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5. Water Conveyance Structures

5.1 Intakes and Head Race

5.1.1 Water Intake, Inlet Structures

The intake is a structure constructed at the entrance of a power canal or tunnel or pipe through
which the flow is diverted from the source such as a river or reservoir. It is an essential
component of hydropower schemes and provided as an integral part or in isolation from the
diversion, weir or dam.

5.1.1.1 Functions of Intakes

The main function are:
i) To control flow of water in to the conveyance system. The control is achieved by a gate
or a valve.
ii) To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry of water in the conveyance
system which is to minimize head loss. This can be achieved through providing bell-
mouth shaped entrance.
iii) To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as boulders, logs, tree branches etc.
Provision of trash racks at the entrance achieve this function.
iv) To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from interring the conveyance system.
Special devices such as silt traps and silt excluders are used to control & trap the silt.

5.1.1.2 Types of Intakes

Intakes are conveniently classified in to the following types depending on the power plant type and
its layout.
i) Run - of - river intakes
ii) Canal intakes
iii) Dam intakes
iv) Tower intakes
v) Shaft intakes
vi) Intakes of special type

i) Run - of - river intakes

The component parts are
 bell mouth entrance guarded by R.C or still grid forming the trash rack structure.
 Control gate situated immediately d/s of the bell mouth entry
 Upstream of the gate may be provided with stop-log groves for provision of access to the gate
for repair.
 special de-silting arrangement may be provided in silty rivers.

ii) Canal Intakes

 water is admitted in to the diversion canal.
 silt excluders or silt-traps are usually essential components of such intakes.
 the inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form a sill so as to prevent entry of rolling bed
load.
 A skimmer wall ( a diaphragm which extends below the water surface) abstracts the floating
material from interring in to the canal.
 Trash racks are also fitted at the entrance.
 Vertical lift gate with motorized operation are used to control the flow.

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Figure 5.1: Example of canal intake layout

Basic principles governing selection of diversion site from streams:

1. Intakes from streams should be located, wherever possible on the concave side of the bend.
A
Spiral flow

Ground/bottom flow

A Surface flow
Movement of bedload
Figure 5.2: Spiral flow in river bends Section A-A
Figure 5.2: Spiral Flow

2. The effectiveness of the intake in preventing sediment entry increases with the sharpness of
the bend.
3. Intakes from straight reaches can be made favorable by artificially forcing the water to
follow a curved [path.

Typical layouts Figure 5.3: In a bend

Weir

Bend

Canal
Gate

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a) With de-silting canal b) Without de-silting c) Curved lateral branch

d) bottom guide vanes e) Surface guide vanes

Figure 5.4: In straight reach

iii) Dam intakes

 for valley dam plants, the intake structure is provided usually in the body of the dam.

Figure 5.5: Example of a dam intake

 the penstocks are embodied in the dam.

 the main features of such an intake are
i) a trash rack structure in front of the dam.
ii)a bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment
iii) a control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth. Cage-shaped intakes resting
against the face of the dam and supported on slab cantilevered from the dam provide larger
area of entry than the penstock intake area, thus reducing entrance losses.
Multi-level water are also some times used in dam intakes.
iv) Tower Intakes

Figure 5.6: Tower Intake

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 Used when it is not convenient to provide the simple intake directly on the u/s face of the dam.
 Also used when there are wide fluctuations in water level.
 Tower may be connected with main dam through a bridge when the tower is near the dam
 Flow in to the tower is controlled by a number of gates to close or open the ports at various
levels.
 Flow through the pressure conduit is controlled by vertical uplift gates.
 The structure should be strong enough to withstand hydrodynamic, earthquake, wind, etc.

v) Shaft intakes
 This is a vertical shaft that carries water to the penstock tunnel. It consists of the following.
 The entrance structure with trash rack and rounded inlet.
 The vertical shaft followed by an elbow and transition connecting the shaft with the tunnel.
 The intake gate (cylindrical) and sometimes a stop-log closure.

Figure 5.7: Shaft Intake

5.1.1.3 Trash racks and Skimmers

Debris carried in the incoming water can have adverse impacts on a hydropower scheme in that:
 It can obstruct flow along the conveyance structures, interrupting power generation or
causing the water to overflow and possibly undermine the structures.
 It can cause rapid deterioration of the penstock or turbine or cause a catastrophic failure,
such as rupture of the penstock through a sudden blockage of flow through the nozzle
(in the case of impulse turbines) or fracture of the runner blades (in the case of reaction
turbines).

It is therefore essential that the quantity of debris which enters the conveyance system of a
hydropower scheme be minimized. This can be achieved with the help of trash racks and
skimmers.

i) Trash Racks:
A trash rack intercepts the entire flow and removes any large debris, whether it is floating,
suspended, or swept along the bottom. Frequently, it is located in the intake structure to prevent
debris from entering the water conveyance system. It can also be placed just before the inlet to
the penstock to remove smaller debris as well as other trashes which may have entered the
water conveyance system downstream of the intake.

A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, each generally fabricated of a series of evenly
spaced parallel metal bars. The bars are parallel and evenly spaced because a rake is commonly
used to clear the debris off the rack. In this case, it is essential that the teeth of the rake mesh

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into the parallel bars without binding so that the rake can be pulled along the bars easily to
scrape off accumulated debris.

Trash racks can be installed by sliding them into grooves in the concrete walls of the intake,
canal, or forebay structure. They should be removable and not permanently set in concrete.

Bars on a trash rack before the inlet to the penstock should be spaced no closer than is
necessary to remove debris which might be detrimental to the turbine’s operation. Otherwise,
head losses may be high and the rack may fill up quickly with debris. With a Pelton turbine, the
space between bars usually is not more than half the nozzle diameter (or a quarter, if spear
valve is used) to prevent the nozzle from choking. For Francis turbines, the space between bars
should not exceed the distance between the runner vanes.

The approach velocity of flow should be kept within such limits that it will not cause damage to
the rack structure. A design approach velocity of 0.5 m/s is usually used. If a trash rack is
located immediately in front of the inlet to a penstock and the penstock velocities are
significantly higher than 0.5 m/s, the trash rack can be built in a circular area to increase the
area of the trash rack and correspondingly decreases velocity through it.

Cleaning of the trash racks can be performed either manually (for small schemes) using manual
rake or mechanically (for large schemes) using automatic cleaning machines. The trash rack is
usually placed vertical or near vertical (< 25o from the vertical). Placing the trash racks in an
inclined position makes the cleaning easy apart from giving less resistance to flow.

Clogging of racks is objectionable on account of the operational trouble and loss of energy
production involved, and of the unbalanced load created on the rack causing partial or total
damage thereof. Allowing for partial clogging, racks are generally designed to withstand a head
ranging from 1 to 2 m under normal conditions and from 4 to 5 m under exceptional
circumstances.

ii) Skimmers:
A skimmer wall is an obstruction placed at the water surface, usually at an angle to the stream
flow which skims floating debris from the passing water. If the water level changes markedly
as, for example, at the intake of stream, the skimmer can be a floating piece of timber secured at
both ends. If changes in water level are small, a fixed skimmer can be used.

Because some debris usually passes under the skimmer, a trash rack is still necessary. However,
a skimmer reduces the frequency with which the trash rack has to be cleaned.

Skimmer walls are made, for the most part, of reinforced concrete with a service bridge on top.
They are designed usually for a horizontal pressure of 1000 kg/m 2 acting on the submerged
surface.

5.1.1.4 Losses in Intakes

The intake losses include entrance loss, trash rack loss and head gate loss.

Entrance Losses
These comprises of :
a) Loss due to change in direction is given by:

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2
V2 Vf
he  C                 5.1
2g 2g

Where V is velocity in the diversion canal

Vf is velocity of flow in the main river
C is a constant which depends on the off-take angle of the diversion canal.
According to Mossonyi, C is equal to 0.8 for 300 off-take angle and 0.4 for 900 off-take angle.

Vf
Figure 5.8 Losses due to change of flow
direction

V

b) The losses due to sudden contraction of the area at the inlet section is given by:
V2
he  K                 5.2
2g

Where K is a constant, which depends on the shape of the entry.

K=0.03 for bell-mouthed entry
K=1.3 for sharp cornered entry.

In cases of the inlet having a sill constructed with curved abutments and piers, the head loss,
he, is given by:
V2
he  0.3                 5.3
2g
2
V2 Vf
Therefore, maximum total entrance loss = 1.3 C            (5.4)
2g 2g
Rack Losses:
There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across trash racks. One such
expression (after Kirschmer’s) is:
4/3 2
 t  Va
hr  K t   sin               5.5
 b  2g

Where, Kt is trash rack loss coefficient (a function of bar shape), t is bar thickness, b is spacing
between bars, Va is approach velocity, and  is angle of inclination of bars with the horizontal.

Figure 5.9: Rack losses

Gate Losses:
Head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by:

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2
1  Q 
hg       5.6
2 g  C d A 
Where, Q is flow in the canal or conduit, A is area of gate opening, and Cd is discharge
coefficient which varies between 0.62 and 0.83.

5.1.1.5Velocity Through Trash Racks

Velocity should be sufficiently low to avoid high head loss and should be sufficiently high to
avoid large intake and trash rack cross section. The following are suggested limiting entrance
velocities:
i) Justin and Creager formula:
V  0.12 2 gh                         (5.7)
h =head from center line of gate to normal water surface
ii) Mosonyi's formula to eliminate eddies and vortices:
V  0.075 2 gh                         (5.8)
iii) U.S.B.R's criterion: permissible velocity in the range of 0.6 to 1.5 m3/s

5.1.1.6 Air Entrainment and Vortex Formation at Intakes

Air entrainment is due to development of vortices and also due to partial gate opening that
facilitates hydraulic jump formation. Effects of air entrainment are: Additional head losses,
reduction in discharge and drop in efficiency of turbines. Minimizing vortex formation and
avoiding hydraulic jump formation help in preventing air entrainment.

A vortex which forms at the inlet to power conduit occasionally can cause troubles by itself. It
can induce loss of turbine efficiency, possible cavitation, surging caused by the formation and
dissipation of vortices, and flow reduction as air replaces part of the water through the inlet. It
can also draw floating debris into the conduit. Thus, it is necessary to prevent formation of
vortices at intakes and air entrainment.

Vortices are formed due to the following factors:

i) Hydraulic jump formation
ii) Velocities at intakes
iii) Submergence at intakes
iv) Geometry of approaching flow at intakes

Designing for a low velocity into the conduit and increasing submergence of the inlet can help
prevent the formation of vortices. Flow approaching the intake asymmetrically is more prone to
vortex formation than symmetrical flow. It is therefore important that flows upstream of the
inlet area be as straight and uniform as possible.

For the condition of no vortices at intakes (after J. B. Gardon):

Ys  0.545V D for symmetrical approach
Ys  0.725V D for asymmetrical approach Ys

Where, Ys is necessary submergence depth, V is V D

velocity at inlet to the canal, and D is diameter of
the conduit.
Figure 5.10: Sketch of submergence depth arrangement

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Another remedy to vortex formation is provision of a floating raft or baffle which disrupts the
angular momentum of the water near the surface.

5.1.1.7 Inlet Aeration

Intakes normally have a bulk head gate at the front and a control gate inside on the downstream
side. An air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate. The functions are:
i) to nullify vacuum effect, which could be created when the penstock is drained after
control gate closure.
ii) Intake gates operate under conditions of balanced pressure on both sides of the gate.
Thus the conduit is required to be filled with water through a by-pass pipe. The
entrapped air is therefor driven out through the air vent.

Qa
Air vent
Control gate

Bulk head
Figure 5.11: Air Vent Arrangement

Size of the air vent: There are several recommendations

Qa  400Ca  p                   
1/ 2
1. (5.9)
Where Qa = Discharge of air in cumecs a= Area of vent pipe in m2 C=Constant ~7
p =Pressure difference between the atmosphere and pressure in the penstock in kg/cm2
2. 4th Congress on Large Dams (ICOLD)
Area of air vent =10% of control gate area
3. USBR design guide: Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge
B
L
5.1.2 Settling Basins
The water drawn from a river for power generation may carry a suspended sediment particles.
This silt Flushing flume
A load may be composed of hard abrasive materials such as quartz and will cause A
damage or wear to the hydro-mechanical elements like turbine runners, valves, and penstocks.
Power canal
To remove this material a structure called settling basin should be constructed, where the
W
velocity of the flow will be reduced resulting in settling out of the material, which has to be
periodically or continuously flushed out. Flushing sluice

In order to satisfy the requirement

Inlet Settling zone
for a good hydraulic performance the basin
Outletis divided into
zone
three main zones: inlet zone, settling zone, and outlet zone. zone
B

Inlet Zone:
The main function of the inlet is to gradually decrease the turbulence and avoid Power
all secondary
canal
Flushing flume
currents in the basin. This is achieved by decreasing the flow velocity through gradually
increasing the flow cross-section, i.e., by providing gradual expansion of the width and depth
(see figure 5.12).
Section A-A
To achieve optimum hydraulic efficiency and effective use of the settling zone, the inlet needs
to distribute the flow uniformly over
W the cross-section of the basin. ToWachieve uniform flow
distribution, the following techniques, in addition to the provision of gradual expansion, may be
adopted at the inlet zone:
 Use of submerged weir D

Collection tank
Chapter 5: Water Conveyance Structures Flushing flume 29
a) For continuous flushing b) For intermittent flushing

SectionB-B
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 Use of baffles
 Use of slotted walls

Figure 5.12: Settling basin

Settling Zone:
This is the main part of the basin where settling of the suspended sediment is supposed to take
place. The dimensions of this zone can be determined through calculations (see sections below).

Outlet Zone:
This is a kind of transition provided following the settling zone to facilitate getting back the
flow into the conveyance system with the design velocity by gradually narrowing the width and
depth. The outlet transition may be more abrupt than the inlet transition.
Note: The cross-section of a settling basin is usually tapered at the bottom forming a
sediment-collecting flume, built with a gradient in the direction of flow.

Design of Settling Basins

The hydraulic design of settling basins is broadly outlined in the following:

1. Exploration of sediment conditions, involving the quantitative and qualitative analysis of

sediment carried by the river. As regards to wear of the hydraulic machinery, suspended
sediment is of significance, since the bulk of the bed-load moving along the bottom can be
effectively prevented from entering the canal by a well-designed intake.

2. On the basis of theory and practical experience, the necessary degree of removal should be
determined. Usually, the sensitivity of plant installations, particularly the hydraulic

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machines, requires that a marginal (critical) grain size dcr is not exceeded. Generally,
Francis and Pelton turbines are subject to greater wear and tear ( form of blades, higher flow
velocities) than Kaplan turbines with comparably bigger discharges and lower heads.
Consequently, the sand trap/settling basin must be dimensioned in such a way that grains
with diameters bigger or equal to dl (limit particle size) must be settled. It should be noted,
however, that no standard values or specifications have yet been developed

For medium head = (15-50m); dl = 0.2 to 0.5mm in diameter

For head up to 100m; dl = 0.1 to 0.2mm in diameter
Very high head >100m; dl = 0.01 to 0.025m in diameter

For the limit particle sizes mentioned above, the lower limits should be used if the sediment
fractions contain sharp-edged quartzite grains.

Degree of removal
100

80
% Sieve passing

60 60% removal ratio

40

20 dl

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) (Log scale)

Figure 5.13: Example of removal ratio

Instead of using the limit particle size, the degree of removal is frequently defined by the
removal ratio, which is the ratio of concentrations after and before settling, expressed in
percentages. If the concentration of the raw water is C, and that of clarified water is
specified as the permissible value Cp, the required removal ratio is obtained as:
Cp
R  100  %   5.10
C
In the above example (Fig.5.13), the removal ratio is 60%

3. Having determined the basic data as suggested in above, one can proceed to establish
settling velocity of the smallest fraction, i.e., of the limit particle size to be removed. This
can be established theoretically (Stoke's law) or by experiments (Sudry graph).

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Figure 5.14. Settling velocity in stagnant water plotted against the density of silty water and
the particle diameter (After L.Sudry)

The so-called horizontal-flow settling system is usually applied at power developments.

For this system the dimensions of the settling basin may in principle be determined by two
computational methods depending on whether to neglect or to take into account the
turbulence effect.

Design neglecting the effect of turbulence (simple settling theory):

Here, the effect of turbulent flow upon settling velocity is neglected. Three basic relations may
be written for the determination of the required basin dimension.

Denoting the depth of the basin by D and its width by W, the discharge passing through the
basin is:

Q  W DV                  5.11
Where, V is the flow-through velocity.

The second equation expressing the relation between the settling velocity , the depth of the
basin D, and the settling time t is:

D
t   5.12


Finally, the length of the basin will be governed by the consideration that water particles
entering the basin and sediment particles conveyed by them with equal horizontal velocity
should only reach the end of the basin after a period longer than the settling time. Thus, even
the smallest settling particle may reach the bottom of the basin within the settling zone. In other
words, the retention period should not be shorter than the settling time. The required length of
the basin is thus:
L V t   5.13
Eliminating t from the last two equations (equation 5.12 and 5.13), two relations can be
established between the six parameters governing the hydraulic design:

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Q  W DV 

DV                (5.14)
L  
 

Obviously a solution of the problem is not possible unless four of the six quantities are known.

The discharge Q is usually known. The settling velocity  is defined by the initially specified
degree of removal and, as mentioned previously, can be established by calculation (see
equation 5.19/20) or experimentally (Figure 5.14). The highest permissible flow-through
velocity V should also be specified, considering that particles once settled should not picked up
again. According to Camp, the critical flow-through velocity is estimated from:
V  a dl  m / s   5.15

Where, d is the equivalent diameter of the smallest sediment particle to be settled in mm and a
is a constant given as:
a  0.36 , for d l  1 mm
a  0.44 , for 0.1 mm  d l  1 mm
a  0.51, for d l  0.1 mm
[Modern tendency is to use V =0.4 to 0.6 m/s]
Depth of basin should be specified considering that long and/or wide basins are economical
than deep ones. The depth of settling basins in waterpower projects is generally between 1.5
and 4 m with flow-through velocities not higher than 0.5 m/s. Hence W and L can be computed.
Check
From Q=DWV  V=Q/WD
And from L=V*t  V=L/t

Therefore Q/WD = L/t  Q*t = WDL

Water conveyed to tank = Volume of tank

Design considering the effect of turbulence:

Owing to the retarding effect of turbulent flow on subsiding particles, settling is slower in
flowing water. A more accurate investigation of the basin is thus by considering the retarding
effect of turbulence into consideration.

By using a lower settling velocity     , equation (5.14) obviously yields greater values for
the length of the basin. The reduction in the settling velocity   is related to the flow-through
velocity by:
    V (m / s )   5.16
The coefficient  may be computed from:
0.132
  ( 5.17)
D
Accordingly, the second row of equation (5.14) can be modified for the settling length as:
DV D 3 / 2V
L  1/ 2 ( m)   5.18
  V D   0.132 V

This shows a larger settling basin is required, when compared with simple settling theory. In the
computation if the result provides negative value in the denominator, it indicates that no settling
takes place in the basin; hence dimension should be modified.

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Theoretically, the following equation can be used to estimate the settling velocity:
1/ 2
 4 gd   s   w 
     5.19
3 C
 d  w  

Where, d and s, respectively, are the diameter and specific weight of the sediment particle, w is
specific weight of water, and Cd is the coefficient of drag and is a function of particle Reynolds
number R = d/,  being the kinematic viscosity of the water.

Figure 5.15: Drag coefficient of spheres as a function of particles Reynolds number (note =v)

The drag coefficient in the Stokes range (R < 0.1) is given by Cd = 24/R, and equation (5.19)
can be modified for Stokes range as:

gd 2  s  w 
     5.20
18  w 

Removal of Sediments from Settling Basins

There are different techniques for removing sediment deposits in settling basins:
 Manual or mechanical removal of deposited sediments after the basin is de-watered.
 Flushing of deposited sediments through an outlet provided at the bottom, often called
flushing sluice.
When the water flow through the basin is halted, it will cause interruption in power generation.
However, this is not an acceptable solution, and instead a continuous power generation should
be facilitated during cleaning of settling basins. Continuous operation can be ensured by one of
the following methods:
i) Providing two or more parallel basins (some can be cleaned while others are operating).
ii) Adopting continuous flushing, by admitting excess water into the basin. An inflow
exceeding the water demand by about 10 % may be admitted continuously into the basin
and used for flushing the sediment accumulating at the bottom.

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5.1.3 Head Race

Head race may be a power canal, a pressure tunnel, or a pipe, which in most cases conveying
water from intake structure to surge tank, forebay or pressure shaft, depending on the
arrangement of the scheme.

5.1.3.1 Canals
Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the terrain is moderate with
gentle slopes. However, when the ground is very steep and rugged, it becomes uneconomical to
construct canals as it follows longer distances and/or needs provision of cross-drainage works
and deep cuts and fills at a number of appropriate locations. In such cases, it is advisable to go
for tunnels or pipes. The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic analysis. Where the
topography of the region presents special formations, the alternating use of open-canal and
open-surface tunnel sections may ensure the most economical development.

The tracing of a power canal should closely follow the contour lines of the terrain. Based on the
topographic conditions, a canal may be constructed through cuts, over fills, and in cuts-and-fills
as shown in Figure below.

(a) In cut and fill (b) In cutting (C) In filling

Figure 5-16: Canal Sections

A very important feature of an open canal is its vulnerability to damage from such sources as
landslide and rock falls, and from storm water runoff crossing its path. The cost of protection
from these eventualities and their associated repair costs must be included in an estimation of
the canal cost.

Canal Lining

Power canals may be lined or unlined. The lined canals are usually lined with impervious
material such as concrete, masonry, or clay.

Canal lining might be carried out to:

 Reduce seepage losses
 Reduce canal surface roughness
 Prevent the growth of weeds
 Reduce damage caused by erosion, rodents, and livestock
 Reduce the required volume of excavation
 Permits the use of rectangular x-section

Concrete Lining:
This is the most extensively used material in power canal lining. It is mostly used with
trapezoidal cross sections. The excavation of a canal for a thin, unreinforced concrete lining
is similar to that of an earth canal. It should be done carefully to ensure that the lining

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conforms closely to the desired profile when it is completed; otherwise, the lining will
require more material than expected. The foundation should be adequately compacted and
moistened before the concrete is placed. The necessity of moistening the foundation is to
prevent the sub-grade from absorbing moisture from the freshly laid concrete making it weak
and porous.

Concrete sections of a lining can be hand-formed at the site. If the side slopes exceed 1 in 1,
form works may be necessary to hold the concrete in place until it sets. The thickness of the
concrete lining may range from 10 to 20 cm, depending on the quality of the concrete and
the soil conditions.

In preparing concrete for lining a canal, it is important to use the minimum amount of water
needed for workability. Excess water will cause the concrete to slump and not stay on the
canal side slopes. A mixture of a 1:3:4.5 (cement : sand : gravel) volume proportion is
adequate for lining a power canal.

Brick or Stone Masonry:

This is another most frequently used type of power canal lining. Use of stone masonry
permits savings by reducing the quantity of cement required as compared to concrete lining.
Masonry lining consumes only about 25 – 30 % of the amount of cement required for poured
concrete. Whether brick or stone is used depends on their relative availability and cost.

With masonry linings, a rectangular canal section is often used. In this case, the sides of the
canals are constructed as retaining walls to counteract the lateral forces of either the earth
backfill or the water within the canal.

In the construction of a power canal lined with masonry, the excavation must allow for the
thickness of the lining. Before the lining is placed, the canal bottom and sides should be
properly compacted to avoid future settling and cracking of the lining. They should also be
wetted slightly to prevent the mortar from drying too fast.

To reduce resistance to flow and possible seepage, the masonry surface shall be plastered.
Note:
 In addition to the commonly used lining materials discussed above, other materials
such as bituminous mixtures, soil-cement, wood, clay, chemical sealant, shotcrete,
and impermeable membranes are also sometimes used to line power canals
 In special circumstances where the canal alignment is through a terrain having
seasonally high water table or where the soils are not freely draining, under-drainage
should be provided in order to protect the lining from damage due to uplift pressures.
 Due to temperature variations and shrinkage, cracks may be developed in canal
linings and may result in appreciable leakage from the canal. In order to minimize
these effects, it is necessary to provide contraction joints in the lining at suitable
intervals (usually 3 to 8 m).

Canal Design

Canal design involves determination of the following:

- Carrying capacity, velocity of water in the canal & roughness coefficient of the canal surface
- Canal slopes
- Cross-sectional profile of the canal

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i) Carrying Capacity and Velocity

For the hydraulic design, the discharge is computed from continuity equation as Q=V.A. The mean
velocity, V, is determined from any of the continuity equations. The roughness coefficient is specified
from the bed material type.

A Chezy's equation
V C RS
Several equations are available to determine the value of C.
87
C
i) Bazin's formula m Where m is roughness factor
1
R
1 1/ 6
ii) Maning's Formula C R Where n is Maning's roughness coefficient
n
1
The Chezy-Maning equation V  R 2 / 3 S 1 / 2  MR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 Use Tables for M & n.
n
0.00281 1.811
41.65  
C S n
iii) Kutter Formula in English units
n  0.00281 
1  41.65  
R S 
iv) The Agroskin formula C  17.72 K  log R 

When using Maning's n,

- add 0.001 to the values of the Table if the water carries small amount of silt
- add 0.002 if the bed load is heavy

B) Forch-Heimer Formula
1
Some designers prefer this formula for V and given by: V  CR S C
0.7 0.5
,
n

Apart from the hydraulic computations, the flow velocities in the canal or other water conduits in
general are determined according to economic point of views (investments, head losses, wear and tear of
material, danger of erosion and silting). The velocity must be high enough to prevent
sedimentation. It has to be low enough to prevent bed erosion for unlined- and wear by
abrasion for lined-canals.
Lowering the velocity keeps the head loss over the length of the canal to a minimum; however,
it increases the cost necessary to construct the canal as the cross-sectional area increases when
the velocity lowers. Table 5.1 provides permissible velocity ranges.

Maximum velocity Minimum velocity

Bed Material Vmax (m/s) Vmin (m/s)
Sand 0.4
Sandy loam 0.6
Loam 0.6 To keep any sediment
Clayey loam 0.8 from settling out, the
Clay 2.0 minimum velocity in a
Gravel 3.0 canal should not be less
Masonry 3.5 than 0. 3 m/s.
Asphalt 4.0
Concrete 5.0
Table 5.1 Permissible flow velocities in a canal
As stated above, in unlined canals flow velocities are limited by the resistance of the bed material to
erosion. In unlined canals flow velocities are limited by resistance against wear.

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Maximum Velocities
Critical bottom velocity (w.r.t. erosion) is given by:
Strenberg: Vb   2d for d is particle size in meters,  =4.43
Maximum permisible mean velocity according to Bogardi and Yen is given by:
V  22.9d m4 / 9 Ss 1
Where dm is mean particle size and Ss is specific gravity of particles.

Minimum Velocities
There are various recommendations for non silting velocity
1) According to Ludin
If Vmin >0.3 m/sec, there will be no silting (for silty sediments)
Vmin >0.3 to 0.5 m/sec, there will be no silting (for sandy sediments)

2) According to R.C. Kennedy

Non-scouring and non silting velocity is given by: V  Ch 0.64
Where h is depth of water in meters and C is coefficient varying from 0.54 to 0.7, depending on silt load.
3) According to E.A: Zamarian, the requirements for silting or non-silting of unlined canal is given by:
V RSV
G0  700
0 
Where G0 =Silt load carrying capacity of canal in Kg/m 3
V= mean velocity (m/s)
0 =  if >2 mm/sec
= 2 if 2 mm/sec
 = settling velocity in silt water (mm/sec)
R = hydraulic radius
S = bed slope
900 RS
For approximate values: G0 
 0  1.25

Find the actual G (sediment load ) and compare it with G 0. If G > G0 there will be deposition. If G < G 0,
there will be no deposition. The formulae are valid for:
1) Canal free from aquatic growth
2) Q is between 0.2 and 150 m3/s
3) V > 0.3 m/s
4) < 10 mm/sec

1) According to M.M. Grishing, approximate Vmin is given by: Vmin  AQ 0.2

Where A is coefficient, which is f () and Q is design discharge.

For  (mm/sec) < 1.5 1.5 - 3.5 >3.5

A 0.33 0.44 0.55
Table 5.2: Coefficients of velocity

ii) Roughness coefficient

As water flows in a canal, it losses energy in the process of sliding past the walls and bed
material. The rougher the material, the more frictional loss and the greater the head drop or
slope needed for a given velocity. The roughness coefficient, n, for various canal materials are
given in Table 5.3 below.

iii) Power Canal Slopes

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HE 416: HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING

In plain areas use slope between 5 to 20 cm/km (0.005 to 0.02 %). In mountainous areas slopes are as
steep as 1 to 2 m/km. The canal bed slope can also be estimated using the Manning’s equation:
n 2V 2
S
R4/3
The slope found from the above equation should nearly coincide with the available natural
topography. Otherwise, a different slope should be computed by choosing other values for the
velocity within the permissible limit until a satisfactory result is obtained.

Canal material Roughness coefficient

Clay, with stones and sand 0.020
Earth canals Gravelly or sandy loam 0.030
Lined with coarse stones 0.040
Medium coarse rock muck 0.037
Rock canals Rock muck from careful blasting 0.045
Very coarse rock muck 0.060
Brickwork, well pointed 0.015
Masonry canals Normal masonry 0.017
Coarse rubble masonry 0.020
Smooth cement finish 0.010
Concrete, unplastered 0.015
Concrete canals
Coarse concrete 0.018
Irregular concrete surfaces 0.020
Planed, well jointed boards 0.011
Wooden canals Unplanned boards 0.012
Older wooden canals 0.015
Table 5.3 Values of roughness coefficient ‘n’ for different canal materials

iv) Cross-sectional Profile

The material in which the canal is constructed generally dictates its cross-sectional profile. The
common cross-sections used for canals are described in the following paragraphs.

A semi-circular cross-section is the most efficient profile because, for a given canal slope and
cross-sectional area, it conveys the maximum flow. However, this form is impractical to
excavate. It is therefore used primarily with materials which lend themselves to this shape.
Examples are prefabricated concrete, sheet metal, and wood-stave sections.

A trapezoidal cross-section is the most widely used profile for both lined and unlined canals
excavated in earth. If the canal is unlined, the maximum side slope is set by that slope at which
the material will permanently stand under water. The magnitude of the side slope of a lined
trapezoidal canal depends on the nature of the material on which the lining will rest, but usually
steeper than unlined canals. In general, it should be nearly equal to the angle of repose of the
natural soil so that no earth pressure is exerted on the back of the lining. The banks of a lined
canal resting on almost any free-draining material requires slopes not steeper than 1:1.

For a trapezoidal canal with a given side slope, the most efficient cross-section is one in which
a semi-circle can be inscribed in the wetted area. For this section, it can be shown that the
length of either sloping side of the wetted area is half its top width.
Canal material Side slope (V:H)
Firm rock 1:1/4
Fissured and disintegrated rock 1:1/2
Clay 1:3/4
Clayey loam 1:1

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Loam 1:3/2
Sandy loam 1:2
Sand 1:3
Lining 1:1
Table 5.4 Suggested side slopes for trapezoidal canals

A rectangular cross-section is often most appropriate when excavation is undertaken in firm

rock. It is also commonly used when the canal incorporates properly constructed masonry
walls. Use of a rectangular canal reduces the excavation required. For the most efficient
rectangular cross-section, the width of the canal is twice the depth of the wetted area and, like a
trapezoidal section, is a section in which a semi-circle can be inscribed.

Freeboard Allowance:
Freeboard is provided above the design water level for safety purposes. For earth canal the
lower limit is 35 cm and the upper limit is 140 cm. Generally the free board = [0.35+1/4h] m.
Where h is depth of flow. Allowances should be made for bank settlements. For lined canals,
the top of the lining is not usually extended for the full height of the free board. Usually it is
extended to 15cm to 70cm above the design water level.

Water Loss in Power Canals

Water losses are due to
a) seepage
b) evaporation
c) leakage at gates
Generally b) and c) are generally of minor importance. Seepage losses from earth canal may be
described according to the following procedures:

1) Davis and Wilson

C
q P 3
h (q in m³/sec-km)
10,000
Where C = coefficient depending on soil type and lining (see Table 5.5 below)
P = wetted perimeter of canal in m
H = depth of water in m

Canal Lining or soil type C

Lined Concrete lining 75 to 100mm thick 1
Clay lining, compacted, 150 mm thick 4
Light bituminous lining 5
Clay lining, compacted 75 mm thick 8
Thin lining of asphalt or cement mortar 10
Unlined In loam 12
In loamy silt soil 15
In silty soil 20
In sandy silt soil 25
In silty sand soil 30
In fine sand 40
In sands of medium fineness 50
In sandy gravel 70
Table 5.5: C parameter for seepage computation

2) B.A. Etchivery gives specific seepage coefficient based on measurements on American

irrigation canals. Higher values apply for newly constructed channels.

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HE 416: HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING

Material Specific seepage (m³/day-m²)

Slightly pervious loam 0.08 - 0.11
Loam of moderate permeability
Pervious loam or silt
Gravely or sandy loam 0.11 - 0.15
Loose sand 0.15 - 0.23
Gravely sand 0.23 - 0.30
Gravel 0.46 - 0.53
Coarse gravel 0.61 - 0.76
0.76 - 0.91
0.91 - 183
Table 5.6: Specific seepage of canals

C
3) A.N. Kostyakov (USSR): q Q q in m³/sec-km
100
Values of C
3.4
a) for soils of high permeability, C  Q 0.5 %

1.9
b) for soils of moderate permeability, C  Q 0.4 %

0.7
c) for soils of low permeability, C  Q 0.3 %

Exercises
1. Design a settling basin for high-head power station using the simple settling theory. The basin should
serve to remove particles greater than 0.5mm diameter from the water in which the sediment is mainly
sand. Let the design discharge be 5m³/s and assume an initial value of 3.2m for the basin depth. Take the
water sediment mixture density to be =1.064
2. A power canal with a slope of 0.0001044 and R=1.76 m is unlined with coarse sand bed material.
Determine the safe velocity in the canal if the heaviest bed load in the original canal of the course is
G=0.34kg/m³. The water carries silt with an average diameter of 0.08 mm. Assume d m=2.00 mm as size of
bed material and h=2.5m.
3. Determine the seepage loss from a power canal constructed in a sandy soil of medium fineness by the
Davis and Wilson, Etchevery and Kostyakov methods discussed. The following data are given:

Trapezoidal canal: bottom width, b= 10.0 m

Water depth, D=2.5m
Side slope 2H: 1V
Mean velocity =0.5m/s
Effective size of soil particle, dm=0.1mm
Permeability coefficient, k=1x10-5 m/s

Chapter 5: Water Conveyance Structures 41