minority carrier (i.e. bipolar) device
• GTOs are designed to turn off when a
negative current is sent through the gate,
thereby causing a reversal of the gate
current.
• A relatively high gate current is needed
to turn off the device with typical turn off
gains in the range of 4-5
• During conduction, on the other hand, the
device behaves just like SCR with very low
ON state voltage drop.
• Devices with reverse blocking capability equal
to their forward voltage ratings are called
“symmetric GTOs”.
• However, the most poplar variety of the GTO
available in the market today has no
appreciable reverse voltage (20-25v) blocking
capacity. These are called “Asymmetric GTOs”.
• Reverse conducting GTOs (RC-GTO) constitute
the third family of GTOs. Here, a GTO is
integrated with an anti-parallel freewheeling
diode on to the same silicon wafer.
Anode shorted GTO structure
Anode contact

Cathod
• Due to presence of these “anode shorts” the
reverse voltage blocking capacity of GTO
reduces to the reverse break down voltage of
junction J3 (20-40 volts maximum).
Steady state output characteristics

Latching current is considerably hig

Dynamic Characteristics
Summary
• GTO is a four layer, three terminal current controlled
minority carrier device.
• A GTO can be turned on by applying a positive gate
current pulse when it is forward biased and turned off
by applying a negative gate current.
• A GTO has a “shorted anode” and highly inter-digitized
gate cathode structure to improve the gate turn off
performance.
• Due to the presence of “anode shorts” a GTO can block
only a small reverse voltage. These are called
“asymmetric GTOs”.
• The forward i-v characteristics of a GTO is similar to that
of a thyristor. However, they have relatively larger
holding current and gate trigger current.
• GTOs have relatively low turn off current
gain.
• The reverse gate current amplitude is
dependent on the anode current amplitude
to be turned off.
• The GTO gate drive unit should be capable
of injecting large positive and negative gate
currents with large rate of rise for
satisfactory switching of the device.
What’s the difference
between IGBT and GTO?
 Three terminals of IGBT are known as
emitter, collector and gate, whereas GTO has
terminals known as anode, cathode and gate.
 Gate of the GTO only needs a pulse for
switching, whereas IGBT needs a continuous
supply of gate voltage
 IGBT is a type of transistor and GTO is a type
of thyristor, which can be considered as a
tightly coupled pair of transistors in analysis.
 Both devices are used in high
power applications
 GTO needs external devices to
control turn-off and on pulses,
whereas IGBT doesn’t need
Power Converters

 Diode rectifiers
 Converters
 Choppers
 Inverters
Converters

 Classification
 No. of phases
 Quadrant operation
 Performance parameters
 1 ф converters
 Semi converter
 Full converter
 3 ф converters
DC DC Converters (Choppers)

 Principle of operation
 Classification
 Step down chopper (Buck converter)
 Step up chopper (Boost converter)
 Applications
Inverters

 Inverter
 3 phase Inverters
 PWM Inverters (Voltage control and
Harmonic Reduction)
 Induction Motor drives
 DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)

• General concept
• Single-phase inverter
• Harmonics
• Modulation
• Three-phase inverter

53
 DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by switching the DC input
voltage (or current) in a pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC
voltage (or current) output.

• General block diagram

IDC Iac

+ +

VDC Vac



• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial (induction
motor) drives, Traction, HVDC 54
 Simple square-wave inverter (1)
• To illustrate the concept of AC waveform generation

SQUARE-WAVE
INVERTER

T1 T3
D1 D3

+ VO -
VDC
IO
T4 T2
D2 D4

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

S1 S3

S4 S2

55
 AC Waveform Generation

S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1 S3 VDC

VDC
t
+ vO  t1 t2
S4 S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1 S3

VDC t2 t3
+ vO  t

S4 S2
-VDC

56
 AC Waveforms
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Vdc

 

-Vdc

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
V1
4VDC


3RD HARMONIC
V1
3

5RD HARMONIC
V1
5

57
 Variable Voltage Variable Frequency
Capability
Vdc2 Higher input voltage
Higher frequency

Vdc1 Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1 T2 t

• Output voltage frequency can be varied by “period” of the square-

wave pulse.

• Output voltage amplitude can be varied by varying the “magnitude” of

the DC input voltage.

• Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor drive

58
 Output voltage harmonics/ distortion

• Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.

• Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very difficult to filter, due to
the filter size and high filter order. They can cause serious voltage
distortion.

• Why need to consider harmonics?

– Sinusoidal waveform quality must match supply.
– “Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of equipment. Equipment need
to be “de-rated”.

• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the

“quality” of a given waveform.

59
 Total Harmonics Distortion (THD)
Voltage THD : If Vn is the nth harmonic voltage,

 Vn, RMS 2
n2
THDv 
V1, RMS

V2, RMS 2  V3, RMS 2  ....  V2, RMS 2


V1, RMS
If the rms voltage for the vaveform is known,

 VRMS 2  V1, RMS 2
n2
THDv 
V1, RMS
Current THD :

 I n, RMS 2
n2
THDi 
I1, RMS
Vn
In 
Zn
Z n is the impedance at harmonic frequency.

60
 Fourier Series
• Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave shapes. Fourier
Series is a tool to analyse wave shapes.

Fourier Series
1 2
ao 
 f (v ) d (" DC" term)
0
2
1
an   f (v ) cosn d
 0
(" cos" term)

1 2
bn   f (v ) sin n d (" sin" term)
 0
Inverse Fourier
1 
f (v )  ao   an cos n  bn sin n 
2 n 1
where   t

61
 Harmonics of square-wave (1)
Vdc

=t
 

-Vdc

1  2 
ao    Vdc d    Vdc d   0
 
0  

Vdc  2 
an    cosn d   cosn d   0
  0  

Vdc  2 
bn    sin n d   sin n d 
  0  


62
 Harmonics of square wave (2)
Solving,
V
 
bn  dc  cosn  0  cosn  
n
2

V
 dc (cos 0  cos n )  (cos 2 n  cos n ) 
n
V
 dc (1  cos n )  (1  cos n ) 
n
2Vdc
 (1  cos n )
n

When n is even, cos n  1

bn  0
(i.e. even harmonics do not exist)

When n is odd, cos n  1

4Vdc
bn 
n

63
 Spectra of square wave
Normalised
Fundamental
1st

3rd (0.33)

5th (0.2)
7th (0.14)
9th (0.11)
11th (0.09)
1 3 5 7 9 11
n

• Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:

– Harmonic decreases with a factor of (1/n).
– Even harmonics are absent
– Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is 50Hz, then nearest
harmonic is 150Hz.
– Due to the small separation between the fundamental and
harmonics, output low-pass filter design can be very difficult. 64
 Quasi-square wave (QSW)
Vdc
  

 2

-Vdc

Note that an  0. (due to half - wave symmetry)

 1  
bn  2   V sin  n d 

  
2Vdc  
 cos n  
  n
dc
 

2Vdc
 cosn   cos n   
n
Expanding :
cos n     cosn  n 
 cos n cos n  sin n sin n  cos n cos n
2Vdc
 bn  cosn   cos n cos n 
n
2Vdc
 cosn 1  cos n 
n
65
 Half-bridge inverter (1)
S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF
+
S1 2
VC1
-
 V +
Vdc o
G 0
t
RL
+
VC2 S2
- Vdc

2 S1 OFF
S2 ON

• Also known as the “inverter leg”.

• Basic building block for full bridge, three phase and higher order
inverters.

• G is the “centre point”.

• Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC link is equally
“spilt” into two.

• The top and bottom switch has to be “complementary”, i.e. If the top 66
switch is closed (on), the bottom must be off, and vice-versa.
 Shoot through fault and
“Dead-time”
• In practical, a dead time as shown below is required to avoid “shoot-
through” faults, i.e. short circuit across the DC rail.

• Dead time creates “low frequency envelope”. Low frequency

harmonics emerged.

• This is the main source of distortion for high-quality sine wave

inverter. S 1
signal
+ S1 (gate)
Ishort

Vdc G
S2
RL
signal
 (gate)
S2

"Shoot through fault" . td td

Ishort is very large
"Dead time' = td

67
 AC Waveform Generation

S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1 S3 VDC

VDC
t
+ vO  t1 t2
S4 S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1 S3

VDC t2 t3
+ vO  t

S4 S2
-VDC

68
 Single-phase, full-bridge
• Full bridge (single phase) is built from two half-bridge leg.

• The switching in the second leg is “delayed by 180 degrees” from the
first leg.

VRG
Vdc
2
LEG R LEG R'  2 t
+
Vdc Vdc
S1 S3 
2 VR 'G 2
+ - Vdc
 Vo - 2
Vdc R R'
G  2 t
-
+ Vdc

2
Vdc S4 S2 Vo
2
Vdc
-
 2 t
Vo  V RG  VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"

 Vdc

69
PULSE-WIDTH-
MODULATED
INVERTERS

70
 Three-Phase Inverters
 Three-phase inverters are used for high power
applications.

 Three-single phase inverters can be connected in

parallel to form a three-phase inverter.

 This arrangement will require 12 transistors, 12

diodes, and three single-phase transformers.

71
 The gating signals of the single phase inverters
should be 120 degrees with respect to each
other.

 The transformer primaries are isolated from

each other, while the secondaries may be
connected in wye or delta.

72
73
 A three-phase output can be obtained from a
configuration of six transistors and six diodes.

 Two types of control signals can be applied to

the transistors: 180o conduction or 120o
conduction.

74
 180 degree Conduction
 For this mode of operation, each device
conducts 180 degrees.

 The sequence of firing is: 123, 234, 345, 456,

561, 612.

 The gating signals are shifted from each other by

60 degrees.

75
76
 120 degree Conduction
 In this mode, each transistor conducts for 120
degrees.

 The sequence of firing is: 61, 12, 23, 34, 45, 56,
61.

77
78
 Voltage Control of Single-Phase
Inverters
 In industrial applications, it is required to
control the output voltage of inverters.

 There are various techniques to vary the inverter

gain.

 The most efficient method of controlling the

gain is to incorporate PWM control within the
inverters.
79
 The commonly used techniques are:

 Single-pulse-width modulation

 Multi-pulse-width modulation

 Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

 Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

 Phase-displacement control
80
Harmonics of Square Wave

81
 Single Pulse-Width Modulation
 There is one pulse per half-cycle, and its width is
varied.

82
 The modulation index is:
Ar
M
Ac

 The rms output voltage is:


Vo  Vs


 The following figure shows the harmonic profile

with variation of the modulation index M.
83
 The dominant harmonic is the third.

 DF increases significantly at a low output

voltage. 84
Multiple-Pulse-Width Modulation

 The harmonic content can be reduced by using

several pulses in each half-cycle of output
voltage.

 This type of modulation is also known as

uniform-pulse-width modulation (UPWM).

85
86
 The number of pulses per half cycle is found
from:
fc mf
p 
2 fo 2
 where mf is defined as frequency modulation ratio.

 The rms output voltage is:

p
Vo  Vs

87
 The following figure shows the harmonic profile
against the variation of modulation index, and
p=5.

88
 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width
Modulation

 Instead of maintaining the width of all pulses

the same, the width of each pulse is varied in
proportion to amplitude of a sine wave.

 This kind of modulation is known as SPWM.

89
90
 The rms output voltage is:
p
 m 1/ 2
Vo  Vs ( )
m 1 

 The DF and LOH are reduced significantly, as

shown below.

91
 This type of modulation eliminates all harmonics
less than 2p-1.

92
 Implementation of Unipolar Pulse Width Modulation !
(PWM)
Vcont is the input signal we want to amplify at the output of the inverter.

Vcont is usually a sinewave, but it can also be a music signal.

Vcont Vtri −Vcont
The implementation rules are:
Vcont > Vtri , close switch A+, open
switch A – , so voltage Va = Vdc

Vcont < Vtri , open switch A+, close

switch A – , so voltage Va = 0

–Vcont > Vtri , close switch B+, open

switch B– , so voltage Vb = Vdc

–Vcont < Vtri , open switch B+, close

switch B– , so voltage Vb = 0

Vtri is a triangle wave whose frequency is at least 30 times greater

than Vcont.
Ratio ma = peak of control signal divided by peak of triangle wave
93
Ratio mf = frequency of triangle wave divided by frequency of control signal
94
95
96
1.5
Ratio ma = peak of
control signal divided by
1 peak of triangle wave
0.5

0
Ratio mf = frequency of
triangle wave divided by
-0.5 frequency of control
-1 signal
-1.5

Load voltage with

1.5
ma = 0.5
1
(i.e., in the linear region)
0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5 97
 2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2

Load voltage with

1.5
ma = 1.5
1
(i.e., overmodulation)
0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5 98
Three Phase Induction Motor
 Modern Electrical Drive Systems

About 50% of electrical energy used for drives

• Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

• 75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)

• Variable speed drives typically used PEC to supply the motors

DC motors (brushed) AC motors

SRM - IM
BLDC PMSM
 Modern Electrical Drive Systems

Typical Modern Electric Drive Systems

Power Electronic Converters Electric Motor

Electric Energy Electric Energy Electric Mechanical
- Unregulated - - Regulated - Energy Energy

POWER IN Power
Moto Load
Electronic r
Converters

feedback

Reference
Controller
What is an Electric Motor?
Electromechanical device that converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy
Mechanical energy used to ….
Rotate pump impeller, fan, blower
Drive compressors
Lift materials
Run a locomotive

Motors in industry: 70% of electrical load

 Type of Electric Motors

Electric Motors

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

Motors Motors

Synchronous Induction Separately Self Excited

Excited

Single-Phase Three-Phase Series Compound Shunt

Induction Motors
Introduction
 Three-phase induction motors are the most
common and frequently encountered machines in
industry
- simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
- wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to
10 MW
- run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full
load
- Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
• not easy to have variable speed control
• requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for
optimal speed control
Construction
 An induction motor has two main parts
- a stationary stator
• consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
• core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a
number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator
winding

Stator of IM
Construction
- a revolving rotor
• composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor
slots, providing space for the rotor winding
• one of two types of rotor windings
• conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) »
similar to the winding on the stator
• aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings,
forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)
 Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
- squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both
ends by shorting rings.
- wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the
stator. Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are
connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor
circuit is accessible.
Construction
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
Construction
Slip rings

Cutaway in a
typical wound-
rotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and
the slip rings

Brushe
s
 Rotating Magnetic Field
 Balanced three phase windings, i.e.
mechanically displaced 120 degrees
form each other, fed by balanced
three phase source
 A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is produced,
rotating with a speed
120 f e
nsync  rpm
P
Where fe is the supply frequency and
P is the no. of poles and nsync is called
the synchronous speed in rpm
(revolutions per minute)
Synchronous speed
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Principle of operation
 This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and
produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings
 Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for
both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current
flows in the rotor windings
 The rotor current produces another magnetic field
 A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two
magnetic fields

 ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic
flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively
Induction motor speed
 So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than
the synchronous speed
 The difference between the motor speed and the
synchronous speed is called the Slip

nslip  nsync  nm
Where nslip= slip speed
nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor
The Slip
nsync  nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the
above eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t
have units
Torque-speed characteristics
The curve is nearly linear between
The starting torque of the motor is slightl
no-load and full load.
higher than its full-load torque,
Speed is constant from no-load to full load.
so the motor will start carrying any load
it can supply at full load
There is a maximum possible torque
that can’t be exceeded.
ThisThe
torque is calledtorque
induced pullout torque
is a
2 tozero
3 times
at the rated full-load spee
synchronous torque

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Complete Speed-torque c/c
 IM drives
Te

Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) (Te=TL) determines the
Te
steady –state speed

Trated TL

sm rotors
rated r
s
 IM drives

Speed Control of Induction Motor

120 f e
nsync  rpm
P
Variable voltage (amplitude), variable
Pole changing
frequency (Constant V/Hz)
Synchronous speed change with no.
Using power electronics converter
of poles
Operated at low slip frequency
Discrete step change in speed

Variable voltage (amplitude), frequency

fixed
E.g. using transformer or triac
Slip becomes high as voltage reduced –
low efficiency
 IM drives
Variable voltage, fixed frequency
600

500

400
Torque

300

200 Lower speed  slip

higher
100
Low efficiency at low
speed
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
w (rad/s)
IM drives
Constant V/Hz

To maintain V/Hz
constant
Approximates constant air-gap flux when Eag is large

Eag = k f ag

ag = 
E ag

V
f f
constant
Speed is adjusted by varying f - maintaining V/f
constant to avoid flux saturation
IM drives
Constant V/Hz
900

800

50Hz
700

30Hz
600

500
Torque

10Hz
400

300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
IM drives
Constant V/Hz
Vs

Vrated

frated
f
IM drives
Constant V/Hz

Rectifier
3-phase VSI
supply IM
C

f
Ramp Pulse
Width
s* + V
Modulator
 IM drives
Constant air-gap flux

3-phase VSI
supply Rectifier
C IM

Current
controller

* + slip |Is|
PI
-
+
s
r
+
 Thank you!