Sector : Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning and

Refrigeration

Qualification Title: RAC SERVICING (DomRAC) NC II

Unit of Competency: PERFORM BASIC BENCHWORK

Module Title: PERFORMING BASIC BENCHWORK

Llorente Technical Institute (LTI)

LGU-Llorente
Llorente E. Samar
 How to Use this Module

Welcome to the unit of competency PERFORM BASIC BENCHWORK is one of

the common competencies of RAC SERVICING (DomRAC) NC II, a course
which comprises the knowledge skills and attitude that a trainee is required to
possess.

The module PERFORMING BASIC BENCWORK contains training materials

and activities related to.

In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in

order to complete each learning outcome. In each learning are Information
Sheets, self – Checks, Task Sheet and Job Sheets. Follow and perform the
activities on your own. If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask assistance
from your facilitator.

Remember to:

Read Information Sheets and complete the self – checks. Suggested

references are included to supplement the material provided in this module.

Perform the task sheets until you are confident that your output conforms to
the performance criteria checklist that follows the sheets.

Submit outputs of the Task Sheets and Job Sheets to your facilitator for
evaluation and recording in the Accomplishment Chart. Outputs shall serve as
your portfolio during the institutional competency evaluation. When you feel
confident that you had sufficient practice, ask your trainer to evaluate you. The
results of your assessment will be recorded in your Progress Chart and your
Accomplishment Chart.

You must pass the Institutional Competency Evaluation for this

competency. A Certificate of Achievement will be awarded to you after
passing the evaluation.

You need to complete this module before you can perform the module on
PERFORMING BASIC BENCHWORK.

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 RAC SERVICING (DomRAC) NC II
COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

List of Competencies

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

BASIC COMPETENCIES
Participate in Participate in 500311105
1. workplace workplace
communication communication

Work in a team Work in a team 500311106

2.
environment environment

Practice career Practice career 500311107

3.
professionalism professionalism

Practice occupational Practice occupational

500311108
4.
health and safety health and safety
COMMON COMPETENCIES
Prepare materials and Preparing materials
HVC713201
1.
tools and tools

Interpret technical Interpreting technical

HVC311202
2.
drawings drawings

Observe procedures, Observing procedures,

specifications and specifications and
HVC311201
3.
manuals of manuals of
instructions instructions

Perform Performing
4. mensurations and HVC311203
mensurations and
calculations calculations

Perform basic Performing basicHVC713202

5.
benchworks benchworks

Perform basic Performing basicHVC724201

6.
electrical works electrical works

Maintain tools and Maintaining tools and

HVC311204
7.
equipment equipment

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 Perform Performing
8. housekeeping and housekeeping and HVC315201
safety practices safety practices

Document work Documenting work

HVC311205
9.
accomplished accomplished

CORE COMPETENCIES

Install domestic Installing domestic

refrigeration and air- refrigeration andHVC723337
air-
1.
conditioning conditioning
(DomRAC) units (DomRAC) units

Service and maintain Servicing and

domestic maintaining domestic
2. refrigeration and air- refrigeration andHVC723338
air-
conditioning conditioning
(DomRAC) units (DomRAC) units

Troubleshoot and Troubleshooting and

repair domestic repairing domestic
3. refrigeration and air- refrigeration andHVC723339
air-
conditioning conditioning
(DomRAC) systems (DomRAC) systems

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 MODULE CONTENT

UNIT OF COMPETENCY: PERFORM BASIC BENCHWORK

MODULE TITLE: PERFORMINIG BASIC BENCHWORK

MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This module covers the knowledge, skills and

attitudes in preparing materials, tools and
equipment, lay-outing dimensions and performing
basic benchwork based on the required performance
standards.

NOMINAL DURATION: 4 hrs.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module you MUST be able to:
1. Prepare materials, tools and equipment

2. Lay-out and mark dimensions/ features on workplace

3. Perform required basic metal works

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
 Analyze signs, symbols and data
1. Work plan is interpreted to determine job requirements.
2. Materials, tools and equipment are identified and prepared according
to job requirements.
3. Materials are checked according to the re-quired specifications.
4. Tools and equipment conditions are checked following the standard
operating procedures (SOPs).
 Lay-out and mark dimensions/ features on workplace
1. Metallic and non-metallic materials are selected according to the
requirements specified in the blue-print.
2. Dimensions/ features are laid-out/marked according to job
specifications/ blueprint and within the required tolerance.

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 3. Dimensions are checked within the actual work plan.

 Perform required basic metal works

1. Work instructions are followed to ensure work safety.
2. Basic metal works are performed applying knowledge on safety
procedures and ac-cording to job requirements.
3. Workpieces are clamped in work-holding device to avoid damage and
accidents.
4. Work pieces are cut, chipped or filed according to required
measurements, tolerance specified in the blueprint and free from
burrs and sharp edges.
5. Drilling is performed according to recommended sequence and
specifications.
6. Proper usage of materials, tools and equipment is observed.
7. Appropriate PPE and safety procedures are applied.
8. Worksite is cleaned and cleared of all de-bris and left in safe state in
accordance with OHS regulations.

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 Learning Experiences

PERFORMINIG BASIC BENCHWORK

Learning Activities Special Instructions

[Link] Information sheet
This learning outcome comprises the
[Link] Self- Check knowledge and skills on identifying
Compare your answers to answer key materials.

Read and understand the

information sheets and check
yourself by answering the self-
check. You must also do task Sheet
and job sheet and Evaluate
performance using Performance
Criteria Checklist.
You must answer all the questions
correctly before proceedings to the
next activity.

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 Information Sheet 5.1-1

Preparing materials, tools and equipment

Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:

1. Familiarize materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic

benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.
2. Identify materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic
benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.
3. Ready the materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic
benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.

Introduction
Preparing the necessary materials, tools and equipment for the task or
job to do is a very important thing. It helps you manage problems more quickly
and more efficiently because you will already have the solutions at hand ready
to be implemented.
Successfully doing a job or task in one hour is clearly preferable to
having to maybe expend two, or even three hours upon dealing with it. An
appropriate analogy might be tackling a fire in a warehouse. If there was a
professional fire crew ready for action at a few moments notice, to be on site
with fire-fighting equipment and water without delay, then valuable sock – and
possibly also life – could be saved. Contrast this scenario with an unprepared
fire crew who might take an hour to get to site to then find they had no access
to water. Thousands, or possibly millions of pesos worth of stock could have
been destroyed, unnecessarily.
One of the keys to delivering a great work is preparation and, as a
technician, you should know that too well.

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Basic benchwork materials in accordance with DomRAC specifications
Below are the materials used in performing basic benchworks in
DomRAC.
NAME IMAGE DESCRIPTION
Copper Tube In HVAC/R copper is
used as the path of the
refrigerant. Copper
tubes are joined using
flare connection,
SOFT TYPE RIGID TYPE compression
connection, or solder
connection. Copper
tubes has various types,
the most common type
are Rigid Copper Tube
and Soft Copper Tube.
Steel Tubing This is a thin wall
tubing used in
refrigeration and air
conditioning work, its
size is practically the
same as that of copper
tubing, hence
connections may be
made on steel tubing by
using either flare joints
or silver brazed joints.
Stainless Steel This is a strong type of
Tubing tubing that is very
resistant to corrosion. It
is also easily connected
to fitting by either
flaring or brazing
because of this
qualities, stainless steel
is often required in food
processing, ice, oven,
manufacture, milk
handling system, and
similar works.
Aluminum It is usually used for
Tubing evaporating units in air
conditioning for home
and auto-mobile.
Commonly, it is used for
evaporator (freezer) of
the domestic
refrigerators. Special
type of treatment for
soldering or brazing is
needed.

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End Feed These are the traditional
fittings style of copper pipe
fitting. It has an open-
ended piece of copper
tube which is designed
to fit over a specified
pipe size. This type of
fitting uses capillary
action to seal the
pipework together.
During the soldering
process, the melted
solder rod or wire
perfused through the
gap of the tube and
fitting.
Solder Ring Also known as
Pipe fitting Yorkshire fittings. It has
a ring of solder pre-set
into it during the
manufacture. A solder
material is placed in the
internal ring groove
which melts around the
pipe when heated. See
the figure shown.
Silver Rod/ This rod is commonly
Brazing Rod/ used in copper to copper
Brazing Alloy/ connections. When you
Silver Solder use this kind of rod
there is no need to apply
a flux on the joining
element.
Aluminum Rod Commercial brazing
filler metals for
aluminum alloys are
aluminum base. These
filler metals are
available as wire or
shim stock. A
convenient method of
preplacing filler metal is
by using a brazing sheet
(an aluminum alloy
base metal coated on
one or both sides). Heat
treatable or core alloys
composed mainly of
manganese or
magnesium are also
used. A third method of
applying brazing filler
metal is to use a paste
mixture of flux and filler
metal powder. Common
aluminum brazing
metals contain silicon
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 as the melting point
depressant with or
without additions of
zinc, copper, and
magnesium.
Brazing Flux Flux is a chemical
compound applied to
the joint surfaces before
brazing. Its use, with a
few exceptions, is
crucial in the
atmospheric brazing
process. Heating a metal
surface accelerates the
formation of oxides, the
result of chemical
combination between
the hot metal and
oxygen in the air. A
coating of flux on the
joint area guards the
surfaces from the air,
preventing oxide
formation. It also
dissolves and absorbs
any oxides that form
throughout heating or
that were not completely
removed in the cleaning
process.
MAPP Gas It is achemical
composition,
methylacetylene-
propadiene propane.
"MAPP gas" is also
widely used as a generic
name for UN 1060
stabilised
methylacetylene-
propadiene (unstabilised
methylacetylene-
propadiene is known as
MAPD). MAPP gas is
widely regarded as a
safer and easier-to-use
substitute for acetylene.
MAPP Gas A MAPP
Torch/ MAPP (methylacetylene-
Torch propadiene propane)
torch is a type of
portable flame device
that is used to heat
various objects. A MAPP
torch can get much
hotter than a propane
torch and therefore is
very useful for various
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 applications. MAPP
torches are most often
used for welding,
soldering and brazing
pipes.
Sand Paper This is use to clean the
surface of the materials
before brazing so that
flux may spread evenly.

THE BENCH WORK TOOLS AND ITS USES

Introduction
Bench work has its own essential position in all engineering works. In the
mechanized workshops, where most of the work is carried out on an automatic
machine, while bench work has its own importance. The jobs can be finished to
a fairly good degree of accuracy through machining operation; they often
require the hand operations to be done on them to finish to the desired
accuracy. A fitter’s work is unavoidable when different parts are to be
assembled in position after they have been finished. Alignment of machine
parts, bearings, engine slide valves and similar other works call for a fitter’s
work. Reconditioning and refitting of machines and machine parts cannot be
done without a skilled fitter. All the above types of works require the use of a
large number of hand tools and a fitter must have good working knowledge of
all these tools and instruments.

A. Filter’s vices

Vices are the most suitable and widely used tools for gripping different jobs in
position during various operations carried out in a fitting shop.

There are a fairly good number of different types of vices such as parallel jaw
vice, machine vice, hand vice and pipe vice.

From these, the parallel jaw vice is the most commonly used in general fitting
work. These vices are available in different trade sizes and the selection of a
suitable size will depend upon the maximum size of the work. The width of the
jaws determines the size of the vice.

In fixing it on the fitter’s bench it is held with the help of bolts passing through
the planks of the bench. The bolts are tightened by means of nuts and the vice
is held firmly on the bench. The jaws of the vice are usually kept overhanging
the edge of the bench.

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 B. Bench vice

It is the most commonly used vice sometimes also known as parallel jaw vice. It
essentially consists of a cast steel body, a movable jaw, a fixed jaw, both made
of cast steel, a handle, a square threaded screw and a nut all made of mild
steel. A separate cast steel plates known as jaw plates with teeth are fixed to
the jaws by means of set screws and they can be replaced when worn. The
movement of the vice is caused by the screw which passes through the nut
fixed under the movable jaw. The screw is provided with a collar inside to
prevent it from coming out and handle at the outer end. The width of the jaws
suitable for common work varies from 80 to 140 mm and the maximum
opening being 95 to 180 mm.

Fig. B- Bench Vice

C. Surface Plate
Its specific use is in testing the trueness of a finished surface, testing a try
square, providing adequate bearing surface for V-block and angle plates, etc.,
in scribing work.

It is a cast iron plate having a square or rectangular top perfectly planed true
and square with adjacent machined faces. The top is finished true by means of
grinding and scrapping. This plate carries a cast iron base under it and the
bottom surface of the base is also machined true to keep the top surface of the
plate in a perfect horizontal plane.

Fig. C-Surface Plate

D. ‘V’ –Block
A ‘V” block serves as a very useful support to the work in marking. It usually
works in conjunction with a U-clamp.

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Round bar is placed longitudinally in the block and the screw in the clamp
tightened. Its specific use is in holding the round bars during marking and
center drilling their end faces, which are to be held between centers on the
lathe. Also it is very suitable for holding round bars in drilling operations when
the axis of the drill is to be kept normal to the axis of the bar.

Fig. D - ‘V’ – Block

E. Simple Scribing Block

It is principal marking tool in a fitting shop and is made in various forms and
sizes. It consists of a cast iron sliding base fitted with a vertical steel rod. The
marker is fitted into an adjustable device carrying a knurled nut at one end. By
means of the nut the marker can be loosened or tightened to set it at any
desired inclination, moved to and fro inside the hole accommodating it or
adjust its height along the vertical pillar. Normally it is used in conjunction
with either a surface plate or marking table. Its specific use is in locating
centers of round rods held in V-block, describing straight lines on work held
firmly in its position by means of a suitable device like angle plate and also in
drawing a number of lines parallel to a true surface.

F. Universal Surface Gauge

It consists of a cast base, perfectly planed at the top, bottom and all sides. Two
guide pins are provided at the rear end of the base which can be pressed down
to project below the base. These pins can be used against the edge of the
surface plate or any other finished surface for guiding the instrument during
scribing.

A swivel bolt is provided at the top of the base in which the spindle is fitted.
This spindle can be swung and locked in any desired position by means of the
adjusting screw. The scriber is fitted in an adjustable screw on the spindle and
is capable of being adjusted at any inclination and height along the spindle. A

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rocker is provided at the top of the base and it carries an adjusting screw at its

rear end.
Fig. F - Simple scribing block and universal surface gauge

G. Try Square

It is better known as engineer’s try square and is a very common tool used for
scribing straight lines at right angles to a true surface or testing the trueness of
mutually normal surfaces. They are made in different sizes from the steel
pieces.

Fig. G - Try square

It consists of a steel blade fitted into a steel stock of rectangular cross-section.
They are well hardened and tempered to suit the need. Both inner and outer
surface of the blade are kept truly at right angles to the corresponding surfaces
of the stock.

H. Bevel Gauge

Whenever angles other than right angles are required to be tested or set and
marked sliding bevel square or bevel gauge is used.

It consists of a steel stock of rectangular cross-section carrying a slotted steel

blade at its end. This blade can be made to slide, set at any desired angle and
secured in that position by means of a screw.

I. Files

Files of different types are the principal hand tools used by a fitter. All the files,
irrespective of their shape, size and grade, essentially consist of two main
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parts, viz., a toothed blade and a pointed tang, which is fitted in a handle. Files
are generally forged out of high carbon steel, followed by cutting of teeth,
hardening and tempering etc. Common shapes of the files available are flat,
hand, square, pillar, round, half round, triangular, knife edge, etc.

These files are manufactured in different varieties and their classification is

governed by the following factors: effective length- i.e. excluding the length of
tang, shape or form of the cross-section, depth, spacing and cut of teeth

Length of the files varies according to the need but the most commonly used
lengths range from 10 cm to 30 cm and they cover almost all sorts of filing
work done by hand.

Length between 10 cm and 15 cm are generally used for fine work, between 15
cm and 25 cm for medium sized work and above 25 cm for all general and large
sized jobs.

Square file which carried double cut teeth on all the four faces and is normally
made tapered for about one-third of its length near the end opposite to the
tang.

Triangular file which normally carries single cut teeth on all the faces and is
made tapered towards the end for about two-third of its length near the tip.
The cross-section is an equilateral triangle.

Fig. I - Types of files

Teeth of the files may single cut or double cut. Single teeth are parallel and at
angle of 60ºto the center line of the file. Double cut files have two sets of teeth,
the overcut teeth are cut at angle of 60º and the uppercut at 75º to 80º to the
centre line. Files are also further classified according to the coarseness or
spacing between the rows of teeth.

1. Rough (R) with 10 to 4.5 cuts per 10 mm length

2. Bastard (B) with 18 to 6 cuts per 10 mm length
3. Second cut (SC) with 21 to 11 cuts per 10 mm length
4. Smooth (S) with 30 to 15 cuts per 10 mm length
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 5. Dead smooth (DS) with 35 to 28 cuts per 10 mm length
6. Super smooth (SS) with 63 to 40 cuts per 10 mm length

J. Scrapers
Scraping is a very important hand operation in bench work employed for
obtaining a fine surface finish on the work, particularly for removing convex
spots from machined surfaces, and the tools used for doing this operation are
known as scrapers.
They vary in shape and size, depending upon the specific work for which
they are employed.
They are usually made from rejected old files. Such files are heated and
bent to the desired shape. They are fitted with a wooden handle.

K. Chisels
There are many verities of chisels used for chipping work by a fitter.
Some very commonly used forms are Flat, Cross-cut, Round nose and
Diamond point. All the chisels are forged from bar stock of carbon steel, to the
desired shape and the cutting-edge ground to the correct angle. The forging
operation is followed by annealing, hardening and tempering to make chisel
body tough and obtain a sharp cutting edge.
Full length of the chisel is never hardened, only a small length about the
cutting edge (say about 20 to 30 mm) is hardened. The included angle at the
cutting edge varies between 40 and 70, depending upon the material on which
it is to be used. Approximate values of cutting angles for common materials are
as follows:
 Brass and copper 40
 Wrought iron 50
 Cast iron and general cutting work 60
 Steel (cast) 70

A flat chisel is a general-purpose chisel which is most widely used in

cutting work, chipping large surface, cutting metal sheets, rods, bar stocks and
similar other purposes. Since it cuts the metal in cold state it is also frequently
known as cold chisel.

A round nose chisel is used for drawing the eccentric hold back to
correct center which has run off-center during drilling operation. Another
specific use of this type of chisel is in cutting oil grooves and channels in
bearings and pulley bushes and cleaning small round corners.

A cross cut is a comparatively narrow chisel having its cutting edge

slightly broader than the blade. It is made to keep the blade free when the
chisel is used to cut deep groove into the metal. Normal widths of the cutting
edge vary from 3 mm to 12 mm. This chisel is used to cut parallel grooves on
large surfaces, before chipping by means of a flat chisel, cutting key ways, etc.

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 A diamond point chisel is a special purpose chisel used for chipping
rough plates and cutting cast iron pipes, cutting ‘V’ grooves, chipping sharp
corners, squaring up corners of previously cut slots and cleaning angles.

Fig. K - Types of chisel

L. Hammers

The hammer is one of the most widely used fitter’s tools. It is used for
striking chisels in chipping and cutting and the punch in marking. All the
hammers used in a fitting shop are similar in construction to the smith’s hand
hammers, such as ball peen, cross peen, straight peen, etc. The only difference
lies in weight. Hammers used in fitting work are comparatively lighter in weight
than the smith’s hand hammers. They normally weigh from 0.45 kg to 0.7 kg.
Ball peen hammer is the most commonly used hammer. The peen is ball
shaped. It is used for riveting, chipping, drawing and laying out. The weight of
the hammer varies from 0.11 to 0.91 kg (as per IS standards).

Fig. L - Hammers

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 Cross peen hammer resembles the ball peen hammer in shape except
that its peen is in wedge shape and at right angles to the eye. This hammer is
used for bending and hammering in the corners.
Straight peen hammer has a peen in line with the handle and is used for
peening or stretching the metal.

M. Hack-Saw

Desired lengths of bar stocks, rods, tubes, iron flats and metal sheets,
etc. are always required to be cut in fitting shop. Hack-saw is a common tool
used for this purpose. It consists of a metal frame, fitted with a wooden handle,
carrying metal clips with wing-nut at its end to hold. The clip carrying the wing
nut is threaded so as to stretch the blade to the desired extent. The frame can
be either of fixed type, which can accommodate the same length of blades or
adjustable type which is capable of accommodating different lengths of blades.
Hack saw blades are made of high carbon steel or low alloy steel. Hack
saw blade is the main part. Push type blades, those which cut in forward
stroke only, are generally used. In these, the teeth always point away from the
operator. The blades in common use are generally 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide
and 20 cm to 30 long. About 5 to 7 teeth per cm length of blade from the
course group and 8 to 12 teeth per cm from the fine group of teeth.

Fig. M - Different parts of a hack saw

N. Flaring Tool
Flaring tools are adaptive mechanisms used in pipe fittings. They accept
pliable metal piping and expand the ends of pipe sections as needed, so the
pipe can fit to the next section. Flaring tools consist of three main components:
a metal bar with holed presets that fit different pipe or tube sizes, a screw with
a handle that goes into the pipe opening to expand it as needed, and a simple
metal piece that fits into the handle and enables rotation by the user.

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 Fig. N – Flaring Tool

O. Tube Cutter
It is a type of tool used by RAC Technicians whenever they are to cut pipes or
tubes. Besides of producing a clean cut, the tool is often a faster and more convenient
way of cutting pipe or tube than using a hacksaw, although this depends on the metal
of the pipe.

Fig. O – Tube Cutter

P. Tube/ Pipe Bender

It is a tool used to bend piping of different materials, such as copper,
aluminum, steel and stainless steel to form various angles and curves without
damaging the tube or pipe.

LEVER TYPE TUBE BENDER

SPRING TUBE BENDER

Fig. P – Types of Tube Bender

Q. Welding Machine

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 It is a device that provides an electric current to joint materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence (most often by melting small
parts of them).

Fig. Q – Arc Welding Machine

R. Electric Drill
It is a tool primarily used for making holes or driving fasteners. It is fitted
with a bit, either a drill or driver, depending on application, secured by a
chuck. Some powered drills also include a hammer function.
Drills vary widely in speed, power and size. They are characteristically
corded electrically driven devices, with hand-operated types dramatically
decreasing in popularity and cordless battery-powered one’s proliferating.

Fig. R – Electric Drill

S. Angle Grinder
An angle grinder, also known as a side grinder or disc grinder, is a
handheld power tool used for grinding and polishing. Although developed
originally as tools for rigid abrasive discs, the availability of an interchangeable
power source has encouraged their uses with a wide variety of cutters and
attachments.

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 Fig. S – Angle Grinder

Information Sheet 5.2-1

Lay-Out and Mark Dimensions/ Features On Workplace

Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:

1. Familiarize materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic

benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.
2. Identify materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic
benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.
3. Ready the materials, tools and equipment used in performing basic
benchwork in accordance with DomRAC specifications and standards.

There's more to measuring and marking than stretching a tape across a board
and drawing a pencil line. By using the right tools and accessories, you'll greatly
improve your precision and even speed up your work. Fortunately, these improved
results don't require fancy gizmos or staring through a jeweler's loupe.

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Be sharp to make your mark
Let's focus first on the most basic item—what you mark with—and how it affects
accuracy. The thick lead of a carpenter's pencil draws a line 1⁄16 " wide, below. Cutting
to one side of the line yields a far different result than cutting to the other side. Accurate
layout of parts and joinery requires the fine line drawn by a pencil with a 5H lead,
available at office-supply stores. The harder lead sharpens to a finer point and holds
that point longer.

A carpenter's pencil leaves a thick, easy-to-see line, good for labeling parts.
A 5H lead makes a much finer line for precise layouts.

Save your carpenter's and no. 2 pencils for writing notes and marking machined
surfaces, below, where bolder marks are easier to spot at a glance, letting you know
what operations are completed and which need to be done on a board.

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 Mark a curlicue on the jointed face, a "V" on the jointed edge pointing to the
jointed face, and an "X" on an end yet to be crosscut.

Board with pencil marks on side

A pencil won't leave permanent marks on a workpiece; the marks erase or sand
away easily. To avoid leaving a mark in the first place (such as when marking a finish-
sanded part), apply a piece of masking tape and write on the tape.
When marking a line that will be cut away or hidden by other parts, switch to a
marking knife, top photo. The beveled face and flat back of the knife put the cutting
edge right next to a straightedge for a surgically precise mark. And a sharp marking
knife severs the wood fibers, creating a shallow kerf -- the ideal starting point to register
the blade of a chisel or the teeth of a handsaw. The kerf creates a shadow, which is
easier to see on the workpiece than a pencil line.
To use a marking knife, place a steel rule on the "keeper" piece and, with the flat
face of the knife against the rule, draw the knife along. If the knife should stray off
course, the mark ends up on the waste piece.

Establish A Definitive Rule

Every country has a bureau of standards, which maintains a set of incredibly
precise measuring instruments against which other measuring devices are calibrated.
Carry this concept into your workshop. Choose a precise, finely etched 12" steel rule for
the bulk of your measuring tasks. A quality combination square provides not only a rule;
the head, with 90° and 45° angles built in, increases the tool's versatility [see Proving a
square has the right angle, below]. For measurements longer than 12", use only one 12'
tape measure. Anything longer is just extra bulk to carry. And check the tape against the
rule to make sure they agree, below.

Markings on this tape perfectly match those on the steel rule, eliminating any
error caused by switching between them. Check your
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 Now that you've established which rule rules the roost, make sure everything
else in your shop agrees with it; for example, the rip-fence indicators on your bandsaw
and table-saw, below, and any other rulers. If other rulers don't measure up, relegate
them to the house.

Using your reference ruler, check the accuracy of the table-saw rip-fence scale.
Loosen the adjustment screws, adjust the indicator as needed, and then tighten
the screws, making sure the indicator doesn't shift.

A metric rule can come in handy, too, especially if calculations with imperial
dimensions give you a headache. For example, determining one-half, one-fourth, one-
fifth, or three times 77⁄8 " brings out the pencil and paper compared with working with its
metric equivalent, 20cm.

Proving A Square has the Right Angle

Calling a tool, a square doesn't make it square. To ensure that yours lives up to
its billing, do this simple test with a piece of straight-edged scrap. With the head of the
tool to one side, draw a line the length of the blade. Flip the square and draw a second
line next to the first. If the second line parallels the first, two photos below, the square is
true. If the lines slant away from each other, the square needs adjustment or
replacement.

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 After determining that your square is square, protect it from drops and bumps
that could compromise its accuracy.

Put Accurate Tools to Use

After choosing quality measuring and marking tools, use these simple techniques to get
the most accurate results.
First, select reference edges and faces and measure from them as often as
possible. For example, when laying out a series of drawer openings along a cabinet's
stiles, always measure from the same end of each stile. After marking the locations,
measure between the marks to double-check your accuracy.
When marking, make sure you sight straight down on the ruler. Working to one
side throws off what appears to be an accurate mark, below.

From this angle directly above the head of the square, the pencil point appears
to be exactly on the 4" mark...

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 To mark a dimension, draw a "V" extending from the ruler instead of a single tick
mark. A single line can end up angled, causing confusion over which end is the real
dimension. To extend a line or transfer it around an edge, place your knife or pencil on
the tip of the "V" and gently slide your square or ruler up to it. Then use moderate
pressure and draw the pencil or knife across the workpiece once. Repeated passes only
widen the mark, reducing accuracy.

More Ways to Mark Accurately

Maintain the proper orientation of nearly identical parts as you mark them by indicating
which surfaces are the top, bottom, left, right, front, back, inside, and outside as
needed. For several pieces needing identical layout marks, such as matching mortises
in opposing table legs, save time and improve accuracy by clamping the pieces together
and marking across all of them at once, right.

Striking lines across several pieces with one setup ensures that the marks align.
Labels help you place the marks on the correct faces.

Finding the center of a workpiece is simple: Measure the width, then divide that
number in half. To confirm your math, measure in that distance from each edge and
make a mark, below. If the marks fall on top of each other, you've found dead center. If
not, adjust the measurement by half of the amount between them and try again.

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 Rest a knife flat against the rail, then press the cutting edge against the
workpiece. Use a square to help transfer the mark to the face.

In some instances, the most accurate measurement comes from avoiding a ruler
or tape. For example, when fitting a divider between two rails in a face frame, below,
measuring and then transferring that dimension to the workpiece invites at least two
chances for error to creep in. Instead, place the workpiece against the opening and
mark the dimension directly onto the workpiece.

Information Sheet 5.3-1

Performing Basic Metal Works

Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:

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 1. Familiarize the process in performing basic metal works.
2. Describe a well performed basic metal works.

It’s often necessary to do basic metalwork when building and repairing objects
around the house or while repairing appliances. Basic metalwork involves marking,
cutting, drilling, cutting internal and external threads, filing and joining. It’s not difficult to
work with metal, but, like working with wood, it requires specific skills and specialized
tools. Fortunately, most of this work can be done with the kind of inexpensive hand tools
that you can buy in a hardware store.

Other processes, such as brazing, welding, machining and grinding, require more
advanced skills and equipment than those we show here. The only power tool you really
need for basic metalwork is an electric drill with a 3⁄8-in.-dia. chuck, although for large
jobs, a drill press is helpful.

Step 1: Marking on Metal

Before you can accurately cut or drill any workpiece, you must mark it with layout
lines. The most common layout tools are a centerpunch and a scriber (Photo 1). A
combination square is also essential. The scriber can be either a short length of sharply
pointed, hardened steel or a pencil-like marking tool with a carbide tip. In either case, it
is used to scratch a fine line on metal. The centerpunch has a blunt point and it’s made
from a steel rod. It’s tapped with a hammer to mark the center of holes that are to be
drilled.

The dimple it leaves behind keeps the drill from spinning away from the point to be
drilled—more about this in a moment. Scribed marks on shiny metal are hard to see, so
a coating of fast-drying blue layout dye is used to provide contrast. Lines scribed on the
coated surface stand out sharp and bright. In a pinch, a black felt-tip marking pen may
be substituted for the dye (Photo 2). Use the kind of felt-tip pen that is designed to mark
different kinds of materials. On black iron or hot-rolled steel, use a white soapstone
metal marker to make coarse lines. These markers are sold in industrial-supply
catalogs, and in some hardware stores and welding-supply stores. You can also use a
sharp pencil to mark metal, but first, you must apply a coat of fast-drying, light gray
metal primer.

Step 2: Cutting

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 Metal can be cut with a hacksaw, cold chisel, or in the case of sheet-metal, snips.
Generally speaking, hacksaws are used with blades in three levels of coarseness: 18,
24 or 32 teeth per inch (Photo 3). Blade coarseness depends on the thickness of the
stock to be cut. A coarse-tooth blade is used for heavy stock and a fine-tooth blade for
thin stock. An important rule of thumb is that at least two, but ideally three, teeth should
always be in contact with the edge of the stock.

Two Different Kinds of Hacksaws:

 High-tension hacksaws – Hold the blade with greater tension than standard
types. This keeps the blade straight even during heavy cutting, helping you to cut
accurately. High-tension saws are used when making cuts that could subject the
blade to twisting and bending, or when the cut could be suddenly interrupted. It’s
important to use a bimetal blade in a high-tension hacksaw. A bimetal blade is
made from two different types of metal in such a way that it can withstand the
stretching forces imposed on it by the hacksaw frame and by the cutting.

 Standard Blade – made from one piece of metal, will shatter when used in a
high-tension hacksaw frame, especially during the demanding cutting for which
such a hacksaw is used. To use a hacksaw properly, grip the frame firmly with
both hands, apply pressure on the forward stroke, and very slightly lift the saw on
the return stroke (Photo 4). For rough cutting, especially when the metal can’t be
cut with a hacksaw, use a cold chisel (Photo 5). A cold chisel is a rugged tool
designed to shear off unheated metal.

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 Aviation snips are useful for cutting sheet-metal. They come in three color-coded
types. Those with red handles cut straight or to the left, those with green handles cut
straight or to the right, and those with yellow handles make only straight cuts (Photo 6).

Step 3: Drilling

Although there are many kinds of twist-drill bits, there are two basic types used in
everyday metal drilling: high-speed steel (HSS) and carbon steel. HSS bits are
preferable because they last longer than carbon steel types. A split-point cobalt steel bit
is used for drilling stainless steel and other extremely tough metals (Photo 7). The bit’s
split point reduces the tendency of a spinning bit to rotate away from the point at which
you want to drill—a phenomenon known as walking.

The split point also causes the bit to penetrate the metal more quickly and with less
force than is needed with other bits. In many cases, using a split point eliminates the
need to mark the hole with a centerpunch.

Regardless of the type of metal you are drilling or the type of bit you are using, reduce
pressure on the bit as it exits the work. This prevents the bit from grabbing the
surrounding metal and violently twisting the drill and perhaps your wrist.

Step 4: Thread Cutting

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 Cutting internal threads is a process known as tapping. To do this, first choose a
tap to match the pitch and number of threads per inch on the fastener you plan to use.
Although metal threading kits (also called tap and die kits) can be large and quite
extensive, a small kit suitable for the home workshop will have taps sized for the most
common fasteners, so the process of matching taps to common bolts is easy.

Cutting internal threads is a two-step process. First, you drill a hole, then you cut
threads on its wall. The drill bit used to make the hole must be of a specific size to work
with a given tap, and the tap will have the drill-bit information stamped on its side (Photo
8). Also stamped on the tap’s side is the kind of thread it will cut—you use this
information to match a tap to a bolt. It’s helpful to first countersink the tap hole—that is,
drill a slightly larger diameter hole at its top—then turn the tap into the hole.

Keep the tap perpendicular to the workpiece surface, and turn it backward slightly after
each half-turn forward (Photo 9). Use ordinary machine oil to lubricate the tap when
cutting threads in steel and kerosene for tapping in brass and aluminum. Don’t use any
lubricant when tapping holes in cast iron. A die is used to cut external threads, and the
process is known as threading. To thread a rod, first bevel its end and clamp it in a vise.
Place the die on the rod, and lock the die guides in place. Keep the die perpendicular to
the rod, and turn it backward slightly after each half-turn forward (Photo 10). Use the
same kinds of lubricants as in tapping. Like a tap, a die will have the necessary thread
information stamped on it.

Step 5: Filling

Files are used for shaving, smoothing and fitting metal parts, and for basic
sharpening, such as with axes and lawnmower blades. For most basic metalwork, a
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double-cut machine file and a single-cut mill file will work well (Photo 11). They are
available in four levels of coarseness: coarse, bastard, second and smooth cut. Mill files
leave a smoother finish than machine files but cut more slowly.

Files may also be abrasive devices (Photo 12). A diamond file uses abrasive diamond
particles to do the cutting. The beauty of this tool is that it’s very long-wearing and can
be used in a back-and-forth or even a circular motion. You also can make a file by
gluing emery paper to a piece of metal. You can make such a file in any size or shape
you like and dispose of it after it becomes worn or dirty.

For typical cross-filing, grip the file with one hand on the handle and the other hand on
the point. Stroke the file forward across the workpiece at a shallow angle. Apply
pressure on the forward stroke and lift the file clear of the work on the return stroke
(Photo 13). Draw-filing is done when a smooth, polished finish is desired. Use a single-
cut file gripped as shown (Photo 14). Push and pull the file at a right angle to the
workpiece.

Step 6: Joining

A simple means of joining two pieces of metal is to use a blind rivet. This is
especially useful for joining thin pieces of aluminum or steel when the back or blind side
of the workpiece is not accessible. The rivet has a single flange, and it is held on a pin
with a ball-shaped end. The ball does two things: It prevents the rivet from sliding off the
pin, and it presses a second flange into the rivet’s blind side. The plain end of the pin is
inserted into the rivet tool, and the ball-shaped end is placed into the hole—the existing
flange is placed firmly against the metal’s surface.
When you squeeze the rivet tool’s handles together, you pull the pin through the
rivet. The two pieces of metal are forced together because the existing flange is bearing
down on one side of the joint, while the ball is drawing through the rivet, forming a
flange on the opposite side. As the handles reach the bottom of their travel, the pin is
stretched to the point at which it snaps off, and the two pieces of metal are clamped
tightly between the existing flange and the one newly formed (Photo 15).

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