HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

What is Handwriting?

Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly, one that is a complex perceptual-motor

task sometimes referred to as a neuromuscular task. Skilled writing movements are so
commonplace that one is inclined to overlook their complexity. Without exaggeration,
however, writing is one of the most advanced achievements of the human body.

The hand is an extremely complex and delicate mechanism containing some 27 bones
controlled by more than 40 muscles. Most of the muscles are situated in the lower arm and
connect to the fingers by an intricate set of tendons. Their ability in manipulating a writing
instrument is precisely coordinated by a timing system under a neural control of movements
of the arm, the hand, and the fingers. The precise ordering and timing of the movements
determine the structure of the pattern that is recorded by the pen or pencil.

The development of writing is complex because it is, in part culture-dependent, and

cultures differ with locales and undergo constant change. The evidence of this dependence is
manifest in the class, system, or national characteristics.

The feature of skilled performance, and certainly of the handwriting, is that it involves
the smooth execution of a structured sequence of coordinated movements in which each
movement occurs at its proper time and place in the sequence. The particular pattern of these
movements constitutes the habitual aspects of writing that are peculiar to each individual. The
fact that, with practice and skill, the execution of writing habits becomes more automatic
renders the writing less subject to conscious control.

What is Handwriting Identification?

The examination of disputed handwriting may be the progenitor of forensic science.

Certainly, it is one of those rare disciplines to have evolved out of forensic necessity, rather
than as a discipline established first in its own right for other reasons, and later harnessed for
forensic tasks. The historical reference indicates that the practice of forgery and related frauds
involving documents evolved as early development of writing. In the days of the Roman
Empire, the law provided for the acceptance of expert testimony respecting documents. It was
not until centuries later that such testimony was admitted in English-speaking courts.

Handwriting identification is a discriminatory process that derives from the

comparison of writing habits, and evaluation of the significance of their similarities or
differences. What has been commonly and frequently referred to as characteristics of writing
features or qualities are simply manifestations of the habits formed. They are discriminating
elements of handwriting.

Writing characteristics (i.e., habits) have been commonly described as being of two types:

1. Class characteristics – the products of prescribed writing systems

2. Individual characteristics – the particular idiosyncrasies of the individual.

Class characteristics were predominant in the writings of the first half of this century
when adherence to prescribed writing systems was strongly promoted in the educational
programs. But the current move to mechanical and electronic communicative process and the
current loss of concern for writing excellence has meant that class characteristics are
progressively less discernable and identifiable than the inscriptions of present-day writers.
Thus, writings have become largely a composition or combination of individual
characteristics. Thus, it is claimed that they should be more readily discriminated from one
another than when copybook was the writing design that everyone struggles to emulate. Thus,
the answer to the present question is” handwriting identification is a comparison of habits in
writing behavior and performance.

The Process Underlying Handwriting Identification

1. Analysis or Discriminating Element Determination – the unknown item and the

known items must, by analysis, examination, or study, be reduced to a matter of their
discriminating elements. These are the habits of behavior or performance (i.e.,
features or characteristics and, in another discipline, the properties) that serve to
differentiate between products or people, which may be discrimination observable,
measurable, or otherwise perceptible aspects of the item.

2. Comparison – the discriminating elements of the unknown, observed, or determined

through analysis, examination, or study be compared with those known, observed, or
recorded of the standard items.

3. Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each have a

certain value for discriminating purposes, determined by their cause, independence, or
likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of similarity or difference of
each element must then be considered.

Five Intricacies or Complexities of Handwriting

1. The aggregate line length – generally speaking, the longer the line, the more complex
the design. There are, of course, some stylized signatures that contain lengths of
strokes of no purpose.
2. The number of pronounced directional changes in the line- when directional changes
are angled in the vicinity of 180 degrees they constitute retraces, When less than 90
degrees, they may be departures in the straight-line movement of the commencement
of curves.
3. The number of overwriting – overwriting can be misleading as to the stroke direction,
and thus, confusing as to allograph construction. They may be one of two kinds, and
for clarity, a distinction should be made between a retracing and superimposition.
4. The continuity of the pen movement – the interruptions to continuity of the pen are pen
lifts that are usually an advantage to the simulator as they provide a legitimate place
to pause and consider the next move. However, a pen fit that reflects motion
continuity, will have a tapered ending and beginning to the pen stroke as the
instrument rises from and returns to the paper surface, without a distinct break in its
travel (some call it a hiatus).
5. The position of well-segregated, complex pen motions – fluent and complex pen
motions – fluent and complex pen motions can be executed with the case, but only
when natural and/or practiced. Flawless replication of them is even more dependent
on nature and or practice. Complex pen patterns of the same design that are

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 superimposed upon one another often conceal the evidence of spuriousness that would
otherwise be available to consider.

What is Handwriting System?

Handwriting systems are a collection of letter formations, typically created by a

teacher or penman that generally contains some common features within similar letter
formations. It is a prescribed pattern for emulation and assimilation as a handwriting style
and is taught ad part of the educational process. It may be published with accompanying
methods of instruction. Our retention of some of the copybook forms of a handwriting system
will continue to a greater or lesser extent throughout our lifetime. On some rare occasions, a
document examiner may be able to closely approximate the writer’s geographic location of
his primary education by comparing that individual’s writing with little used and localized
handwriting system.

Throughout the history of the U.S.A., dozens of different handwriting systems have
been introduced and taught to school children. Systems with names like Spencerian
Roundhand, Palmer, or Zaner-Bloser may be familiar, this being some of the more common
handwriting systems taught in the U.S.A over the years. Spencerian was developed in the
mid-nineteenth century and consisted of circular motions (not unlike the calligraphy of today)
that were necessary to keep the sharp-edged steel nib pens of that era from tearing the writing
paper. Palmer was developed about 1888 and although still in use, it is in decline and is being
displaced by Zaner-Bloser (1895) or forms of Zaner-Bloser. In 1942, seventy-five percent of
public schools in the U.S.A were instructing Palmer Handwriting. As of about 1985, this
same percentage of schools was being taught the Zaner-Blose System or systems derived
from Zaner-Bloser.

Many of these handwriting systems vary only slightly from one another and all
maintain some basic similarities that everyone can recognize. Our ability to read some basic
similarities that everyone can recognize. Our ability to read some else’s writing even though
they were taught a different writing system. If the different systems were so divergent that the
letters were dissimilar, we would be unable to communicate using the written word. For this
reason, the questioned document examiner does not have to know all the different
handwriting systems to recognize an individual character as opposed to a class or system
characteristics. It is in his best interest, however, to be familiar with several of the more
common system.

Individual Characteristics in Handwriting

As considered in the discussion of the learning process, individual characteristics,

unlike class characteristics, are thought of as unique to a specific writer. This is not quite true;
it requires a combination of individual characteristics and frequency of occurrence to make
an individual’s handwriting unique to him. Just as one number to a safe combination lock can
be found in numerous other safes, a large enough series of numbers in a specific order will be
unique to only one safe.

The following handwriting characteristics are some of those that tend to lend
themselves to individualization and as such, are closely scrutinized by the examiner during a
handwriting comparison.

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 Skill level can best be described as an appreciation of beauty as applied to
handwriting. An individual with a high skill level produces writing that is fluid, rhythmic,
perhaps artistically embellished, and in short, aesthetically pleasing to the eye. An individual
with a low skill level produces a product that is hesitating and slowly executed and may
contain grotesque, although repeated letter formations. In general, it is not pleasing to the eye.

Skill level by itself may be one of the more important characteristics of identification
of non-identification. One of the basic concepts of handwriting identification is that a person
with a low skill level cannot write above the level, or generally produce writing of a lesser
quality than what is his norm. This concept will, at times, allow for the disassociation of a
suspect from a questioned body of writing. If the questioned writing displays, an extremely
high level of writer that can only produce a much lower quality of writing could not have
written the questioned material. A person with a lower skill level attempting to produce a
high level of writing is for the most part abandoning his handwriting and is attempting to
fashion an artistic form of an imagined handwriting style. This is, in fact, a distinguished
form of writing.

Variations in Handwriting

Consistency or natural variation is the imprecision with which the habits of the writer
are executed on repeated occasions. It has been said that any two objects larger than
molecular size contain variation. And so it is with handwriting. We never write anything the
same. Every time we write, we write slightly differently.

Variations in handwriting can be due to:

1. Lack of machine-like precision in the human hand.

2. External factors such as the writing instrument and the writing instrument and the
writing position.
3. Influence of physical and mental conditions such as fatigue and intoxication
4. Quantity of writings prepared with time.

Factors That Affecting Handwriting

Many factors combine to affect handwriting. These may include the writer’s mental
illness, emotional states, or moods; the type of document being written; the level of education
attained by the writer, and many others. An illiterate writer makes clumsy, halting strokes. As
writing skills increase, the writing flows smoothly and becomes well executed. If a child
continues in school until reaching graphic maturity, his or her writing will be more highly
developed than the student who drops out of school, before mastering penmanship. Likewise,
an adult who writes frequently, such as a white-collar worker, will exhibit more skill than a
blue-collar worker who does little or no writing in his or her job (Koppenhaver, 2007).

1. Mechanical Factors – such as the writing instrument, the quality of the paper, the
writing surface, the position of the writer when writing (standing, sitting, or trying to
write under adverse conditions), poor lighting, and other unsatisfactory conditions.

2. Time – the child’s handwriting changes dramatically upon reaching adolescence;

adults continue to gradually change their handwriting throughout their life

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 3. Health – such as illness and injuries, medication, substance abuse, physical handicaps,
severe stress, and long-term debilitating illness.

4. Blindness – poor eyesight can interfere with one’s handwriting ability.

5. Mental Health – writing mentally ill people may deteriorate into illegibility; mental
depression affects the handwriting but does not diminish or destroy the habitual
characteristics.

6. Drugs and Medication – undesirable side effects can distort handwriting

7. Alcohol and Drug Abuse – alcohol reduces inhabitation causing larger, more rapid,
and slurred handwriting; alcoholism causes uncontrolled muscular movement, jerking,
and tremor, drug abuse can alter handwriting.

8. Accidental Strokes – aberrations that occur as the result of a transitory incident, such
as someone bumping the writer’s arm or a crumb on the table under the writing paper.

9. Guided Hand – occurs when the writer gets support from another person when
attempting to write; rare and usually involves the infirm.

10. A tremor in Handwriting – involuntary, rhythmic, and recurrent movement of the pen
from side to side; instant changes from the desired direction of the pen lines;
attributed to nervous impulses affecting the muscles indicating loss of control of the
pen.

Systematic Examination of Handwriting

Forensic document examiners use a systematic approach to the examination of

handwriting. Having a standard method of operation assures that a complete and
methodological analysis is conducted and meets the requirement for expert testimony. Below
are procedures to be followed in handwriting examination (Koppenhaver, 2007).

1. Preliminary Procedures

 Determine whether the material is of good quality and contains sufficient

characteristics of handwriting that can be compared.

 Determine if exemplars are suitable for comparison with the questioned material. The
exemplars must be representative of the writer and written under similar conditions as
the questioned material within a reasonable time frame.

 Make certain that all of the exemplars are genuine and can be authenticated for the
benefit of the court.

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  Have enough comparable material to conclude questioned documents.

2. Initial Examination

 Search for obvious signs of forgery in the questioned material.

 If there are no obvious signs of forgery, determine if there is any evidence of self-
disguise. Disguised writing is any conscious deliberate attempt to alter the normal
characteristics of one’s handwriting to prevent recognition.

3. Detailed Examination

 Compare the question to the known handwriting. Consider the various factors that
affect handwriting and take into consideration all of the characteristics of writing.

 Determine if differences are the result of natural variations of different writers.

4. Making and Identification

 List the similarities and differences between questioned and known documents.

 Determine if there are enough similar identifying characteristics without any

significant fundamental divergences to make an identification.

5. Elimination

 To eliminate a writer, one must know all of the different ways a writer can write. This
requires much larger samples of known handwriting before elimination can be made.

Movements, Line Quality, and Alignment

1. The finger movement is that method of writing in which the letters are made almost
entirely by the action of the thumb and the first and second fingers, the actual motion
extending to the second and slightly to the third joints. This is the movement
employed by children and illiterates and generally by those with whom writing is an
unfamiliar process.

2. Hand movement writing is that produced in most parts by the action of the hand as a
whole with the wrist as a center of the action, but with slight action of the fingers.

3. Forearm or muscular movement comes from the shoulder but is the movement of the
hand and arm with the arm supported by the desk on the muscular portion of the
forearm with the elbow as the center of lateral motion.

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 4. The whole-arm movement n writing is the action of the entire arm without rest. The
whole-arm movement is employed in very large writing, in ornamental penmanship,
in blackboard writing.

5. Line Quality is dependent upon the writing instrument, the writing surface, the
relation of the movements, line quality and alignment of writing instrument to the
writing surface, the muscular skill or hand control of the writer, and the manner of
writing or movement employed. Deviations from uniform strokes are ordinarily called
tremors, which are apparent without magnification, maybe due to lack of skill on the
part of the writer, self-consciousness of the writing process, or hesitation which is the
result of copying or imitating. Lack of smoothness or tremor may be due to
uncontrollable nervousness on the part of the writer, or, in illiterate writing, to
clumsiness or hesitation due to lack of a clear mental impression of the form which is
being made. Tremor of age, illiteracy, and weakness is not always distinguishable
from each other, but can usually be distinguished from tremor or fraud.

A straight line is not only the shortest distance between two points but also the quickest
distance, and the line quality of writing always indicated the speed, force, and freedom with
which it was produced.

The connecting upward strokes are especially significant for the comparison of movement
impulses as such strokes show the propulsive power of the writer. In genuine writing, the
upward strokes, or some of them at least, are usually produced with more smoothness and
freedom than the downward strokes, and just the opposite condition may be found in
fraudulent writing.

6. Alignment by a few writers in making all the capital letters in writing as in printing is
the relation of the several characters of a word, or a signature or line of writing, to an
actual or imaginary baseline. Differences and deviations in alignment conditions are
due mainly to differences in movement, position, and the design of letters. In many
writings, alignment is a characteristic of much significance and shows many
unconscious, individual habits, and should always be considered in examining
writing.

Handwriting and Hand Printing Examination

Forensic examination of handwriting is questioned documents will generally consider the

following basic characteristics:

1. Line quality – the skill of writing, flowing letters and words; defined as the overall
character of the written strokes from the initial to the terminal.

2. Spacing of words and letters – the average amount of space placed between the words
and the formation of the letters.

3. The ratio of relative height, width, and size of the letters – consistencies in the
formations of letters as to the height, width, and size.

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 4. Pen lifts and separations – how one stops writing to form new letters or words.

5. Connecting strokes – connecting capital letters to lowercase letters, connecting

strokes within letters and words, etc.

6. Beginning and ending strokes – when one begins a letter formation or numbers and
where the strokes end as to location.

7. Unusual letter formation – the formation of usual letters such as backward N’s capital
letters, etc.

8. Shading – also known as pen pressure; how much pressure and ink width is placed on
upward and downward strokes.

9. Slant – whether writing slants to the right, left, straight up or down, or a combination
of these; the degree of slant that exists (protractor measurement may be made).

10. Baseline habits – whether the writer writes along a straight line, or writers with a
downward slope, upward slope, bent in the middle, etc.

11. Flourishes/embellishments – fancy writing habits, curls, or loops; also, characteristics

manners of letter formations, such as a double loop, triple loops, straight lines, etc.

12. Placement of Diacritics – crossing of t’s dotting of i’s and other punctuation marks.

Based on these twelve basic characteristics, handwriting experts may make identification if
there are sufficient questioned samples to examine and a sufficient amount of known
exemplars or standards with which to compare. Even when handwriting is written with the
unaccustomed hand, disguised (or forged) identification can be made by experts. Most
attempts to disguise handwriting are neither consistent nor successful. An individual’s
handwriting will take on shapes and patterns that will distinguish it from all others. The
subconscious handwriting of two individuals can never be duplicated. The combination of
physical, mental, and mechanical functions of handwriting makes it extremely unlikely that
variations in handwriting will be produced by two individuals.

1. Rhythm/Line Quality (Skill) – does the questioned writing have a skill/rhythmic, free-
flowing appearance?

a. Smooth, free-flowing

b. Shaky/nervous/wavering

c. Deliberate

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 2. Irregularities - does the questioned writing have an awkward, unnatural, sloppy
appearance?

a. Evidence of patching and/or retouching

b. Evidence of foreign marks made by the writing instrument

c. Broken connecting strokes

d. Circle formations made up of separate strokes

e. Pen lifts and separations

f. Vertical strokes and slanted strokes combinations

g. Individualized irregularities (not an indication of forgery)

3. Size and proportion – what is the height of the overall writing of the individual
strokes and the proportion to each other.

a. Height of overall writing

b. Height of the short letters in proportion to the tall letters.

c. Evidence of diminishing strokes

d. Evidence of increasing strokes

e. Narrow in proportion to height

f. Evidence of balancing above and below the baseline

g. The “d” and “t” stem heights are in what proportion to other letters

h. III -formed strokes, unskilled

4. Alignment to baseline – what alignment exists to a ruled or imaginary baseline?

Straight edge or ruler measurements should be made.

a. Straight baseline pattern

b. The letter strokes leave the baseline

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 c. The word strokes leave the baseline

d. Concave baseline

e. Convex baseline

f. Upward slant

g. Downward slant

h. Angling slants (inconsistent)

5. Spacing – what are the spacing contained within the questioned writing? A check of
the spaces between letters, words, lines, the edges of margins, and paragraph
indentions should be made.

a. Left margin even

b. Left margin jagged

c. An angle on the left margin

d. An angle on the right margin

e. Space between capital letters and small letters

f. Space between capita letters

g. Space between word formations

h. Connecting strokes spacing

i. The proportion of breaks and/or spaces between letters

6. Degree of Slant – what is the degree of slant (consistent) in the comparison of

questioned and known writings protractor measurements may be made.

a. Right-hand slants

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 b. Left-hand slants

7. Pen pressure (weight) – what is the general width of strokes in the writings? Also,
what amount of pressure was used in making the strokes? Detailed measurements and
examination with a stereoscope with reflected and transmitted light should be made.

a. Light pressure

b. Heavy pressure

c. Medium pressure

8. Placement of diacritics – how are the T-bars crossed, the i-dots dotted, and other
punctuation marks applied?

a. T-bar – light crossing of

b. T-bar – heavy crossing

c. T-bar – short in proportion to stem

d. T-bar – long in proportion to stem

e. T-bar – the location on the stem

f. T-bar – left o the stem

g. T-bar – the right of the stem

h. T-bar – convex-shaped

i. T-bar – concave-shaped

j. T-bar – fades

k. T-bar – constant

l. T-bar – increases, becomes heavier

m. T-bar – slants about the baseline

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 n. T-bar – forms a hook at the initial or terminal end

o. T-bar – tied around the stem

p. T-bar – uncrossed

q. i-dots – slightly dotted

r. i-dots – firm/heavy dot

s. i-dots – location above the stem

t. i-dots -left of the stem

u. i-dots – the right of the stem

v. i-dots – circle formation

w. i-dots – jabbed

x. i-dots – missing

9. Strokes formation – does the questioned writing contain sharp, needle-like stroke
formations; wedge-shaped; flat-top strokes; or a combination of any of these stokes?
An examination of common letters such as the m’s, the n’s the r’s the p’s, and the s’s
may reveal stroke formation shapes.

a. Needle shaped

b. Wedge-shaped

c. Curved/rounded shape

d. Flat/square-shaped

10. Loop formations – how are the loop formations made and what is their relationship to
other strokes in the writing?

a. Long loop formation

b. Short loop formation

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 c. Broad loop formation

d. Narrow loop formation

e. Needle shaped loops

f. Wedge-shaped loops

g. Rounded loops

h. Flat/squared loops

i. Interspersed with another loop

j. Above baseline beginning strokes

k. Below baseline beginning strokes

l. Unusual loop formation

m. Clockwise formation

n. Counterclockwise formation

o. Unfinished

p. Tied around the stem

q. Circle formation

r. Absence of loops -straight strokers

11. Circle formations

a. Open

b. Closed

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 c. Broad

d. Narrow

e. Filed

12. Beginning and ending strokes

a. Hooked

b. Flourished/embellished

c. Inflexible straight upstroke

d. Flexible curved upstroke

e. Location on the staff

f. Above baseline location

g. Below baseline location

h. Simple, direct downstroke

i. Long, running stroke

j. Heavy stroke

k. Light stroke

l. Hooked

m. Flourished/embellished

n. Abrupt ending

o. Inflexible straightforward stroke

p. Flexible, curved-forward

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 q. Above baseline ending

r. Below baseline ending

s. Faded

t. Heavy

u. Blobbed

v. Patched

Different Structures of Letter Designs

Each individual has his concept in constructing the alphabet. Therefore, there is a
need for a definite procedure in handwriting analysis. Without a practical approach to
analysis, many individual characteristics in handwriting may be overlooked.

For those who have to examine handwriting within a limited time, such as signature
verifies in banks and students of questioned documents, the following scheme of analysis
may help.

1. Examination of a small letter “a”.

a. Examine the oval of each letter and note carefully any points on the circumference
where there are deviations from absolute symmetry, e.g., any bulges, flats, angles, or
tremors. Do these always show at one particular point?

b. Note the direction of the major axis of each oval.

c. Is each oval completely closed in its upper aspect, or is there a general tendency to
leave a tiny gap?

d. Consider each oval as a clock face. Is the oval closed at 11, 12, or 1 o clock?

e. Is the closing stroke butted end on the upper portion of the oval, or is it carried a little
higher, leaving a tiny “pip”? or does the overlap make a minute x?

f. Is an initial upstroke present? Do these start from above the baseline, from the line of
from below it?

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 g. Is there an eyelet formed where the initial upstroke meets the oval?

h. Is there an eyelet formed where the initial upstroke meets the oval?

i. Is there an eyelet formed in the process of retracing the right bend aspect of the oval
in a downward direction? Is the retrace perfect?

j. At what point does the downward retracing line leave below or above the baseline?

k. To what height is terminal upstroke carried? And what angle?

l. If there is no terminal upstroke, how is the letter finished?

2. Examination of the small letter “b”.

a. Is there an initial upstroke or a beard? If so, where does it commence about the
baseline? What angles does it make with the letter? Is the stroke straight or concave to
the right? Is there an initial hook?

b. Are all loops symmetrical

c. Are there blind loops?

d. Which side of the loops shows maximum curvature?

e. Is the staff straight or bowed?

f. Is the trough symmetrical? Examine the position of lowest position of the trough
about the baseline.

g. In completing the trough how high is the upstroke carried? Examine this about the
overall height of the letter and the length of the loop.

h. Is the final portion of the upstroke parallel with the staff, diverging from it, or
curving, inward, towards it?

i. Is there a final spur, examine the length, direction.

j. Is there an eyelet at the junction of the spur with a trough?

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 3. Examination of small letter “c”

a. Is there an initial upstroke? Does the initial upstroke cut across the downward portion
of the main curve of the letter?

b. Does the main curve start with a “tick” point or an eyelet? Is there an initial spiral?

c. Note the position of the lowest portion of the main curve about the baseline.

d. Examine terminal strokes. How high is it carried? At what angle does it finish? Is its
final position straight or curved? Does it finish as a terminal letter with increasing or
decreasing stress?

4. Examination of small letter “d”

a. Does the staff in its upward travel intersect the upper portion of the curve leaving a
minute projection on its right-hand side?

b. Are initial upstrokes present? Do these start above the baseline from the line, or from
below it.

c. Is there an eyelet formed where the initial upstrokes meet the oval?

d. Is the staff looped? Or slightly curved to the other side?

e. Is the staff straight? Or slightly curved to the other side?

f. At what point does the downward retracing line leave the oval? Is there a terminal
upstroke? If so, is it through above, on, or below the baseline? To what height is the
terminal upstroke carried and what angle? If no terminal upstroke, how is it finished?

5. Examination of small letter “e”

a. Examine the development of curves in the loop. Note which side of the loop is flatter.

b. Note proportion of the length of the loop to width. Any instances of the blind loop?

c. At what point does initially upstroke commence?

From commencement to loop intersection, is an initial upstroke present?

d. At the point of intersection of the loop, note carefully angles made by downstrokes
and by initial upstroke with

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Each other –

Baseline

The major axis of the loop

e. Not height of intersection of the loop above baseline

f. Note height of lowest part of trough above baseline

g. Is there a terminal upstroke? How is it carried?

At what does it finish?

Is its final point straight or curved?

Does it finish as a terminal letter, with increasing or decreasing stress?

6. Examination of small letter “f”

a. Does either loop show a tendency to become blind?

b. Study upper loop as in the case of small “b” are all loops symmetrical

Are there blind loops?

Which sideshow maximum curvature?

c. Is the upper loop “simplified” to a bar? If so, is this a simple downstroke? Or is it a

retraced upstroke?

d. Is the upper portion a pointed formation, rounded or eyelet?

e. Is the upper portion a loop formed in a clockwise direction?

f. Are upper and lower loops alternated on opposite sides of the staff?

g. Does the letter consist of a simple staff carrying alternated hook? Or spiral at their
end?

7. Examination of small letter “g”

a. Note proportion between the overall height of oval and length of a loop.

b. Examine the oval of each letter and note carefully any points on the circumference
where there is a deviation from absolute.

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 c. Consider each oval closed at 11, 12, or 1 o clock.

d. Are initial upstrokes present? If so, do they start on, above, or below the baseline?

e. When the letter occurs in the body of a word, does the initial upstroke “undercut” the
oval?

f. Does the initial upstroke form an eyelet with an upper aspect of the oval?

g. At what point does the staff part from the oval?

h. Examine the lower loop as in the case of the small letter “p”. Note dimension of
width, length, symmetry, or curvature?

i. Height of final upstroke carried?

At what angle does it terminate?

Is it straight? Curved at the terminal?

j. Is the lower loop simplified to a hook?

Or is it first simplified to a hook

k. Is the loop simplified to a single downstroke? If so, Note comparatively the length of
stroke:

Where the pressure increases or decreases towards the end.

8. Examination of small letter “h”

a. Is there an initial upstroke? If so, note the position of starting upstrokes, straight,
curved.

What angle does it rise?

b. Examine the loop as for small letter “b”

Examine for symmetry -

Proportion –

Major axis –

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 c. Does the letter commence with an upstroke? Which loops round upon itself to form a
large eyelet?

d. Are upstroke and staff joined by a simple arcade hook?

e. Note the position of the lower end of the staff about:

Baseline –

The lowest portion of garland termination –

f. Examine final stroke if present ad the length, curvature, and angle with baseline.

g. Examine the symmetry of the arch.

9. Examination of the smaller letter “i”

a. Is there an initial upstroke? If so, examine in the manner already described.

b. Is there a final stroke? If so, examine in the usual way.

c. Does the downstroke retrace the initial upstroke, and if so, to what extent? Is there an
eyelet formed at their junction?

d. Examine the formation, location, and position of the i-dot.

10. Examination of the small letter “j”

a. Is there an initial upstroke? If so, examine in the manner already described.

b. Is there a final stroke? If so, examine also in the usual way.

c. Determine the formation, location, and position of the dot.

d. Examine the lower loop as for the small letter “g.”

11. Examination of small letter “k”

a. Examine initial upstroke, loop, and staff as for letter “h”

b. Examine the number of strokes and the buckle knot.

c. Examine the final stroke in the usual way.

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 12. Examination of the small letter “I”

a. Follow the procedure laid down in the case of the small letter “e”

13. Examination of small letter “m”

a. Examination initial upstroke as to its length and starting point.

b. Is there a terminal upstroke? If so, examine in the usual way.

c. Examine the relative heights of the three arches.

d. Examine the first arch, whether rounded, angular, etc.

e. Examine lower points of the feet of the latter related to the baseline.

14. Examination of small letter “n”

a. Examine as in the case of small letter “n”

15. Examination of small letter “o”

a. When the letter begins a word, is there an initial upstroke, or a commencing

horizontal stroke?

b. Does the initial stroke form an eyelet with the oval?

c. Is the base of the oval on, below, or above the baseline?

d. At what point was the oval closed?

16. Examination of small letter “p”

a. Examine initial upstrokes. If so, examine in the usual way.

b. Is there an eyelet at top of staff or any tendency thereto?

c. Examine the lower projection as to length, bulge, and retrace.

d. Examine the central body as to the formation.

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 17. Examination of smaller letter “q”

a. Examine upstroke, if any oval as laid down in a small letter “g”

b. Examine the lower projection, as to length, bulge, point of intersection.

c. In the base of the lower projection an angle or an arcade?

d. Examine the final stroke the usual way.

18. Examination of small letter “r”

a. Examine initial upstroke. If present, the usual way.

b. Examine the formation, height of the hump

c. Examine the final stroke.

19. Examination of small letter “s”

a. Examine the initial stroke, whether on or above or below the baseline.

b. Is the initial, straight, or bowed either way?

c. Is the top of letter “s” point, an eyelet, or an acute angle, or a simple curve?

d. To what extent is the spiral elaborated?

20. Examination of small letter “t”

a. If an initial upstroke is present, examine it as to the position of starting point,

straightness or line, and angle or slope.

b. Examine the rotation of the upstroke and downstroke.

c. Examine the final stroke in the usual way.

d. Examine the “crossing” as to symmetry, length, and pen emphasis.

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 21. Examination of the small letter “u”

a. Use the same procedure as laid down for small “I”

b. Note also any differences in comparative heights of two points.

22. Examination of small letter “v”

a. Examine the initial arcade as in the case or small “m”.

b. Examine trough or garlands as in the case of small “e”

c. Examine the final horizontal spur as in the case of the small letter “b”.

23. Examination of small letter “w”

a. Examine the same for the small letter “u”

b. Note any difference in height of the three points.

c. Do bases on both trough rest on the baseline?

d. Are both troughs equal in width?

e. Examine the final stroke.

24. Examination of small letter “x”

a. Examine the formation, point of intersection, and final stoke.

25. Examination of small “y”

a. Examine initial upstrokes in the usual way.

b. Examine the symmetry of the trough. Does the base lie on, above, or below the
baseline?

c. Examine the lower projection.

26. Examination of small letter “z”

a. Examine the formation. Lower projection, loop, etc.

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Disguised Writing

Some anonymous letters are friendly. Some can even be endearing, such as when a
“secret admirer” sends someone a love letter on Valentine’s Day. However, there are also
anonymous letters that use deception for less innocent purposes such as obscene letters,
vicious threatening complaints, noted from robbers demanding money in bank counters, or
even explosive devices sent through the mail. In many of these cases, the writers disguise
their handwriting as well a the samples requested from them for comparison purposes.

To disguise his handwriting, the writer may attempt to deliberately change the shape
of loops or proportion of letters or use writing styles that are unlike his own. A right-handed
writer might even use his left hand to create a poorly controlled, untidy, and irregular effect.
Another method of disguise is changing the writing method from the writer’s usual cursive
block capital letters.

As with every other human activity, the ability to disguise varies with the individual.
Some people are good at altering their writing habits, while others find it nearly impossible to
make any appreciable change from their natural method. Some can successfully hide their
identity in a small amount of writing such as a single signature. However, most are unable to
maintain a disguise when they have to write a large amount of material, such as an entire
letter or several exemplars forms. The chances of being identified increase as they continue to
write. Hence, the more are obtained the greater are the chances that the writings will contain
some of the normal characteristics of the writer. One of the best things an investigator can do
when taking exemplars is to have some non-requested specimens of the person to compare
with the requested specimens. These will enable him to see if there are any obvious
differences between collected specimens and the requested writings. When most persons who
are giving a disguised specimen are confronted with a naturally written specimen, they will
discontinue the attempted disguise (Ellen, 2006).

What is a Signature?

By definition, a genuine signature is the personal mark of an individual. It normally

serves his or her acceptance of some set of circumstances, or to be the symbol associated with
such an agreement.

All of us have wondered at one time or another why it is that we are asked to sign
documents rather than simply applying an ink fingerprint to the paper as a method of
identification. Wouldn’t it be just as simple to place a thumbprint on a check instead of a
marker’s signature? Would not that foil forgeries? The argument that the signature is easier to
read is invalid, as many signatures have evolved until they are nothing more than a symbolic
representation of what was one-time handwriting and are now unreadable.

The answer to this riddle lies in the word “intent.’ By placing a signature on a
document we are implying intent on our part to agree with circumstances provided by the
check, codicil, agreement, contract, etc. One could easily place the fingerprint of someone
recently deceased on unconscious upon a document if that was all that was required for
authentication. This does not presuppose, however, that the placement of an inked thumbprint
next to a maker’s signature on a check, about to be negotiated at a check-cashing counter in a
grocery store, would not be a help. The fingerprint’s universal connotation would certainly at
the very least, be a deterrent to the individual intent upon passing a forged instrument.

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 The development, and examination, of a personal signature, follows almost all of the
concepts relating to handwriting. A signature may be nothing more than an extension of one’s
normal cursive handwriting or it may have been personalized to such an extent upon passing
a forged instrument.

Signatures examined by the questioned document examiner for authenticity will

eventually be categorized as genuine or not genuine if the examination leads to a definitive
opinion. “Forgery” in a strict sense is a legal term and its use as a conclusion should probably
be avoided by the questioned document examiner. Often a signature in itself may be genuine,
but how it has been acquired or affixed to the document, or the sequence of events involved
in its use is fraudulent. The product of rubber stamp or autopen is certainly not a genuine
signature but is most frequently used in a previously authorized capacity and while these
signatures are not genuine, they are undeniably not forgeries. Terms such as “forgery” and
“fraud” are perhaps best used by the legal community. Having said that, the reader may find
that these terms are occasionally used descriptively throughout this text.

Kinds of Signature

1. Conventional – the readable signature and the form of letter strokes are complete

2. Highly Individualized – the signature which is more often not readable and has a
series of ornamental strokes.

Often deliberately formulated, the person’s signature serves as a “trademark.” Signatures

can be written as tangled, illegible shapes or a series of clearly decipherable letters that
distinctly spell out the person’s name. In many cases, they have no resemblance to the
writer’s name at all but are merely identifying marks. One’s signature may include
extraneous marks, appendages, or dots. For example:

Stroke Structure of Signatures

The stroke structure of signatures is the series of lines and design of letters that compose the
individuality of signatures.

What is Signature Identification?

The identification or verification of signatures is a specialized branch of handwriting

examination. The identification principles and pointers in general handwriting fundamentally
remain the same in the identification of signatures. However, certain characteristics and
factors must be given careful consideration because:

1. Known signatures may contain certain elements and features not common to the
writer’s other classes of writing.
2. Factors of identification given closet study of signature examination may not be given
the special emphasis in general writing.

The identification of a signature depends very largely on the manner it is written. While
designs or forms of letters are the eye-catching features, some other forces or factors
contribute to the manner of writing identification.

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 The individual hand movement and the skill employed in the execution of the signature
can be determined from one careful analysis of the signature itself. A combination of the
following factors provides a full description of the individual handwriting movement in the
execution of the signature.

1. A continuous writing movement or, the opposite, writing movement is interrupted at

intervals by either pen stops or actual pen lifting.

2. Rhythmic or, the opposite, the jerky patterns of writing.

3. Shading and pen emphasis on particular strokes

4. Overall writing pressure

5. Speed of execution

6. Smooth or angular connecting strokes between letters

7. Starting of the initial writing movement before or after the pen gets in contact with the
paper and the corresponding condition at the termination of the word

A signature is a combination of rather limited letters of design which, due to frequent use,
becomes almost automatic. In writing his signature, a person produces a particular pattern
that contains personal concepts of design and which pattern, when often repeated, serves to
distinguish his signature from all others.

Elements that constitute general forms of a signature include:

1. Design of letter

2. Relevant size of capital, single-space small letters, and those which follow the
baseline or above and the height of a single space.

3. Ornamentation or form

4. Arrangement of different parts of the signature concerning the remainder of the

signature.

The examination of signatures is considered a specialized branch of handwriting

identification for the following reasons:

1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently
written.

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 2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.

3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.

4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically.

5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.

The identification of a signature is based on the combination of the two personal styles of
signatures, namely:

1. Conventional or ordinary copy-book form wherein the letters are legible.

2. Highly individualized which are characterized by a series of intertwining strokes,

ornamentations, and flourishes.

In identification, the known or sample signatures establish accurately the range of

variations. It is necessary to determine whether the identifying qualities of unknown
signatures fall within these limits. Natural variation between several signatures of the same
person plays an important role in identification. In most cases, the extent of variation in
writing even becomes a characteristic that is peculiar to the writer.

Classifications of Suspect Signatures

In suspect documents, Wilson R. Harrison lists the following general classifications of

suspect signatures (Harrison, 1958).

1. Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a copy of the genuine
signature of the person purporting to sign the document.

2. Forged signatures of fictitious persons

3. Forged signatures that closely resemble the genuine signature since they have been
produced by a tracing process.

4. Forged signatures which resemble the genuine signature, written freehand to produce
what is known as a “simulated forgery”.

5. Genuine signatures which have been obtained by trickery

6. Genuine signatures which the writers are honestly unwilling to accept as genuine.

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 7. Genuine signatures which have been deliberately written illegibly or unusually to
afford the signatories some plausible grounds for disclaiming them should they deem
it expedient.

A very small percentage of signatures in existence are forgeries but since these are
generally part of important documents or of papers that carry a monetary value, their
detection is an absolute necessity. The qualities of a forgery must be understood before a
signature can be accurately identified.

Indications of Forgery

Generally speaking, criminal codes of western civilizations define forgery as the

making of a false document with the intent that should be used or acted upon as genuine, and,
for the law, “making a false document” includes altering a genuine document in any material
part.

Forgery is probably not the oldest of crimes known to our civilization but there is no
doubt it has occurred ever since man first recorded his thoughts on papyrus. Until the 1500s,
and because of the illiteracy rates of the lower classes, forgery was more common among
royalty and the upper classes. The era saw flourish among the clergy since they constituted a
significant portion of the people who could read and write.

To the forger of this century, nothing is sacred, and given the necessary skill, time,
and resources any document may be reproduced at a deceptive level.

Absolute security is almost impossible to provide within the document itself. In

forgeries, the workmanship, the modus operandi, or method of operation may vary from the
clumsy and obvious endeavors of the inept to the almost undetectable productions of the
adept, and the materials involved may be equally variables.

General indications of non- genuineness may include the following:

1. Blunt starts and stops – the forger places the pen point in contact with the paper and
then starts writing. When he is finished with the name or some portion thereof, he
stops the pen and lifts it from the surface. This may cause an emphasized blunt start or
end. At times this contact is held so long that if the pen contains a fluid ink it will wet
the paper and migrate outward from the contact point.

2. Pen lifts and hesitation – this is occasioned when the pen stops at an unusual point in
the writing, perhaps where a radical change in a direction about to take place or a new
letter formation is about to be started. This may take the appearance o a small gap in
the written where one is not expected, or an overlapping of two ink lines where there
should be only one continuous line.

3. Tremor – because the creation of most forms of non-genuine signatures is little more
than drawings, the pen is moving slowly that small, almost microscopic, changes in
direction take place in what should be a fluid-looking line. The resultant line is not
smooth but reflects the “shaking” pen.

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 4. Speed and pressure – again, because the pen is moving slowly rather than with the
dynamic movement associated with most genuine writings, the ink line remains
constant thickness, resulting from the same constant pressure exerted on a slowly
moving pen. There will be little, if any, tampering of internal lines.

5. Patching – infrequently, but at one time or another, most of us have made an error
while writing our signature. Some individuals may leave the signature alone, caring
little about the mistake or imperfection, while others will simply “fix” the signature
by correcting the offending portion. This may be done to make the signature more
readable, or because a defect in a pen or paper has affected what we perceived to be
our “normal” signature, or for some reason that may even be subconscious. These
“fixes” are usually patent, with no attempt made on the part of the signer to mask or
otherwise hide the correction.

These signature corrections are quite different than the patching that is frequently found
in non-genuine signatures. On these occasions, the writer is not attempting to make the
signature more readable but to make its appearance passable. He is fixing an obvious defect
that perceives as detectable and would uncover his fraudulent product and foil his scheme.
These usually take the form of a correction to a flaw in the writing line rather than in the form
of a letter. Examination to entry or terminal strokes, or to lower descending portions of
letters, along with corrections to establishments, is typical of non-genuine patching.

There are times when one of these same forgery indicators will be displayed in genuine
signatures. Aged or infirmed writers, for instance, will frequently display similar patterns.
The mere presence of these indicators does not mean that the signature under scrutiny is non-
genuine, but should contribute to the overall determination as to genuineness. Alternately the
signature devoid of these indicators may not be assumed to be genuine. The signature of an
elderly individual may, for instance, be expected to have tremors and hesitation within it. If,
however, the questioned signature appears to be written in a fluid manner and/or on a higher
skill level than what is expected, the red warning flag should be waving. This occurrence may
itself be indicative of non-genuineness. Often, a forger, because of an inherent high skill level
in his writing, may produce a product that contains fewer indications than a counterpart with
a lower skill level.

Characteristics of a Genuine Signature

1. Degree of Skill – genuine signature even if showing tremors will show some free
connecting and terminal stroke made by the momentum of the hand.

2. The firmness of Stroke – in genuine signature, hesitation and pen-stops are in natural
places.

3. Habitual Speed of Writing – even in slow and unskillful signature, there will be
consistency in speed.

4. Fundamental Muscular Movement – in genuine signature the upwards strokes show

more smoothness and freedom of movement than the downward strokes.

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 5. The pattern of Shading and Pen Emphasis

6. Presence of Natural Variation – as no two signatures are exactly alike, a certain

amount of natural variation is expected and consequently allowed for in letter design.

7. Coordination, Continuity, and Rhythm

8. Carelessness

Standards of Comparison

The ideal exemplar to be used for a signature or handwriting comparison is one that
duplicates all the conditions under which the questioned material was written. It contains the
same written words and numerals, it was executed at approximately the same time, using the
same writing implement, the same type of paper bearing the same format (check, airlines
ticket, etc.), in the same writing style (cursive vs. cursive), and repeated often enough as to
reveal nearly all the author’s normal variation in his writing. Also, these standards would be
produced within the writer knowing the purpose for which they are used to be.

Standards or known writings must be proven to be the satisfaction of the court to be

accepted as such. Any document or writing may be introduced as evidence and used as a
standard of comparison whether or not it is in any manner connected with the case, provided
the court is satisfied that such writing is genuine.

An accepted standard for comparison purposes can be established as to its origin in

one of the following ways:

1. That it be acknowledged by the writer as having been written by him.

2. By the testimony of a witness who saw the writing executed.
3. By requesting the suspect to write a specimen to be used for comparison purposes.
4. A responsive letter received through the mail (registered)
5. Sometimes by the testimony of the witness who states under oath that he is familiar
with the handwriting or signature of the suspect.

The best standards of comparison are those in the same general class as the questioned
writing or signature; that is to say, where the questioned signature is on the check, other
known writings of the suspect appearing on other checks, where available, should be included
as part of the standard.

Standard handwriting is generally considered to fall into two groupings: non-requested

standards sometimes referred to as “gathered” and requested or “collected” standards.

Non-requested standards are quite writings that were indisputably prepared by the accused
when he had no reason to think that they would be used for a signature or handwriting
comparison. They are, therefore, inherently devoid of any attempt or disguise. The advantage

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to the non-request standard is that it may be difficult to find samples that fit the criteria of
repeating the format and context of the questioned writing.

Further, the investigator must be sure that these known writing can be successfully
attributed to the suspect, and that they were acquired lawfully. If challenged in court,
standards that cannot be proven to be the product of a specific individual may have very
limited value, if any at all. Most often if the standards fail this challenge, the examination and
its resultant opinions will not be allowed into evidence. The normal course of business
records, checks and other documents, writing, and signatures, whether witnessed or not, are
almost always allowed by the courts as adequate standards. Challenges to their admissibility
as hearsay evidence are usually unsuccessful.

Request standards are those in which the subject is asked to write specific material.
Usually through dictation. These standards will be used for the express purposes of
conducting a signature of handwriting comparison. Court-ordered standards fall into this
category.

This class standard lens itself to certain advantages in that the format and content of
the questioned writing can be followed closely under the examiner’s direction and control. It
has, however, disadvantages of allowing the writer the knowledge that this writing will be
used for comparison that may well be adverse to his best interests. Consequently, writers will
often attempt to alter their normal writing or otherwise disguise their writings to foil or
confuse the pending examination. Many times these attempts will succeed and hinder or even
render impossible, a viable examination and definitive opinion. This may be offset to some
degree, by the testimony of the examiner to the indications that are present of disguise.
However, this opinion is difficult to come by.

In this instance, the suspect is requested to furnish specimens written in the presence
of the investigator, acquisition being dependent upon the suspect’s willingness to write
should be obtained as early in the investigation as possible, because after the arrest the
defendant may, upon the advice of counsel, refuse to give a specimen. Requested specimens
of handwriting or signature are admissible pretty much on the same basis as confessions. In
taking such request standards, the investigator should record unmistakable proof, which
cannot be later repudiated, that the choice was truly voluntary and that no coercion was
involved. Whenever possible, the suspect, after completing the writing in the presence of the
investigator, should be requested to make a notation on the same sheet of paper to the effect.

“The writing or signatures appearing above (and or on the other side of this
document) were voluntarily prepared by me this ____ the day of _____ 2013.

This document should be signed by the suspect in the presence of the investigator and
two witnesses if the suspect fails to make this notation on the specimen sheet of writing, the
investigator should write a statement of this nature and make sure that they sign it, noting the
date and place.

Suggested Steps in the Examination of Signatures

1. Place the questioned and the standard signatures in juxtaposition (side by side) for
simulation viewing of the various elements and characteristics.

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 2. Find elements to be considered on the movement employed or manner of execution
(slow, deliberate, rapid, etc.). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine
signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
3. The second element to examine is the quality of the line: the smooth, fluent, presence
of tremor or hesitation. Defect inline quality is only appreciated when simulated
viewing is made.
4. Examine the beginning and ending lines; they are very significant. Determine whether
the appearance is blunt, club-shaped, tapered, or vanishing.
5. Examine the design and structure of the letter. Determine roundness, smoothness,
angularity, and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
6. Look at the presence of patching or retouching.
7. Examine the connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, and lateral spacing.
8. Do not rely so much upon similarity or differences of the capital letters, for these are
often changed according to the whim and caprices of the writer.

METHODOLOGY OF FORGERY

1. Non-Genuine Signature – Handwritten

Non-genuine handwritten signatures may be generally categorized into one of nine

possibilities. While a determination of forgery may be possible, it is not always possible to
assign the signature to one of these categories. It may, however, be prudent for the document
examiner to do so when possible as the demonstration of non-genuineness may be much more
effective.

Before separate discussion of simulated forgery and traced forgery are made, the
following background pointers are given about these kinds of forgeries which are the process
of writing in place of the well-founded, usual writing movement employed in genuine writing
or signature.

The forger labors under a strained mental and muscular condition that makes it very
difficult, if not altogether impossible, to do this work skillfully. This condition is brought
about the:
1. The realization that a forgery is a criminal act.
2. Fear of discovery which results in punishment, and or
3. Painful anxiety to do work well

To be able to forge successfully, one must:

1. Be able to see significant characteristics of the writing of another;

2. To have the muscular skill necessary to reproduce the imitated writing:
3. Be able to eliminate, at the same time, all the characteristics of his writing.

Forgery is likely to show failure in these performance phases. The nicety of adjustment of
impulse is distributed when muscles become tense as a result of extra effort to produce a
good forgery. The best result can be achieved only when muscles are somewhat relaxed so
that all of them work in harmony.

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 2. Spurious Signature (Simple Forgery)

A forged signature without the attempt to copy a genuine model, this kind of forgery is
easily detected as fraudulent given that is widely different from the genuine one even in
general appearance alone. In committing fraud, the forger who is confronted with the absence
of the genuine signature (as a model) will not endeavor anymore to produce a facsimile of the
genuine but merely sign the name of his gain before the obvious fraud is discovered. This is
commonly employed in the case of fictitious persons. This system is employed by the check
thief who steals, endorsers, and passes checks; or who produces printed check forms,
completes and endorses them with fictitious signatures to pass them on as genuine signatures.

The determination of the fraudulent nature of this kind of forgery becomes very
elementary once standards of genuine signatures are obtained. With sufficient standards, the
identity of the forger, through the handwriting, may be determined.

3. Simulation (Simulated Forgery)

The simulated signature or “freehand forgery,” is the usual bill of fare for the
questioned document examiner. This forgery is constructed by using a genuine signature as a
model. The forger generates an artistic reproduction of this model. Depending on his skill and
amount of practice, the simulation may be quite good and bear remarkable pictorial similarity
to the genuine signature.

More simulations created with a model at hand will contain many of the general
indicators of forgery, such as tremor, hesitation, pen lifts, blunt starts and stops, patching,
and static pressure. They will have a slow “drawn” appearance. The practiced simulation is
most often higher quality creation in that the model signature has been memorized and some
of the movements used to produce it have become semi-automatic. This simulation can be
written in a more natural fluid manner. There can be tapered starts and stops, changes in pen
pressure, and written in a more natural fluid manner. Speeds lend fluidity to writing. The
more rapidly the pen moves while creating the genuine writing or signature, the more
difficult the genuine writing is to imitate. A slowly written signature is not only easier for the
forger to duplicate with some fashionable degree of pictorial similarity, but the product will
also have fewer indications of non-genuineness than the forgery of a rapid and fluidity
executed signature. The writer of the simulation must, if necessary, pay more attention to the
form of a letter than the speed of his pen.

4. Tracing (Traced Forgery)

Traced forgeries are generally created by one of the four methods: transmitted light,
carbon intermediate, pressure indented image, and tracing paper techniques. While tracing
does not normally present much of a challenge to the document examiner trying to determine
the genuineness, the ability to identify the perpetrator is precluded. Tracing another’s
signature, or for that matter is another’s handwriting, is the paramount form of disguise. Total
agreement between the model and the questioned signature dictates that the questioned
signature was a product of tracing. No two signatures or handwriting, even from the same
person are ever totally duplicated. Just as certainly, a total agreement between two, three, or
more questioned signatures must take care that the model signature (genuine signature) is not
one of the signatures in question.

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 Traced signatures are usually departed from genuine signature in the following
manners:

1. In fluency is the result of greater speed of execution in normal, natural writing.

2. Inline quality that a tracing lacks.

3. The presence of pen lifts and/or retouching that is indicative of the uncertainty of the
writing movement

4. The attendance of guidelines in the form of graphite or carbon lines or indentations.

5. Transmitted Light Tracing

The transmitted light tracing is the simplest of the tracing to produce and the one most
often encountered. The paper that is to receive the spurious signature is placed over a
document bearing the genuine signature. These documents are then aligned to put the genuine
signature directly under the selected location for the forgery. Those two papers are then held
up to a window or other light source, and the transmitted signature is traced on the receiving
document.

6. Carbon-Medium Tracing

At times, a carbon-medium tracing is a method of choice, especially if the document

to receive the tracing is too heavy a weight, such as cardboard, to allow for a good light
transmitted image. Normally, the area to receive the signature is covered with a piece of
carbon paper which in turn has the model signature place upon it and aligned with the area
that is to receive the image. The model signature is then traced over with a pen or other
pointed implement. This procedure will impart a carbon image of the signature on the
received document. This image is then overwritten with a pen. Often this pen will be a broad-
tipped instrument such as a felt-tip or fountain pen. The wider ink line serves to hide the
carbon image better than the ballpoint pen.

7. Pressure Indented Tracing

Similar to a carbon paper tracing, the indented line tracing is produced essentially in
the same manner, but does not employ any intermediate reproduction of medium. Heavier
pressure is used when tracing over the model signature. This pressure leaves an indented
“signature” on the receiving document. This is then covered over with a broad-tipped pen,
although ballpoint is found on occasion. Almost invariably, the writer misses a portion of the
indented line. This error may be easily observed using glancing (oblique) light. Other general
indications of non-genuineness are similar to those found in the simulated forgeries. In both
the carbon-medium and indented line-tracing, the forger is faced with a paradoxical situation.
If he overwrites the model image with enough speed to make the forgery image fluid and
natural appearing, he will undoubtedly miss the model line in several areas that will then be
readily discernable, if, on the other hand, he pays particular attention to covering the model
image, the resultant line quality deteriorates into the slow-moving, hesitation-filled by-
product of forgery.

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8. Tracing Paper Techniques

This is an alternative to the carbon paper method for applying a carbon outline of the
genuine signature on the false document. Tracing paper is laid over the signature to be traced
and an outline is created on it by running a soft pencil or pen over the lines of the signature
that can be seen through the tracing paper. Following this, the back of the tracing paper is
given graphite rubbing with the side of the sharp pencil and the tracing is laid over the
spurious document. Overwriting the outline of the signature on the obverse with a suitable
instrument will then transfer graphite on the reverse to the document beneath in the outline of
the signature that is then overwritten in ink to create the final product. While the method is
more tedious than the others, it leaves no evidence behind on the genuine signature by which
it can be associated with the tracing other than the correspondence in the outline that there
may be between the two.

Non-genuine signatures – mechanical signatures most often are those produced

without the direct aid of the human hand. Signatures produced by signo-graph, auto pens, or
writing machines, rubber stamps, and offset printing facsimile signatures are examples of
mechanical signatures. These imitation signatures differ from other non-genuine signatures in
that they may be legally genuine when their use has been authorized by the sign holder.
These are prime examples of forensically non-genuine but legally authenticate signatures.
However, when medical signatures are used in non-authorized capacities, they are quite
simply forgeries

For the most part, manual, mechanical, and electronic devices produce two-dimensional
images of a signature. If there is a third dimension that is an impression into the paper, the
point load observed in the writing line is constant. There is no evidence of the variation in
pen pressure that normal, natural writing usually exhibits.

Most manual, mechanical, and electronic devices produce what is referred to as a static
impression, created without (horizontal) movement in the direction of the plain of the paper.
The actual writing is a dynamic impression, created only as a result of some horizontal
movement of the writing instrument over a plain paper. Static and dynamic impressions differ
particularly in the manner in which the writing media (ink or graphite) is deposited on the
paper surface. While static impressions are without any directional evidence, dynamic
impressions frequently contain directional evidence. The reason for this lies in the fact the
fibers of the paper surface are being employed as a friction agent to drag ink or graphite tends
to accumulate along the edges of the paper fibers facing the approach of the pen or pencil, to
a greater extent than along the opposite sides. Admittedly this kind of directional evidence,
visible clearly with the aid of the stereomicroscope, is more pronounced with pencils and
with some types of inks than the others, but it is a condition that should be studied. If there is
an accumulation of ink or graphite deposits on either side of the fivers, it may be evidence of
a dynamic rather than a static impression.

9. Auto-Forgery

Normally, auto-forgery would be defined as forgery of the one’s signature created by

oneself. This, however, is a contraction of terms for a forgery must be, by definition, an
execution performed by another person. The observation must be made, then that there is no

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such perfect auto-forgery. The signature that does not satisfy the requirements for genuine
must necessarily be non-genuine.

Occasionally, individuals will sign a document with the specific intention of denying
that signature at a later time. Some people may think of this as a safeguard when they are
confronted with the necessity of signing something they are not sure about but demands
immediate attention. The others start with larceny in their hearts. These signatures commonly
referred to as auto-forgeries will usually be found on promissory notes, contracts,
constitutional rights forms, confessions, closed account checks, etc.

Initial observations of an auto-forgery often appear similar to what might be expected

in a simulated forgery. Further inspection will almost always reveal remarkable internal
similarities to the genuine signature. Why does this happen? The auto-forger, not knowing
the perceptual abilities of someone that might examine the signature, incorporate gross
changes to the larger, initial, or prominent letters. His usual response, when confronted with a
signature that he is denying, is “ I never mark that letter(s) that way.” Indeed, he doesn’t, but
neither would a real forger.

In essence then, while the forger creating a simulation does his best to make the
prominent focal points of the signature look like the corresponding features in a genuine
signature, the auto-forger goes out of his way to make them appear different. Similarly, the
forger misses or does not pay as much attention to the interior subtleties of a signature, while
the auto-forger, because he is a creature of habit, produces these smaller intricate details
correctly. Piece by piece, the simulation and auto-forgery are almost diametrical opposites.
When an auto-forger may be at hand, the questioned document examiner must remember the
adage that if something “looks that bad, t may be that good.”

With auto-forgery, the legal authenticity of the signature may be quite different than
that of the forensic authenticity. The autho-forger may at once be legally authentic (especially
if witnessed), forensically non-genuine, and ethically (if not judicially) contemptuous.

10. Transferred or Transposed Forgery

On occasion, an innovative form of the spurious signature may be encountered that

can best be equated with a tracing, but in actuality differs from the conventional concepts of
tracing because of its method of production.

Most traditional ballpoint pen inks employ the ethylene glycol medium as the base
ingredient to carry the dyes, extenders, plasticizers, and other ink components. A signature
made by employing a pen using this ink may be “transferred” to another document by using
ordinary waxed paper or freezer paper. By placing this form of medium over a genuine
signature and rubbing the top of the paper vigorously, the wax that is in conjunction with the
signature will melt and subsequently absorb some of the ethylene glycol-based ink lines. The
paper now containing a mirror image of the genuine signature is placed rubbed briskly,
melting the wax and ink composite. This process will result in a forgery that does not
conform to, nor contain, the normal observable conditions that are associated with simulated
or traced signatures. This is because, in essence, this signature was created by the signature
holder’s hand rather than forgers. Indications of this process will be in the form of wax left
behind that covers and surrounds the signature line. The signature itself will have a

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discernibly faded appearance and the edge of the ink line when viewed under low
magnification will have a mottled look rather than a sharp appearance.

Transportation by transparent tape can be accomplished with pencil writings but

encounters problems with some ball pen inks. The release of the graphite or ink in the new
location is usually encouraged by burnishing the back of the tape with a burnishing tool or
ball pen, similar to the procedure for depositing dry transfer characters. Even when released
of the graphite or ink can be achieved, the adhesive to the transparent tape is often reluctant
to leave the paper surface and fiber disturbance or adhesive can remain as telltale evidence of
the encounter. To prevent this, the document is photocopied to conceal the presence of the
tape and the original is then conveniently lost or destroyed. The solvent may also be used to
separate the tape from the paper, but not without the risk of reaction with the ink.

The fundamental characteristic of transferred or transposed signatures is that they lack

any evidence or pressure of the writing instrument into the paper. Furthermore, when a dry
transfer or photocopier techniques are employed, the ink of the strokes can be seen
microscopically to be deposited, perhaps in some quantity, on the surface of the document
rather than impressed into the substrate.

11. Photocopy Forgery (Cut and Paste Photocopy)

When the document examiner undertakes the examination of a photocopy, this

examination must necessarily include significant thoughts as to the possibility that a genuine
signature can be affixed to the fraudulent document and the composite, or paste-up
photocopied. This may result in what would appear to be a photocopy of an original
document bearing a genuine signature. The same may be true of any portion of the
photocopy; it is not limited to just the signature. Photocopies can be prepared from a
composite of parts of two or more documents which, when copied, can appear to be a
reproduction of a single document. The resultant made from composites, may or may not
display those characteristics indicative of its production from two or more document sources.

Indications of spuriousness may take the form of misaligned typing, different fonts,
and different font sizes, misaligned pre-printed matter, incorrect vertical, horizontal, and
margin spacing, “shadowing” in the joint areas, disproportionate area, sizes, different pre-
printed material, and ink densities, and missing portions of writing or printing (covered by the
paste-up, too closely trimmed, or masked by an opaque fluid). Additionally, it may be that the
“trash marks” surrounding the signature are in greater or lesser quantity than those on the
remainder of the document. This is especially true if either the model signature or document
to be used in the paste-up itself a photocopy. The best indication of what may be a fraudulent
photocopy is when the original document has “disappeared” or has been “misplaced.”

Understandably, there are many document examiners or employing laboratories that

will refuse submission and examination of disputed documents that are not originals. While
this posture is certainly “safe” it may not serve the best interests of justice. Each day our
society becomes further enmeshed in machine copied documents. The contemptuous
photocopy machine is quite capable of producing sharp, clear copies that rival photographs.
Even some of the modern facsimile machines can transmit sharp images that rival the
photocopy machine of only a few years ago. Photocopies that display prohibitively poor
quality may be precluded from examination, but those displaying adequate line quality are
deserving of some degree of qualified opinion.

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12. Desktop Forgery

It is the unwanted forgery of modern technology. With the invention of modern

computer software and scanner, document examiners have speculated on and studied the
potentials of machines and materials to facilitate the transfer of genuine signatures from one
document to another. Through the use of computer technology and commercially available
flatbed scanner and imaging software, the forger may use computerize scissors to cut and
paste individual signatures and produce fraudulent documents.

The material and equipment needed in this procedure are not expensive, unique, or
difficult to operate. A personal computer with Pentium Intelor equivalent processor and
imaging software such as Adobe Photoshop. Also a flatbed scanner and a standard printer.
Also, a tool incorporated in the adobe photoshop software is the ability to de-emphasize to
completely remove overlapping ink lines, printed characters, rubber stamps, and obliteration.
Once the desired images or signature are captured, images from adobe photoshop can be
imported into the microscope word, moved in the document for proper placement, and
proportionally enlarged or reduced to the desired size.

13. Electronic Signature

The electronic digitized signature was produced through a digitized tablet with the use
of a digital pen which is using signing electronic documents for transactions.

When is a true signature not a true signature? Scanned or electronically reproduced

signatures may not be considered valid unless and until one had the assurance of the author.
The author may assure a questioner that the signature is indeed valid by either an in-person
verbal statement or by written affidavit.

How can one determine if an electronic signature is a true signature? A trained expert
may do so if that signature is directly from the scanner of the software. Later-generation
copies may or may not be considered genuine. Copies of the electronic signature may be
identified but may not be considered valid. If there are sufficient proper authentic signatures
for comparison, a forensic document examiner asked to validate the signature, would be able
to say that it does or does not reflect the real writing of the purposed writer.

One will not be able to see the whole original signature in the available copy. The
scanner will not pick up pressure, infinitesimal pen lifts or quivers, or even what we call
feather strokes that may only be seen in the original. Some authors will graze the paper with
the pen so that the barest trace of the line.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF ALTERATION

If a document is under suspicion, it should in all cases be thoroughly examined to discover

any suspicious erasures or alterations that it may contain. Fraudulent changes are made in
such a way as to avoid detection and may not be discovered if attention is not directed to this
particular subject.

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Alteration

Any changes which give the document a different effect from that which is originally
possessed is termed as alteration. As a legal term, alteration means an act purposely done on
an instrument by a party thereto or one beneficially interested therein which affects a change
in the sense or language of the instrument. It is distinguished from the spoliation of an
instrument which is a change made accidentally or unintentionally, or by one having no
beneficial interest in the instrument. Spoliation does not invalidate the instrument or change
of rights and liabilities of the parties.

If changes are made after the execution of a document and without the consent of the
other party, then such change is called fraudulent alteration. Identifying document alterations
requires focus, attention to detail, and in some cases, forensic technology or expert assistance.

Document alterations can occur in several forms, including erasures, water damage,
charring, ink differentiation, and handwriting discrepancies. Documents are altered for
various reasons, ranging from simple corrections to intentional fraud. Alterations involving
handwriting, erasures, and water damage are easy to spot, but often require forensic
equipment and expertise to fully analyze the cause or origin.

Kinds of Alteration

1. interlineations

2. superimposition

3. cancellation

4. erasure

Obliteration

Obliteration is the process of writing over text with the intention of hiding or
destroying the original information. To obliterate means to blot out so as not be readily or
readable. Obliteration may be either intentional or unintentional. Writing may be
intentionally obliterated to render them indecipherable by covering or obscuring with
marking, overwriting, blots of ink or rubbing with pencil or carbon paper, etc.

Whether at the time the document was created or at a later date, obliteration made
with the same ink used in the original is virtually impossible to recover. If a different ink was
used to obliterate the text, illumination with alternative light sources may show differences in
reflection or infrared luminescence, which can be photographed. Similar techniques,
combined with handwriting analysis, are applied to detect additive alterations (Fisher,
Tilstone, & Woytowicz, 2009).

Erasure

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Documents may be altered in an attempt to hide the original meaning or contents of a
document. This is most commonly done by erasing individual words, phrases, letters, or
numbers (Tilstone, Savage, & Clark, 2006)
Erasures can be divided into two basic groups:

1. Physical/mechanical erasures

Physical removal of writing, impression, or parts thereof may be accomplished by the

abrasion of the surface of the paper with the help of rubber erasure or sharp instruments such
as razor, blades, scalper, knife, etc.

This method damages and disrupts the fibers in the upper layers of paper. Such
damage can usually be detected easily using a microscope and oblique lighting. However, it
does not necessarily show the erased writing or letters, especially if much of the fiber has
been removed by the erasing process.

2. Chemical erasures

Chemical erasures are those in which some chemicals are used to erase part of the
document. The chemical applications are usually strong oxidizing agents that conceal the ink
by changing the properties of the colored substance. These may include acids or alkali as
oxalic acid, potassium permanganate, etc.

Microscopic examination of chemical erasures may show discoloration or staining on

the paper where the treatment was carried out. Ultraviolet lighting and infrared luminescence
can also be used to reveal erased writing by highlighting invisible residues of the original ink
left embedded in the paper.

The chemical tests should never be applied to the document itself. The better way is to
punch out small dots of paper from the affected area with the help of a hypodermic needle
and test them on microscope slides.

Indented Writing

Indented writing is impressions of the original made in the next sheet of paper on a
pad. These indentations or impressions may not be visible with the unaided eye but can be
viewed using an electrostatic detection apparatus (EDSA). The EDSA works by creating an
invisible electrostatic image of indented writing, which is then visualized by the application
of charge-sensitive toners. The sensitive imaging process reacts to sites of microscopic
damage to fibers at the surface of a document, which have been created by abrasive
interaction with overlying surfaces during the act of handwriting (Fisher, Tilstone, &
Woytowicz, 2009).

Elements of Proof

The following are important facts and circumstances which, among others, either
singly or in combination, tend to prove that an instrument has been altered.

1. Instrument executed on another form than that normally used for the type of instrument it
purports to be

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2. Writing extending outside of boxes provided that therefore on the form.

3. Cramped or “squeezed” appearance of portions of writing

4. Misspelling of words common to both disputed and non-disputed portions in one portion of
the instrument and not in order

5. Peculiarities of composition which may identify portions of the instrument as the work
particular person

6. Handwriting characteristics tending to identify the writer or show the document to have
been written by more than one person.

7. Inks of different types used on different portions of the instrument

8. Variations in color, shading, sheen, and other characteristics of ink in different portions of
the instrument

9. Writing done after paper folded

10. Use of blotter on some portions of the instrument and not on others

11. Sequence of strokes in writing (may show certain words written before others)

12. Erasure marks

13. Residual of prior writing

14. Type characteristics identifying portions of writing as products of different makes or

models of machines

15. Type characteristics peculiar to a particular machine which identify the product of that
machines

16. Variations in all alignment of typewritten portions of the instrument (may show removal
and replacement of paper in the machine)

17. Opinions of a person familiar with the handwriting of the purported maker of the
instrument or of a person suspected of altering it.

18. Agreement between parties to the instrument at variance with the instrument as altered

19. Acts of parties inconsistent with a belief in genuineness or validity of the instrument as
altered

20. Acts of parties consistent with a belief in the genuineness or validity of the instrument as
originally executed.

Methods of Alteration

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1. Erasure

a. Mechanical – rubbing off with rubber eraser or scraping off with a sharp instrument
b. Chemical – using ink eradicator or other bleaching solutions
2. Addition – words/figures

3. Substitution – on pages

4. Interlineations or intercalation – between lines

5. Superimposition – overwriting/overlapping

6. Obliteration – masking, smeared – overwriting with black or opaque materials

7. Cancellation – to remove by cutting out or stamping lines across the written matter to
signify its omission

Points to Consider in Alteration

 All alterations must be countersigned alongside them

 Always require a counter-signature, not a mere counter-initial
 The counter-signature must be in the same form as the main signature
 The counter-signature must be examined/verified separately from, and as carefully as
the main signature
 The three other parts of the check posting media, the date, the payee, and the amount
in words and figures must be examined in a chronological, systematic matter.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT CURRENCY

What is Counterfeiting?

Counterfeiting is the fraudulent reproduction of currency, whether coins or notes.

Counterfeits mostly target paper currency or notes because of their higher denomination
currency. In the past, counterfeit currency notes are skillfully prepared through accurately
engraved printing plates. Nowadays, currency contains security features that prevent
successful reproduction even with the technology of color copiers and digital scanners
(Tilstone, Savage, & Clark, 2006).

The Evolution of the Philippine Currency

The Philippine currency is called the peso, which is denoted by the symbol Ᵽ or PHP.
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) has the sole power or authority to issue currency in
the country. The BSP tells the history of the Philippine peso as enumerated below (BSP,
2010):

Pre-Hispanic Era

Trade among the early Filipinos and with traders from the neighboring islands was conducted
through barter. The inconvenience of barter later led to the use of some objects as a medium
of exchange. Gold, which was plentiful in many parts of the islands, invariably found its way

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into these objects that included the piloncillo small bead-like gold bits considered by the local
numismatists as the earliest coin of the ancient Filipinos, and gold barter rings.

Spanish Era (1521-1897)

Three hundred years of Spanish rule left many indelible imprints on Philippine
numismatics. At the end of the Spanish regime, Philippine money was a multiplicity of
currencies that included Mexican pesos, Alfonsino pesos, and copper coins of other
currencies.

The cobs or macuquinas of colonial mints were the earliest coins brought in by the
galleons from Mexico and other Spanish colonies. The silver dos Mundos or pillar dollar is
considered one of the world’s most beautiful coins. The barilla, a crude bronze or copper coin
worth about one centavo, was the first coin struck in the country.

Coins from other Spanish colonies also reached the Philippines and were counter-
stamped. Gold coins with the portrait of Queen Isabela were minted in Manila. Silver pesos
with the profile of young Alfonso XIII were the last coins minted in Spain. The pesos
Fuertes, issued by the country’s first bank the El Banco Espanol Filipino de Isabel II, were
the first paper money circulated in the country.

Revolutionary Period (1898-1899)

Asserting its independence, the Philippine Republic of 1898 under General Emilio
Aguinaldo issued its coins and paper currency backed by the country’s natural resources.

One peso and five peso notes printed as Republika Filipina Papel Moneda de Peso and
Cinco Pesos were freely circulated. 2 centimos de peso copper were also issued in 1899.

The American Period (1900-1941)

The Americans instituted a monetary system for the Philippines based on gold and
pegged the Philippine peso to the American dollar at the ratio of 2:1. The US Congress
approved the Coinage Act for the Philippines in 1903.

The coins issued under the system bore the design of Filipino engraver and artist,
Melecio Figueroa. Coins in the denomination of one-half centavo to one peso were minted.
The renaming of EL Banco Espanol Filipino to Bank of the Philippine Islands in 1912 paved
the way for the use of English from Spanish in all notes and coins issued up to 1933.
Beginning May 1918, treasury certificates replaced the silver certificates series, and a one-
peso note was added.

The Japanese Occupation (1942-1945)

The outbreak of Worl War II caused serious disturbances in the Philippine monetary
system. Two kinds of notes circulated in the country during this period. The Japanese
Occupation Forces issued war notes in big denominations. Provinces and municipalities, on

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the other hand, issued their guerilla notes or resistance currencies, most of which were
sanctioned by the Philippine government in exile, and partially redeemed after the war.

The Philippine Republic

A nation in command of its destiny is the message reflected in the evolution of

Philippine money under the Philippine Republic. Having gained independence from the
United States following the end of World War II, the country used as currency old treasury
certificates overprinted with the word “Victory.”

With the establishment of the Central Bank of the Philippines in 1949, the first
currencies issued were the English series notes printed by the Thomas de la Rue & Co., Ltd.
In England and the coins minted at the US Bureau of Mint. The Filipinazation of the republic
coins and paper money began in the late 60s and is carried through to the present. In the 70s,
the Ang Bagong Lipunan (ABL) series notes were circulated, which were printed at the
Security Printing Plant starting 1978. A new wave of change swept through the Philippine
coinage system with the flora and fauna coins initially issued in 1983. This series featured
national heroes and species of flora and fauna. The New Design Series (NDS) banknotes
issued in 1985 (Figure 11-1) replaced the ABL series. Ten years later, a new set of coins and
notes were issued carrying the logo of the Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas.

As the repository and custodian of the country’s numismatic heritage, the Museo ng
Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas collects studies and preserves coins, paper notes, medals, artifacts,
and monetary items found in the Philippines during the different historical periods. It features
a visual narration of the development of the Philippine economy parallel to the evolution of
its currency.

Philippine Peso Banknotes:

The New Generation Currency (NGC) Series

On December 16, 2010, the BSP launched the New Generation Currency (NGC) series
banknotes to replace the New Design Series (NDC), which has been in circulation for over
twenty-five years. The new banknotes feature a massive redesign as summarized below
(Figures 11-2 to 11-4).

DENO FRONT DESIGN BACK DESIGN

MINA PORTRAIT OTHERS
TION
1000 War Heroes: Jose Abad  Centennial of the  Tubbataha
Santos, Josefa Llanes Philippine Reefs Natural
Escado and Vicente Lim Independence 1998 Park
 Medal of Honor (UNESCO
 Seal of the World
Republic of the Heritage Site)
Philippines  South Sea
 The New BSP Seal Pearl
 “T’nalak” or
“Ikat”-dyed
abaca woven
in Mindanao

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 500 Icon of Democracy:  EDSA People  Puerto
President Corazon C. Power I, February Princesa
Aquino and Senator 1986 Subterranean
Benigno S. Aquino, Jr.  Benigno S. River National
Aquino, Jr Park
Monument (UNESCO
 Seal of the World
Republic of the Heritage Site)
Philippines  Blue-naped
 The New BSP Seal Parrot
 Indigenous
weave design
from Southern
Philippines
200 President Diosdado P.  EDSA People  Bohol
Macapagal Power II, January Chocolate
2001 Hills
 Independence  Tarsier
House  Indigenous
 Barasoain Church Weave design
 Seal of the from the
Republic of the Visayas
Philippines
 The New BSP Seal
100 President Manuel A.  Central Bank of the  Mayon
Roxas Philippines 1949 Volcano
 Inauguration of the  Whale Shark
Third Republic, 4  Indigenous
July 1946 textile design
 Seal of the from the Bicol
Republic of the Region
Philippines
 The New BSP Seal
50 President Sergio Osmena  First National  Taal Lake
Assembly 1907  Maliputo
 Leyte Landing  Embroidery
 Seal of the design from
Republic of the Batangas
Philippines Province
 The New BSP Seal
20 President Manuel  Filipino as the  Banaue Rice
L.Quezon National Langauge Terraces
 Malacańang Palace (UNESCO
 Seal of the World
Republic of the Heritage Site)
Philippines  Palm Civet
 The New BSPO  Indigenous
Seal weave design
from the

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 Cordilleras

The NGC series banknotes also have improved durability and enhanced security
features, as enumerated below (Fig. 11-5).

1. Paper, print quality, and raised print (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – banknotes
are printed on special paper that gives them their unique feel. The printed lines and colors on
the banknotes are sharp, clear and free from smudges. By running your fingers across the
front of the note, you can feel raised prints in areas such as the words “REPUBLIKA NG
PILIPINAS” and denomination in words, portrait, signatures, and lower right value panel on
the face of the note.

2. Serial number ((Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – composed of one or two prefix
letters and six to seven asymmetric (increasing in size) digits located at the lower left and
upper right corners of the face of the note.

3. Security fibers (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – red and blue visible fibers
embedded randomly on the paper.

4. Watermark (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – a shadow image of the portrait and the
denominational value appears at the blank space when the note is viewed against the light
from either side.

5. See-through mark (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – the word “PILIPINO” written in
Baybayin (pre-Spanish Philippine alphabet) is seen in complete form when the note is viewed
against the light.

6. Concealed value (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – the denominational value
superimposed on the smaller version portrait at the upper left side of the note becomes visible
when the note is rotated 45 degrees and tilted down.

7. Security Thread (Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000) – for Ᵽ20, Ᵽ50, an embedded thread
running vertically across the note is seen from either side when viewed against the light. For
Ᵽ100, Ᵽ200, Ᵽ500, Ᵽ1000, a stitch like a metallic thread running vertically across the notes
changes color from red to green when viewed at different angles. This thread bears the
alphanumeric denominational value clear text is seen in front and the BSP” imprint found at
the back, both in repeated series.

8. Optically Variable Device (OVD) patch - a reflective foil that bears the image of the
Blue-naped Parrot (for Ᵽ500) /South Sea Pearl inside an oyster (for Ᵽ1000) and a small BSP
logo. The background and the parrot/oyster exchange color when the note is rotated at 90
degrees, i.e., red parrot/oyster becomes green while the green background becomes red.

9. Optically Variable Ink (OVI) – embossed Ᵽ1000 denominational value at the lower right
corner of the face of the note, which when viewed at different angles, changes color from
green to blue.

Protecting the Philippine Currency

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Below are pertinent laws and regulations to protect and maintain the integrity of the
Philippine Currency. (Philippine laws on questioned documents are discussed further in
Chapt 14.)

1. Article 163, Revised Penal Code – making and importing and uttering (issuing or
circulating) false coins

2. Article 166, Revised Penal Code – forging treasury or banknotes or other documents
payable to bearer; importing, and uttering such false or forged notes and documents

3. Article 168, Revised Penal Code – illegal possession and use of false treasury or banknotes
and other instruments of credit

4. Article 176, Revised Penal Code – manufacturing and possession of instruments or

implements for falsification

5. Presidential Decree No. 247 – prohibits the defacement, mutilation, tearing, burning, or
destruction of Central Bank (BSP) notes and coins

6. Chapter II, Circular 61, Series of 1995 – reproduction and/or use of facsimiles of legal
tender Philippine currency notes

7. Chapter III, Circular 61 reproduction and/or use of facsimiles of legal tender Philippine
currency coins

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING

What is a Typewriter

A typewriter is a hand-operated character printer for printing written messages one

character at a time. It can be either mechanical or electromechanical. Characters are produced
when the typist presses a key that strikes a ribbon to transfer ink or carbon impressions onto
the paper. Although almost entirely replaced by computers, typewriters are still used in
circumstances of criminal activity.

Tyepwwritng identification is generally requested to determine (Tilstone, Savage, & Clark,

2006):

1. The type, make, and model of the machine that produced the questioned document

2. Whether a particular typewriter produced a specific document

3. When the questioned document was produced

4. Whether the typed material was produced continuously

The document examiner must have complete access to the reference collection of
typefaces used by all typewriter manufacturers. These typefaces determine the structure of
the letters (serif, sans serif) and provide the class characteristics for comparison purposes.

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 Differentiation of the characters with those from other typewriters can be done
because each typewriter has its individualizing characters that result from physical defects
present on the typeface. These imperfections come from manufacturing processes and wear
and tear due to usage. Some of these defects include irregular impressions of the typebars,
misalignment of the type, cavities and accidental defects on the characters, and other
mechanical imperfections (Tilstone, Savage, & Clark, 2006).

If the typewriter alleged to have produced the document is available, exemplars or

known samples can be collected for comparison. If the machine is missing, damaged, or
destroyed, the examiner must secure exemplars known to have been produced on the machine
in question; these exemplars must contain similar words and phrases to the questioned
document. Ideally, they should have been produced on a similar paper and at about the same
time as the questioned document.

Techniques in Typewriting Identification

To identify the particular machine used in questioned documents and determine the date of
writing, the document examiner can first examine the following:

1. The design, size, and proportions of all the characters

2. The relation of the character as printed to adjacent characters or the vertical and horizontal
alignment

3. The vertical position of the character about the line of writing that is perpendicularly or
slant to the left or right

4. The comparative weight of impression of the upper, lower, right, or left sides of each
character or how the type stands “on its feet”

5. The condition of the typeface and the presence of defects, bruises, or scars in the letters
due to wear or accidents

After these, the document examiner can then investigate the alignment. Typewriter
types are either fastened on a type wheel/sleeve or attached to the ends of printing arms or
type bars. It is impracticable to attach and adjust these separate types by any method so that
after actual use the printed letters continue to bear an exact relation to each other like printing
types. Divergences from exact horizontal and vertical alignment, which in their combinations
extend into the thousands, also show unmistakable individuality. Specific typewriter models
usually show slight but persistent differences which are readily seen upon close examination.
In ordinary typewriting, each letter occupies an imaginary square, ten to the inch horizontal.

The document examiner should also test the perpendicular position of the letter about
the line. This is of great value in individualizing a machine, and it is very seldom that
machines are perfect in this particular feature. These characteristics may not seem very
pronounced until typewriting is enlarged, and it is a characteristic that is fixed and continuous
and is not materially changed by variations in speed or methods of manipulation.

Kinds of Typewriter

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1. Elite – is a type of typewriter that can type 12 characters to an inch and 102 characters on
one sheet of paper

2. Pica – has big prints and can type 10 characters to an inch and 85 characters on a sheet of
paper

Determining Document Genuineness

In the examination of questioned typewriting, the following points may be involved in

determining whether or not the document is genuine.

1. Whether the date, words, or figure of the document have been changed

2. Whether the typewriting was done in one continuous operation or whether a part was
written at one machine or a different machine

3. Whether the addition, alterations, or interlineations were written at the same time on the
same machine, or written at a different time, on different machines

4. Whether typewritten pages have been substituted or inserted in the document without
authority, or after the document was formally executed

5. Whether the typewriting is an original or a carbon copy

6. Whether the typewriting corresponds with the date, number, and model of the machine on
which it is purported to have been written

Typewriter Defects:

The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter that is reflected
in its work and leads to its individualization or identification.

1. Horizontal Mal-alignment – occurs as typewriter individualities when a character

defectively strikes to the right or left of its normal allotted striking position.

2. Off its Feet – the condition of a typeface printing heavier in one side or corner than over
the remainder to its outline

3. Permanent Defect – any identifying characteristics of a typewriter that cannot be corrected

by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon is classed as a permanent defect. This
term is not accurate since all defects in typewriters undergo modification and change in time.

4. Platen – cylinder which serves as the bucking of the paper which absorbs the blow from
the typeface.

5. Proportional Spacing Typewriter – a modern form of typewriting that resembles printing

in that all of the letters, numerals, and symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as
the conventional typewriter

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6. Rebound – a defect in which a character prints a double impress on with the lighter one
slightly off act to the right or left.

7. Ribbon – made of fine cotton fibers; numbered according to the quality or grade, which
may vary from 260 to 272 threads to the square inch and from about .0005 to .0006 inch in
thickness

8. Ribbon Impression – typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon

9. San-serif – a type of font that has no cross-strokes (serif); san means “without”

10. Serif – a serif font has shot cross-strokes that project from the top and bottom of the main
stroke of a letter

11. Transitory Defects – an identifying typewriter characteristic that can be eliminated by

cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory defect. A clogged
typeface against the ribbon and paper makes the typewritten impression

12. Typeface Defects – the real clincher of most typewriting identifications, which include
broken serifs, scarification, flattened and damaged portions of typefaces

13. Twisted Letter – each letter and character is designed to print at a certain fixed angle to
the baseline. Due to wear and damage to the typebars and the type block, some letters become
twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant

14. Vertical Mal-alignment – a character printing above or below its proper position

15. Warp – those threads that run horizontally toward the length of the ribbon

16. Woof – threads that run vertically or cross-over the warp form the “woof” or filling of the
ribbon.

“Serif” Yarn Count

Woof or Ribbon Filling

Variation in letter design illustrated under the ruled square template

Ribbon Identification

Specimen made without ribbon and photographed by side light to show the design of letters

Enlargement typewritten word under ruled squares of a test plate

Comparison of the typewritten word under ruled squares of a test plate

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 Typewritten words from an old discarded machine, illustrating different typewriter defects
and abnormalities

Common Typewriting Defects and Causes

Parts of Typewriter

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF PRINTED AND PHOTOCOPIED DOCUMENTS

We lived in the information age, a time when information is being generated,

published, and stored at an ever-increasing rate. Computers, photocopiers, and other high-
tech machines palay an integral role in the work of a modern forensic document examiner.

Examination of Computer-Generated Documents

In the digital era of computer typesetting, electronic fonts, and graphical user
interface, modern digital computers and output devices can conveniently produce images and
text on documents.

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 The modern document examiner must know about operating systems, versions of
word processing programs, numerous digital fonts, printer drivers and their release dates, etc.
because these can have an impact on computer-generated documents. He will also need to
know how devices place their images and text on documents. This means exploring different
types of technologies such as high-speed mainframe line printers (drum and chain
printheads), typewriter technology printers (typeball and daisy wheel), do matrix printers,
pink jacket printing technology, monochrome laser/led printers, color laser printers,
magnetography, thermal wax/pigment printers, thermal paper printers (also known as direct
thermal printing), solid-ink/inkjet printers, and hybrids (digital offset printers).

Below are questions that can be used to guide the examination process (Kelluy &
Lindblom, 2006).

1. Is the document an original or copy?

The forensic document examiner must attempt to determine if the evidence is an original
machine-printed document or a machine copy.

2. Can the printing technology be identified? Dated?

Identifying the printing technology means attempting to classify the printing process.
Microscopic examinations can help determine if the document has been printed (a) in color or
black & white, (b) using an impact or non-impact process, (c) with toner, wet ink, or another
medium.

3. Has more than one technology been used to prepare the document?

This question usually applies to documents with reinsertions and page substitutions. In
reinsertion, a document is placed back into a printer after the parties have signed and agreed
to the terms in the document. The questioned portion is printed with a different printer and
can be different printer and can be differentiated from the surrounding text. In page
substitution, one more page of the original document was removed and different ones were
inserted. For example, the signature of a deed of sale is left intact, but the preceding pages are
replaced.

4. In a multi-page document, is there evidence that one or more pages are prepared
differently than the others?

As opposed to the previous question, this one involves situations wherein entire pages
have been substituted within a document but printed in the same printer. Parts of the
document can be checked for consistency in terms of spelling, punctuation, staple holes,
formatting, etc. Another technique may also check for chronological inconsistencies, such as
when a questioned document printed in a four-color toner process was supposed to have been
printed n a date when that type of printer was not yet purchased by the concerned office.

5. Is there any evidence that text has been altered or added to the document?

Examining alterations in computer-generated documents means determining if the text has

been added or altered in the same way that pages were substituted in the previous questions.
Any discrepancies in the line spacing, printer technology, fonts, or layout in the questioned

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text may be proof that it was added by printer reinsertion. Discrepancies in line spacing,
printer technology, fonts, or layouts can be checked to prove that a portion was added
through printer reinsertion.

6. Are there any obvious defects in the printing that might lead to the machine being
individualize?

Gross printer defects are rare and problems could point to ink or toner cartridges and
other replaceable components. This means that printing defects evident in a questioned
document can disappear when the defective components are replaced.

The best way to identify the printer, in this case, is to get samples of the printer’s output
during the same period as the questioned document rather than rely on machine standards
taken at some later period. Another option is using printer repair output and the steps that are
necessary to correct them. Technicians who regularly work on printers can also be a source of
information regarding defects and typical printing characteristics. Getting such information
from the manufacturers themselves might be difficult because they will most likely be
hesitant to get involved in criminal or civil cases or talk about the defects of their products.

Examination of Photocopied Documents

Photocopiers are widely used in business nowadays because of their ability to create
fast, inexpensive document reproductions. The printing mechanisms of inkjet printers and
copiers exhibit the same characteristics and therefore require the same method of
examination. This means, however, that the forensic document examiners must be careful of
the possibility that a document that seems to have been printed through inkjet technology
may have been generated by a copier (Kelly & Lindblom, 2006).

To identify individual copiers, the document examiner can do the following:

1. Determine whether or not two or more copies come from the same machine.
2. Determine whether or not a particular machine produced the copies.
3. Determine the approximate date of the copies

Similar to the typewriter, a copier will develop its idiosyncrasies with time and wear. This
could result in certain marks printed onto a copy. By finding and interpreting these marks, a
forensic document examiner can associate a copy with the machine that made it. It should be
noted, though that some idiosyncrasies in copiers could be eliminated by repair or service on
the machine. In such cases, the document examiner could check the copier’s repair record.

Unique marks can occur in the platen or the glass imaging window of the copier. Marks
include debris, dirt, and smudges from fingerprints or adhesives from tapes or labels. Because
cleaning can remove the marks, it is prudent to obtain known samples prepared on the
machine close to the same time as the questioned copy. Scratches could also result in more
permanent marks on the photocopier’s glass window. Sometimes, the rubber-backing blanket
that holds the original document in place on the glass window will reproduce marks on the
copies.

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 PRESENTATION OF EVIDENCE IN COURT

Sometimes the forensic document specialist’s conclusion is heard in a court of law as

evidential testimony. In such cases, it is necessary to present the conclusions and explain the
strengths and weaknesses as well as the reasons for findings.

Presenting evidence in court is of considerable importance in the work of the

document examiner. He should be able to convince the court of his findings, otherwise, all
the work he has done will be wasted. He may have competently reached a correct conclusion
but the work does not end until he can present it adequately.

A properly prepared and presented testimony sometimes requires illustrations to

convince the court of the validity of the conclusion. The objective is to present it in a logical,
precise, and convincing manner.

Presentation of Handwriting Evidence

When presenting evidence on handwriting, the forensic document examiner giving

testimony as an expert witness should be prepared to explain his findings exhaustively. The
objective is not only to clearly explain why the conclusions were reached but also to prevent
cross-examination from reducing its impact. The expert witness can briefly explain the
principles of the method employed, followed by a demonstration of the application of those
principles of handwriting.

This can be best shown by photographic enlargements specially arranged to show the features
of interest.

Some document examiners use demonstration charts showing the known and questioned
writings in juxtaposition (Figure 14-1) so that the comparison between them can be best
demonstrated. The following can serve as a guide in preparing demonstration charts (Ellen,
2006):

1. Use black and white photographs of the documents, both the known and questioned
writings. The size of the handwriting is usually increased to produce an illustration of
details that is of importance in the examination.

2. Colored backgrounds that have no relation to the writing can be “removed” from the
photograph by the use of filters. Make sure to leave though that features such dotted
lines or writings on forms are left to show how they relate to the writing.

3. Good-quality photocopies can be used instead of photographs. Use appropriate

magnification and provide sufficiently clear copies to demonstrate details necessary to
demonstrate findings to the court.

4. The simplest way to prepare a chart is to mount enlargements of complete documents

on a piece of card so that they can be compared. This is best suited for similar
documents and wording. Another way is to cut up the characters in the photograph
and divide them into the known and questioned writings. Group each letter of the
alphabet and each numeral so that their general pattern and the variations between

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 them can be seen. Document examiners sometimes use a combination of both
methods.

5. Make sure to include sufficient writing on a chart to demonstrate how each letter is
made and how it compares with the known material.

6. It might be necessary to provide copies for everyone in the court, including the judge,
counsel, and defendant.

7. When presenting the charts to the court, the expert witness should clarify where each
example appears on the questions document. Both the differences and similarities in
the letters and features of handwriting should be noted.

8. Giving of expert evidence in court is usually done by question and answer by the
counsel and cross-examination. The testimony can also be delivered like a lecture,
with the counsel injecting clarifications and the right questions.

9. It is best for the expert witness to use plain and simple terms when explaining details
of the testimony. If it is necessary to use jargon, explain it accordingly. It might be
tempting to use specialist terms to give an air of authority as an expert witness, but the
forensic document examiner must remember that the aim is to clarify, rather than to
confuse the court about the reasons for the conclusions.

10. After showing the details illustrated in the chart, it is useful to reiterate the principles
of handwriting comparisons and repeat the findings.

Presentation of Other Evidence

Other evidence may involve the complexities such as the use of infrared
luminescence, scanning electron microscopy, or electrostatic detection. Evidence not
concerning handwriting may include the following (Ellen, 2006):

1. Typewriting

In the same way that conclusions about handwriting are explained in court, the forensic
document examiner must also explain how a particular machine has been identified as the one
used to type a questioned document. This can be done by explaining that faults in the
typeface are characteristic and distinguishes it from other machines. Misaligned and damaged
characters can be demonstrated in photographic charts. The same words should be used for
comparison and mounted close to each other.

2. Differences in Inks

The difference between the two inks used in a questioned document can be shown through a
photographic illustration of infrared reflection or luminescence used in the document. A

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photograph taken of documents using such techniques can show, for example, an obliterated
entry in a will. Putting that side by side with a photograph of the same document under
normal light will demonstrate that two inks have been used,

3. Indented Impressions

When the evidence to presented uses indented impressions, the expert witness must first
explain what they are and how they came to be there. Oblique lighting photographs and
transparencies produced by the electrostatic detection apparatus that show the impressions
can be presented in court.

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