Control System Toolbox™

User's Guide

R2018a
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Control System Toolbox™ User's Guide
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Revision History
June 2001 Online only New for Version 5.1 (Release 12.1)
July 2002 Online only Revised for Version 5.2 (Release 13)
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September 2005 Online only Revised for Version 6.2.1 (Release 14SP3)
March 2006 Online only Revised for Version 7.0 (Release 2006a)
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 Contents

Linear System Modeling

Linear System Model Objects

1
What Are Model Objects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Model Objects Represent Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
About Model Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Control System Modeling with Model Objects . . . . . . . . . 1-4

Types of Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Dynamic System Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

Static Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13

Numeric Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Models . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Identified LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Identified Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14

Generalized Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16

Generalized and Uncertain LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Control Design Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Generalized Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18

Models with Tunable Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19

Tunable Generalized LTI Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
Modeling Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
Modeling Control Systems with Tunable Components . . 1-20
Internal Structure of Generalized Models . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20

v
 Using Model Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Model Creation
2
Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Transfer Function Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Commands for Creating Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Create Transfer Function Using Numerator and
Denominator Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Create Transfer Function Model Using Zeros, Poles, and
Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

State-Space Model Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Explicit State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Descriptor (Implicit) State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Commands for Creating State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Create State-Space Model From Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7

Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

Frequency Response Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Commands for Creating FRD Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Create Frequency-Response Model from Data . . . . . . . . 2-11

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers . . . . 2-13

Continuous-Time PID Controller Representations . . . . . 2-13
Create Continuous-Time Parallel-Form PID Controller . . 2-14
Create Continuous-Time Standard-Form PID
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16

Continuous-Time 2-DOF PID Controller
Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2-DOF Control Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18

Discrete-Time Numeric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23

Create Discrete-Time Transfer Function Model . . . . . . . 2-23

vi Contents
 Other Model Types in Discrete Time Representations . . 2-23

Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)

Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24
Discrete-Time PID Controller Representations . . . . . . . 2-24
Create Discrete-Time Standard-Form PID Controller . . . 2-26
Discrete-Time 2-DOF PI Controller in Standard Form . . 2-26

MIMO Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28

Concatenation of SISO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Using the tf Function with Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29

MIMO State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31

MIMO Explicit State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
MIMO Descriptor State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
State-Space Model of Jet Transport Aircraft . . . . . . . . . 2-33

MIMO Frequency Response Data Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37

Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Time Delays in Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40

First Order Plus Dead Time Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Input and Output Delay in State-Space Model . . . . . . . . 2-41
Transport Delay in MIMO Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Discrete-Time Transfer Function with Time Delay . . . . . 2-43

Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45

Time-Delay Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48

Time-Delay Approximation in Discrete-Time Models . . . 2-48

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop

Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-

Loop Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55

Approximate Different Delays with Different

Approximation Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60

Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of

1/z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64

vii
 Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time
Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69

Internal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73

Why Internal Delays Are Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-73
Behavior of Models With Internal Delays . . . . . . . . . . . 2-74
Inside Time Delay Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-75
Functions That Support Internal Time Delays . . . . . . . . 2-76
Functions That Do Not Support Internal Time Delays . . 2-76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-77

Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-78

Create Tunable Second-Order Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-79

Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable

Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-81

Control System with Tunable Components . . . . . . . . . . . 2-83

Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points . . . . 2-85

Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-89
Analysis Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-89
Specify Analysis Points for MATLAB Models . . . . . . . . . 2-90
Specify Analysis Points for Simulink Models . . . . . . . . . 2-91
Refer to Analysis Points for Analysis and Tuning . . . . . . 2-95

Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-100

What Are Model Arrays? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-100
Uses of Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-100
Visualizing Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-101
Visualizing Selection of Models From Model Arrays . . 2-101

Select Models from Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-103

Query Array Size and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-106

Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-109

What are Linear Parameter-Varying Models? . . . . . . . . 2-109
Regular vs. Irregular Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-112

viii Contents
 Use Model Arrays to Create Linear Parameter-Varying
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-114
Approximate Nonlinear Systems using LPV Models . . . 2-115
Applications of Linear Parameter-Varying Models . . . . 2-116

Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode

Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-118

Working with Linear Models

Data Manipulation
3
Store and Retrieve Model Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Model Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Specify Model Properties at Model Creation . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Examine and Change Properties of an Existing Model . . . 3-3

Extract Model Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

Functions for Extracting Model Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Extracting Coefficients of Different Model Type . . . . . . . 3-6
Extract Numeric Model Data and Time Delay . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Extract PID Gains from Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Attach Metadata to Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

Specify Model Time Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Interconnect Models with Different Time Units . . . . . . . . 3-9
Specify Frequency Units of Frequency-Response Data
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Extract Subsystems of Multi-Input, Multi-Output (MIMO)
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Specify and Select Input and Output Groups . . . . . . . . . 3-11

Query Model Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Customize Model Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

Configure Transfer Function Display Variable . . . . . . . . 3-17

ix
 Configure Display Format of Transfer Function in
Factorized Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

Model Interconnections
4
Why Interconnect Models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

Catalog of Model Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

Model Interconnection Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

Multi-Loop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models . . . . . . . . . 4-13

MIMO Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

MIMO Feedback Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22

How the Software Determines Properties of Connected

Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27

Rules That Determine Model Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29

Recommended Model Type for Building Block

Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31

x Contents
 Model Transformation
5
Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Explicit Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Automatic Conversion Between Model Types . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Recommended Working Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

Convert From One Model Type to Another . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

Get Current Value of Generalized Model by Model

Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

Discretize a Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13

Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time

Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19

Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time . . . . 5-23

Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26

Choosing a Conversion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Zero-Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
First-Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Impulse-Invariant Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
Tustin Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Zero-Pole Matching Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34

Upsample Discrete-Time System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36

Choosing a Resampling Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-40

xi
 Model Simplification
6
Model Reduction Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
When to Reduce Model Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Choosing a Model Reduction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App . . . . 6-6

Balanced Truncation Model Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17

Balanced Truncation in the Model Reducer App . . . . . . 6-17
Approximate Model by Balanced Truncation at the
Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26
Compare Truncated and DC Matched Low-Order Model
Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
Approximate Model with Unstable or Near-Unstable
Pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-35
Frequency-Limited Balanced Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-40

Pole-Zero Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-47

Pole-Zero Simplification in the Model Reducer App . . . . 6-47
Pole-Zero Cancelation at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . 6-53

Mode-Selection Model Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-57

Mode Selection in the Model Reducer App . . . . . . . . . . 6-57
Mode Selection at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63

Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer

App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
Error Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-67
Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-68
Plot Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-70
Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-72

xii Contents
Linear Analysis

Time Domain Analysis

7
Plotting System Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Time-Domain Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20

Time-Domain Response Data and Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots . . . . . . 7-24

Numeric Values of Time-Domain System

Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29

Time-Domain Responses of Discrete-Time Model . . . . . . 7-31

Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34

Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models . . . . . . . . . 7-36

Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis . . . 7-40

Response from Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-45

Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-48

Simulate LTI Model in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-48
Import MIMO LTI Model into Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-50

Analysis of Systems with Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-53

Considerations to Keep in Mind when Analyzing Systems
with Internal Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-56

xiii
 Frequency Domain Analysis
8
Frequency-Domain Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

Frequency Response of a SISO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4

Frequency Response of a MIMO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots . 8-10

Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of

SISO Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13

Pole and Zero Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16

Assessing Gain and Phase Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19

Analyzing Control Systems with Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34

Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 8-52

Sensitivity Analysis
9
Model Array with Single Parameter Variation . . . . . . . . . . 9-2

Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters . . . . . . . . 9-6

Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable

Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9

Sensitivity of Control System to Time Delays . . . . . . . . . 9-12

xiv Contents
 Passivity and Conic Sectors
10
About Passivity and Passivity Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2

About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9

Passivity Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-19

Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . . . 10-24

Series Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . . . . 10-27

Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems . . . . . . . 10-31

Control Design

PID Controller Design

11
PID Controller Design at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . 11-2

Designing Cascade Control System with PI

Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9

Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line) . . . . . . . . 11-15

Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-21

PID Controller Types for Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-31

Specifying PID Controller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-31
1-DOF Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-33
2-DOF Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-33
2-DOF Controllers with Fixed Setpoint Weights . . . . . 11-34

xv
 Classical Control Design
12
Choosing a Control Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2

Control System Designer Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4

Graphical Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
Automated Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
Effective Plant for Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6
Select a Tuning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7

Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9

Add Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
Edit Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13
Root Locus and Pole-Zero Plot Requirements . . . . . . . 12-14
Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Bode Diagram
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16
Open-Loop Nichols Plot Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17
Step and Impulse Response Requirements . . . . . . . . . 12-18

Feedback Control Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-21

Design Multiloop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-24

Multimodel Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-35

Control Design Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-35
Model Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-35
Nominal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-37
Frequency Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-39
Design Controller for Multiple Plant Models . . . . . . . . 12-40

Bode Diagram Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-49

Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Bode Diagram
Graphical Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-49

Root Locus Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-64

Tune Electrohydraulic Servomechanism Using Root Locus
Graphical Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-64

Nichols Plot Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-80

Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Nichols Plot
Graphical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-80

xvi Contents
Edit Compensator Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
Compensator Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-93
Graphical Compensator Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-96
Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-97
Lead and Lag Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-97
Notch Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-98

Design Compensator Using Automated Tuning

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-100
Select Tuning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-100
Select Compensator and Loop to Tune . . . . . . . . . . . 12-101
PID Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-102
Optimization-Based Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-108
LQG Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-110
Loop Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-112
Internal Model Control Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-113

Analyze Designs Using Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-117

Analysis Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-117
Editor Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-120
Plot Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-121
Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-122
Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-124

Compare Performance of Multiple Designs . . . . . . . . 12-127

Design Hard-Disk Read/Write Head Controller . . . . . 12-133

Design Compensator for Plant Model with Time

Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-147

Design Compensator for Systems Represented by

Frequency Response Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-155

Design Internal Model Controller for Chemical Reactor

Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-161

Design LQG Tracker Using Control System Designer 12-176

Export Design to MATLAB Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-188

Generate Simulink Model for Control Architecture . . 12-191

xvii
 State-Space Control Design
13
Extended and Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithms for
Online State Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Extended Kalman Filter Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5

Generate Code for Online State Estimation in

MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
Tunable and Nontunable Object Properties . . . . . . . . . 13-13

Validate Online State Estimation at the Command

Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
Examine Output Estimation Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
Examine State Estimation Error for Simulated Data . . 13-16

Validate Online State Estimation in Simulink . . . . . . . . 13-18

Examine Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-18
Examine State Estimation Error for Simulated Data . . 13-19
Compute Residuals and State Estimation Errors . . . . . 13-19

Troubleshoot Online State Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-22

Nonlinear State Estimation Using Unscented Kalman

Filter and Particle Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-24

Estimate States of Nonlinear System with Multiple,

Multirate Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-45

Control System Tuning

Control System Tuning

14
Automated Tuning Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3

xviii Contents
Choosing an Automated Tuning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5

Automated Tuning Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7

Specify Control Architecture in Control System

Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-9
About Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-9
Predefined Feedback Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-9
Arbitrary Feedback Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 14-11
Control System Architecture in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . 14-12

Open Control System Tuner for Tuning Simulink

Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-13
Command-Line Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-14

Specify Operating Points for Tuning in Control System

Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15
About Operating Points in Control System Tuner . . . . 14-15
Linearize at Simulation Snapshot Times . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15
Compute Operating Points at Simulation Snapshot
Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-17
Compute Steady-State Operating Points . . . . . . . . . . . 14-21

Specify Blocks to Tune in Control System Tuner . . . . . 14-24

View and Change Block Parameterization in Control

System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-26
View Block Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-26
Fix Parameter Values or Limit Tuning Range . . . . . . . 14-28
Custom Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-30
Block Rate Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-31

Setup for Tuning Control System Modeled in

MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-35

How Tuned Simulink Blocks Are Parameterized . . . . . . 14-36

Blocks With Predefined Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . 14-36
Blocks Without Predefined Parameterization . . . . . . . . 14-37
View and Change Block Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . 14-38

Specify Goals for Interactive Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-39

xix
 Quick Loop Tuning of Feedback Loops in Control System
Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-48

Quick Loop Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-58

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-58
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-58
Feedback Loop Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-58
Desired Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-59
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-60
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-61

Step Tracking Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-62

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-62
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-62
Step Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-63
Desired Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-64
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-65
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-66

Step Rejection Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-68

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-68
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-68
Step Disturbance Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-69
Desired Response to Step Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-70
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-71
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-72

Transient Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-74

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-74
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-74
Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-75
Initial Signal Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-76
Desired Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-76
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-77
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-78
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-79

LQR/LQG Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-81

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-81
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-81
Signal Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-82
LQG Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-83
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-84

xx Contents
 Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-84
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-85

Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-86
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-87
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-88
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-90

Variance Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-92
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-93
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-94
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-95

Reference Tracking Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-97

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-97
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-97
Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-98
Tracking Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-99
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-100
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-102

Overshoot Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-104

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-104
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-104
Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-105
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-106
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-107

Disturbance Rejection Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-109

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-109
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-109
Disturbance Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-110
Rejection Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-111
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-112
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-112

Sensitivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-114

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-114

xxi
 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-114
Sensitivity Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-115
Sensitivity Bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-116
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-116
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-117

Weighted Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-119
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-120
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-121
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-122

Weighted Variance Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-124
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-125
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-126
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-127
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-127

Minimum Loop Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-129

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-129
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-129
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-131
Desired Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-132
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-132
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-133

Maximum Loop Gain Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-135

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-135
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-135
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-137
Desired Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-138
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-138
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-139

Loop Shape Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-141

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-141
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-141
Open-Loop Response Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-143

xxii Contents
 Desired Loop Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-144
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-144
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-146

Margins Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-148

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-148
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-148
Feedback Loop Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-149
Desired Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-150
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-150
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-151

Passivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-153

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-153
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-153
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-154
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-155
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-156

Conic Sector Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-158

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-158
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-158
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-159
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-160
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-161
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-162

Weighted Passivity Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-165

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-165
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-165
I/O Transfer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-166
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-167
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-168
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-169

Poles Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-171

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-171
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-171
Feedback Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-172
Pole Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-173
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-174
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-174

xxiii
 Controller Poles Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-176
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-176
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-176
Constrain Dynamics of Tuned Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-177
Keep Poles Inside the Following Region . . . . . . . . . . 14-177
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-178

Manage Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-179

Generate MATLAB Code from Control System Tuner for

Command-Line Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-181

Interpret Numeric Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-184

Tuning-Goal Scalar Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-184
Tuning Results at the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-185
Tuning Results in Control System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . 14-185
Improve Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-187

Visualize Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-189

Tuning-Goal Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-189
Difference Between Dashed Line and Shaded Region 14-191
Improve Tuning Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-197

Create Response Plots in Control System Tuner . . . . 14-198

Examine Tuned Controller Parameters in Control System

Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-205

Compare Performance of Multiple Tuned

Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-207

Create and Configure slTuner Interface to

Simulink Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-212

Stability Margins in Control System Tuning . . . . . . . . 14-218

Stability Margins Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-218
Gain and Phase Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-219
Combined Gain and Phase Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-219
Interpreting the Gain and Phase Margin Plot . . . . . . 14-220
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-222

Tune Control System at the Command Line . . . . . . . . 14-223

xxiv Contents
 Speed Up Tuning with Parallel Computing Toolbox
Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-225

Validate Tuned Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-227

Extract and Plot System Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-227
Validate Design in Simulink Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-230

Extract Responses from Tuned MATLAB Model at the

Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-232

Loop-Shaping Design
15
Structure of Control System for Tuning With
looptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2

Set Up Your Control System for Tuning with

looptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
Set Up Your Control System for looptunein MATLAB . . . 15-4
Set Up Your Control System for looptune in Simulink . . 15-4

Tune MIMO Control System for Specified Bandwidth . . 15-6

Gain-Scheduled Controllers
16
Gain Scheduling Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Gain Scheduling in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Tune Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3

Model Gain-Scheduled Control Systems in Simulink . . . 16-4

Model Scheduled Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4
Gain-Scheduled Equivalents for Commonly Used Control
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-7
Custom Gain-Scheduled Control Structures . . . . . . . . 16-12
Tunability of Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-13

xxv
 Tune Gain Schedules in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-15
Workflow for Tuning Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-15

Plant Models for Gain-Scheduled Controller Tuning . . 16-18

Obtaining the Family of Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-19
Set Up for Gain Scheduling by Linearizing at Design
Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20
Sample System at Simulation Snapshots . . . . . . . . . . . 16-23
Sample System at Varying Parameter Values . . . . . . . . 16-23
Eliminate Samples at Unneeded Design Points . . . . . . 16-24
LPV Plants in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-25

Multiple Design Points in slTuner Interface . . . . . . . . . 16-26

Block Substitution for Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-26
Multiple Block Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-26
Substituting Blocks that Depend on the Scheduling
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-28
Resolving Mismatches Between a Block and its
Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-29
Block Substitution for LPV Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-30

Parameterize Gain Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-31

Basis Function Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-31
Tunable Gain Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-34
Tunable Gain With Two Independent Scheduling
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-35
Tunable Surfaces in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-37
Tunable Surfaces in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-39

Change Requirements with Operating Condition . . . . . 16-41

Define Variable Tuning Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-41
Enforce Tuning Goal at Subset of Design Points . . . . . 16-43
Exclude Design Points from systune Run . . . . . . . . . . 16-44

Validate Gain-Scheduled Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . 16-45

Examine Tuned Gain Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-45
Visualize Tuning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-45
Check Linear Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-48
Validate Gain Schedules in Nonlinear System . . . . . . . 16-49

xxvi Contents
 Control System Tuning Examples
17
Tuning Multiloop Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3

PID Tuning for Setpoint Tracking vs. Disturbance

Rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-14

Time-Domain Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-26

Frequency-Domain Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-32

Loop Shape and Stability Margin Specifications . . . . . 17-43

System Dynamics Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-50

Tuning Control Systems with SYSTUNE . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-53

Tune Control Systems in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-61

Building Tunable Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-71

Tune a Control System Using Control System Tuner . . 17-79

Using Parallel Computing to Accelerate Tuning . . . . . 17-100

Control of a Linear Electric Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-105

Control of a Linear Electric Actuator Using Control

System Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-115

PID Tuning for Setpoint Tracking vs. Disturbance

Rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-147

Active Vibration Control in Three-Story Building . . . 17-159

Digital Control of Power Stage Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-172

MIMO Control of Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-183

Tuning of a Two-Loop Autopilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-198

xxvii
 Multiloop Control of a Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-216

Fixed-Structure Autopilot for a Passenger Jet . . . . . . 17-225

Fault-Tolerant Control of a Passenger Jet . . . . . . . . . . 17-239

Passive Control of Water Tank Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-250

Vibration Control in Flexible Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-269

Passive Control with Communication Delays . . . . . . . 17-282

Gain-Scheduled Control of a Chemical Reactor . . . . . 17-291

Tuning of Gain-Scheduled Three-Loop Autopilot . . . . 17-309

Tuning Feedback Loops with LOOPTUNE . . . . . . . . . . 17-325

Decoupling Controller for a Distillation Column . . . . 17-331

Tuning of a Digital Motion Control System . . . . . . . . . 17-343

Customization

Preliminaries
18
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2

Property and Preferences Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3

Ways to Customize Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5

xxviii Contents
 Setting Toolbox Preferences
19
Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
Overview of the Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . 19-2
Opening the Toolbox Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6
Control System Designer Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7

Setting Tool Preferences

20
Linear System Analyzer Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Opening the Linear System Analyzer Preference
Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-6
Parameters Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7

Customizing Response Plot Properties

21
Customize Response Plots Using the Response Plots
Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Opening the Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
Overview of Response Plots Property Editor . . . . . . . . . 21-3
Labels Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5
Limits Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-6
Units Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-6
Style Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-16
Options Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18
Editing Subplots Using the Property Editor . . . . . . . . 21-22

xxix
 Customizing Response Plots Using Plot Tools . . . . . . . 21-24
Properties You Can Customize Using Plot Tools . . . . . . 21-24
Opening and Working with Plot Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-24
Example of Changing Line Color Using Plot Tools . . . . 21-25

Customizing Response Plots from the Command

Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-28
Overview of Customizing Plots from the Command
Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-28
Obtaining Plot Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-31
Obtaining Plot Options Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-32
Examples of Customizing Plots from the Command
Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-34
Properties and Values Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-38

Build GUI With Interactive Response-Plot Updates . . . 21-53

Design Case Studies

22
Design Yaw Damper for Jet Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Overview of this Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Creating the Jet Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
Computing Open-Loop Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
Open-Loop Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-4
Root Locus Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-8
Washout Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-13

LQG Regulation: Rolling Mill Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19

Overview of this Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19
Process and Disturbance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19
LQG Design for the x-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-22
LQG Design for the y-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-28
Cross-Coupling Between Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-30
MIMO LQG Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-33

Kalman Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-37

xxx Contents
 Reliable Computations
23
Scaling State-Space Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Why Scaling Is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
When to Scale Your Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2
Manually Scale Your Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-3

Linear System Analyzer

24
Linear System Analyzer Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2

Using the Right-Click Menu in the Linear System

Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
Overview of the Right-Click Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
Setting Characteristics of Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4

Importing, Exporting, and Deleting Models in the Linear

System Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
Importing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
Exporting Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-10
Deleting Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-10

Selecting Response Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12

Methods for Selecting Response Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12
Right Click Menu: Plot Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12
Plot Configurations Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-12
Line Styles Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-14

Analyzing MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-17

Overview of Analyzing MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-17
Array Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-18
I/O Grouping for MIMO Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
Selecting I/O Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-20

Customizing the Linear System Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-22

Overview of Customizing the Linear System Analyzer . . . . . 24-22
Linear System Analyzer Preferences Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-22

xxxi
Linear System Modeling

33
 1

Linear System Model Objects

• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2

• “Control System Modeling with Model Objects” on page 1-4
• “Types of Model Objects” on page 1-7
• “Dynamic System Models” on page 1-10
• “Static Models” on page 1-12
• “Numeric Models” on page 1-13
• “Generalized Models” on page 1-16
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19
• “Using Model Objects” on page 1-23
• “References” on page 1-24
1 Linear System Model Objects

What Are Model Objects?

Model Objects Represent Linear Systems

In Control System Toolbox, System Identification Toolbox™, and Robust Control
Toolbox™ software, you represent linear systems as model objects. In System
Identification Toolbox, you also represent nonlinear models as model objects. Model
objects are specialized data containers that encapsulate model data and other attributes
in a structured way. Model objects allow you to manipulate linear systems as single
entities rather than keeping track of multiple data vectors, matrices, or cell arrays.

Model objects can represent single-input, single-output (SISO) systems or multiple-input,

multiple-output (MIMO) systems. You can represent both continuous- and discrete-time
linear systems.

The main families of model objects are:

• Numeric Models — Basic representation of linear systems with fixed numerical

coefficients. This family also includes identified models that have coefficients
estimated with System Identification Toolbox software.
• Generalized Models — Representations that combine numeric coefficients with
tunable or uncertain coefficients. Generalized models support tasks such as parameter
studies or compensator tuning.

About Model Data

The data encapsulated in your model object depends on the model type you use. For
example:

• Transfer functions store the numerator and denominator coefficients

• State-space models store the A, B, C, and D matrices that describe the dynamics of the
system
• PID controller models store the proportional, integral, and derivative gains

Other model attributes stored as model data include time units, names for the model
inputs or outputs, and time delays. For more information about setting and retrieving
model attributes, see “Model Attributes”.

1-2
 See Also

Note All model objects are MATLAB® objects, but working with them does not require a
background in object-oriented programming. To learn more about objects and object
syntax, see “Role of Classes in MATLAB” (MATLAB).

See Also

More About
• “Control System Modeling with Model Objects” on page 1-4
• “Types of Model Objects” on page 1-7

1-3
1 Linear System Model Objects

Control System Modeling with Model Objects

Model objects can represent individual components of a control architecture, such as the
plant, actuators, sensors, or controllers. You can connect model objects to build aggregate
models of block diagrams that represent the combined response of multiple elements.

For example, the following control system contains a prefilter F, a plant G, and a
controller C, arranged in a single-loop configuration. The model also includes a
representation of sensor dynamics, S.

You can represent each of the components as a model object. You do not need to use the
same type of model object for each component. For example, represent the plant G as a
zero-pole-gain (zpk) model with a double pole at s = -1; C as a PID controller, and F and
S as transfer functions:

G = zpk([],[-1,-1],1);
C = pid(2,1.3,0.3,0.5);
S = tf(5,[1 4]);
F = tf(1,[1 1]);

You can then combine these elements build models that represent your control system or
the control system as a whole. For example, create the open-loop response SGC:

open_loop = S*G*C;

To build a model of the unfiltered closed-loop response, use the feedback command:

T = feedback(G*C,S);

To model the entire closed-loop system response from r to y, combine T with the filter
transfer function:

Try = T*F;

1-4
 Control System Modeling with Model Objects

The results open_loop, T, and Try are also linear model objects. You can operate on
them with Control System Toolbox™ control design and analysis commands. For example,
plot the step response of the entire system:

stepplot(Try)

When you combine Numeric LTI models, the resulting Numeric LTI model represents the
aggregate system. The resulting model does not retain the original data from the
combined components. For example, T does not separately keep track of the dynamics of
the components G, C, and S that are combined to create T.

1-5
1 Linear System Model Objects

See Also
feedback

Related Examples
• “Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop” on page 4-6
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19

More About
• “Types of Model Objects” on page 1-7

1-6
 Types of Model Objects

Types of Model Objects

The following diagram illustrates the relationships between the types of model objects in
Control System Toolbox, Robust Control Toolbox, and System Identification Toolbox
software. Model types that begin with id require System Identification Toolbox software.
Model types that begin with u require Robust Control Toolbox software. All other model
types are available with Control System Toolbox software.

1-7
1 Linear System Model Objects

The diagram illustrates the following two overlapping broad classifications of model
object types:

1-8
 See Also

• Dynamic System Models vs. Static Models — In general, Dynamic System Models
represent systems that have internal dynamics, while Static Models represent static
input/output relationships.
• Numeric Models vs. Generalized Models — Numeric Models are the basic numeric
representation of linear systems with fixed coefficients. Generalized Models represent
systems with tunable or uncertain components.

See Also

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Dynamic System Models” on page 1-10
• “Static Models” on page 1-12
• “Numeric Models” on page 1-13
• “Generalized Models” on page 1-16

1-9
1 Linear System Model Objects

Dynamic System Models

Dynamic System Models generally represent systems that have internal dynamics or
memory of past states such as integrators, delays, transfer functions, and state-space
models.

Most commands for analyzing linear systems, such as bode, margin, and
linearSystemAnalyzer, work on most Dynamic System Model objects. For Generalized
Models, analysis commands use the current value of tunable parameters and the nominal
value of uncertain parameters. Commands that generate response plots display random
samples of uncertain models.

The following table lists the Dynamic System Models.

Model Family Model Types

Numeric LTI models — Basic numeric tf
representation of linear systems zpk
(requires Control System Toolbox)
ss
frd
pid
pidstd
pid2
pidstd2
Identified LTI models — Representations of idtf
linear systems with tunable coefficients, idss
whose values can be identified using
measured input/output data. idfrd
(requires System Identification Toolbox) idgrey
idpoly
idproc
Identified nonlinear models — idnlarx
Representations of nonlinear systems with idnlhw
tunable coefficients, whose values can be
identified using input/output data. Limited

1-10
 See Also

Model Family Model Types

support for commands that analyze linear idnlgrey
systems.
(requires System Identification Toolbox)
Generalized LTI models — Representations genss
of systems that include tunable or uncertain genfrd
coefficients
(tunable models require Control System uss
Toolbox; uncertain models require Robust ufrd
Control Toolbox)
Dynamic Control Design Blocks — Tunable, tunableGain
uncertain, or switch analysis points for tunableTF
constructing models of control systems
(tunable Control Design Blocks and analysis tunableSS
points require Control System Toolbox; tunablePID
uncertain Control Design Blocks require
tunablePID2
Robust Control Toolbox)
ultidyn
udyn
AnalysisPoint

See Also

More About
• “Numeric Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Models” on page 1-13
• “Identified LTI Models” on page 1-14
• “Identified Nonlinear Models” on page 1-14
• “Generalized and Uncertain LTI Models” on page 1-16
• “Control Design Blocks” on page 1-16

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1 Linear System Model Objects

Static Models
Static Models represent static input/output relationships and generalize the notions of
matrix and numeric array to parametric or uncertain arrays. You can use static models to
create parametric or uncertain expressions, and to construct Generalized LTI models
whose coefficients are parametric or uncertain expressions. The Static Models family
includes:

• Tunable parameters (realp objects)

• Generalized matrices (genmat objects)
• Uncertain parameters and matrices (ureal, ucomplex, ucomplexm) (requires Robust
Control Toolbox software)
• Uncertain matrices (umat) objects (requires Robust Control Toolbox software)

For more information about using these objects to create parametric models, see “Models
with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19. For information about creating uncertain static
models, see “Uncertain Real Parameters” (Robust Control Toolbox) and “Uncertain
Matrices” (Robust Control Toolbox).

1-12
 Numeric Models

Numeric Models
Numeric Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Models
Numeric LTI models are the basic numeric representation of linear systems or
components of linear systems. Use numeric LTI models for modeling dynamic
components, such as transfer functions or state-space models, whose coefficients are
fixed, numeric values. You can use numeric LTI models for linear analysis or control
design tasks.

The following table summarizes the available types of numeric LTI models.

Model Type Description

tf Transfer function model in polynomial form
zpk Transfer function model in zero-pole-gain (factorized) form
ss State-space model
frd Frequency response data model
pid Parallel-form PID controller
pidstd Standard-form PID controller
pid2 Parallel-form two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) PID controller
pidstd2 Standard-form 2-DOF PID controller

Creating Numeric LTI Models

For information about creating numeric LTI models, see:

• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3

• “State-Space Models” on page 2-6
• “Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models” on page 2-10
• “Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-13

Applications of Numeric LTI Models

You can use Numeric LTI models to represent block diagram components such as plant or
sensor dynamics. By connecting Numeric LTI models together, you can derive Numeric
LTI models of block diagrams. Use Numeric LTI models for most modeling, analysis, and
control design tasks, including:

1-13
1 Linear System Model Objects

• Analyzing linear system dynamics using analysis commands such as bode, step, or
impulse.
• Designing controllers for linear systems using the Control System Designer app or
the PID Tuner GUI.
• Designing controllers using control design commands such as pidtune, rlocus, or
lqr/lqg.

Identified LTI Models

Identified LTI Models represent linear systems with coefficients that are identified using
measured input/output data (requires System Identification Toolbox software). You can
specify initial values and constraints for the estimation of the coefficients.

The following table summarizes the available types of identified LTI models.

Model Type Description

idtf Transfer function model in polynomial form, with
identifiable parameters
idss State-space model, with identifiable parameters
idpoly Polynomial input-output model, with identifiable parameters
idproc Continuous-time process model, with identifiable
parameters
idfrd Frequency-response model, with identifiable parameters
idgrey Linear ODE (grey-box) model, with identifiable parameters

Identified Nonlinear Models

Identified Nonlinear Models represent nonlinear systems with coefficients that are
identified using measured input/output data (requires System Identification Toolbox
software). You can specify initial values and constraints for the estimation of the
coefficients.

The following table summarizes the available types of identified nonlinear models.

1-14
 Numeric Models

Model Type Description

idnlarx Nonlinear ARX model, with identifiable
parameters
idnlgrey Nonlinear ODE (grey-box) model, with
identifiable parameters
idnlhw Hammerstein-Wiener model, with
identifiable parameters

1-15
1 Linear System Model Objects

Generalized Models

Generalized and Uncertain LTI Models

Generalized LTI Models represent systems having a mixture of fixed coefficients and
tunable or uncertain coefficients. Generalized LTI models arise from combining numeric
LTI models with Control Design Blocks. For more information about tunable Generalized
LTI models and their applications, see “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19.

Uncertain LTI Models are a special type of Generalized LTI model that include uncertain
coefficients but not tunable coefficients. For more information about using uncertain
models, see “Uncertain State-Space Models” (Robust Control Toolbox) and “Create
Uncertain Frequency Response Data Models” (Robust Control Toolbox).

Family Model Type Description

Generalized LTI genss Generalized LTI model arising from
Models combination of Numeric LTI models (except
frd models) with Control Design Blocks
genfrd Generalized LTI model arising from
combination frd models with Control
Design Blocks
Uncertain LTI uss Generalized LTI model arising from
Models (requires combination of Numeric LTI models (except
Robust Control frd models) with uncertain Control Design
Toolbox software) Blocks
ufrd Generalized LTI model arising from
combination frd models with uncertain
Control Design Blocks

Control Design Blocks

Control Design Blocks are building blocks for constructing tunable or uncertain models of
control systems. Combine tunable Control Design Blocks with numeric arrays or Numeric
LTI models to create Generalized Matrices or Generalized LTI models that include both
fixed and tunable components.

1-16
 Generalized Models

Tunable Control Design Blocks include tunable parameter objects as well as tunable
linear models with predefined structure. For more information about using tunable
Control Design Blocks, see “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19.

If you have Robust Control Toolbox software, you can use uncertain Control Design Blocks
to model uncertain parameters or uncertain system dynamics. For more information
about using uncertain blocks, see “Uncertain LTI Dynamics Elements” (Robust Control
Toolbox), “Uncertain Real Parameters” (Robust Control Toolbox), and “Uncertain Complex
Parameters and Matrices” (Robust Control Toolbox).

The following tables summarize the available types of Control Design Blocks.

Dynamic System Model Control Design Blocks

Family Model Type Description

Tunable Linear tunableGain Tunable gain block
Components tunableTF SISO fixed-order transfer
function with tunable
coefficients
tunableSS Fixed-order state-space
model with tunable
coefficients
tunablePID One-degree-of-freedom PID
controller with tunable
coefficients
tunablePID2 Two-degree-of-freedom PID
controller with tunable
coefficients
Uncertain Dynamics ultidyn Uncertain linear time-
(requires Robust Control invariant dynamics
Toolbox software) udyn Unstructured uncertain
dynamics
Analysis Point Block AnalysisPoint Points of interest for linear
analysis or control system
tuning

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1 Linear System Model Objects

Static Model Control Design Blocks

Family Model Type Description

Tunable Parameter realp Tunable scalar parameter or
matrix
Uncertain Parameters ureal Uncertain real scalar
(requires Robust Control ucomplex Uncertain complex scalar
Toolbox software)
ucomplexm Uncertain complex matrix

Generalized Matrices
Generalized Matrices extend the notion of numeric matrices to matrices that include
tunable or uncertain values.

Create tunable generalized matrices by building rational expressions involving realp

parameters. You can use generalized matrices as inputs to tf or ss to create tunable
linear models with structures other than the predefined structures of the Control Design
Blocks. Use such models for parameter studies or some compensator tuning tasks.

If you have Robust Control Toolbox software, you can create uncertain matrices by
building rational expressions involving uncertain parameters such as ureal or
ucomplex.

Model Type Description

genmat Generalized matrix that includes parametric or tunable
entries
umat (requires Robust Generalized matrix that includes uncertain entries
Control Toolbox software)

For more information about generalized matrices and their applications, see “Models with
Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19.

1-18
 Models with Tunable Coefficients

Models with Tunable Coefficients

Tunable Generalized LTI Models

Tunable Generalized LTI models represent systems having both fixed and tunable (or
parametric) coefficients.

You can use tunable Generalized LTI models to:

• Model a tunable (or parametric) component of a control system, such as a tunable low-
pass filter.
• Model a control system that contains both:

• Fixed components, such as plant dynamics and sensor dynamics

• Tunable components, such as filters and compensators

You can use tunable Generalized LTI models for parameter studies. For an example, see
“Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model” on page 9-9. You can also use
tunable Generalized LTI models for tuning fixed control structures using tuning
commands such as systune or the Control System Tuner app. See “Multiloop,
Multiobjective Tuning”.

Modeling Tunable Components

Control System Toolbox includes tunable components with predefined structure called
“Control Design Blocks” on page 1-16. You can use tunable Control Design Blocks to
model any tunable component that fits one of the predefined structures.

To create tunable components with a specific custom structure that is not covered by the
Control Design Blocks:

1 Use the tunable real parameter realp or the generalized matrix genmat to
represent the tunable coefficients of your component.
2 Use the resulting realp or genmat objects as inputs to tf or ss to model the
component. The result is a generalized state-space (genss) model of the component.

For examples of creating such custom tunable components, see:

• “Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter” on page 2-78

1-19
1 Linear System Model Objects

• “Create Tunable Second-Order Filter” on page 2-79

• “Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters” on page 2-81

Modeling Control Systems with Tunable Components

To construct a tunable Generalized LTI model representing a control system with both
fixed and tunable components:

1 Model the nontunable components of your system using numeric LTI models on page
1-13.
2 Model each tunable component using Control Design Blocks or expressions involving
such blocks. See “Modeling Tunable Components” on page 1-19.
3 Use model interconnection commands such as series, parallel or connect, or
the arithmetic operators +, -, *, /, \, and ^, to combine all the components of your
system.

The resulting model is:

• A genss model, if none of the nontunable components is a frequency response data

model (for example, frd)
• A genfrd model, if the nontunable component is a frd model

For an example of constructing a genss model of a control system with both fixed and
tunable components, see “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83.

Internal Structure of Generalized Models

A Generalized model separately stores the numeric and parametric portions of the model
by structuring the model in Standard Form, as shown in the following illustration.

1-20
 Models with Tunable Coefficients

w z
H

u y
B1 0 ... 0
.
0 B2 ..
.. ..
. . 0
0 ... 0 BN
B
w and z represent the inputs and outputs of the Generalized model.

H represents all portions of the Generalized model that have fixed (non-parametric)
coefficients. H is:

• A state-space (ss) model, for genss models

• A frequency response data (frd) model, for genfrd models
• A matrix, for genmat models

B represents the parametric components of the Generalized model, which are the Control
Design Blocks B1, . . . , BN. The Blocks property of the Generalized model stores a list of
the names of these blocks. If the Generalized model has blocks that occur multiple times
in B1, . . . , BN, these are only listed once in the Blocks property.

To access the internal representation of a Generalized model, including H and B, use the
getLFTModel command.

1-21
1 Linear System Model Objects

This Standard Form can represent any control structure. To understand why, consider the
control structure as an aggregation of fixed-coefficient elements interacting with the
parametric elements:

external
inputs H
w

Fixed system
components
(actuators, external
sensors, etc.) outputs
y1
uN z

B1 BN
yN
u1
B2
...
y2
u2

To rewrite this in Standard Form, define

u := [u1 ,…, uN ]
y := [ y1 ,… , yN ] ,

and group the tunable control elements B1, . . . , BN into the block-diagonal configuration
C. P includes all the fixed components of the control architecture—actuators, sensors, and
other nontunable elements—and their interconnections.

1-22
 Using Model Objects

Using Model Objects

After you represent your dynamic system as a model object, you can:

• Attach additional information to the model using model attributes (properties). See
“Model Attributes”.
• Manipulate the model using arithmetic and model interconnection operations. See
“Model Interconnection”.
• Analyze the model response using commands such as bode and step. See “Linear
Analysis”.
• Perform parameter studies using model arrays. See “Model Arrays”.
• Design compensators. You can:

• Design compensators for systems specified as numeric LTI models. Available

compensator design techniques include PID tuning, root locus analysis, pole
placement, LQG optimal control, and frequency domain loop-shaping. See “PID
Controller Tuning”, “Classical Control Design”, or “State-Space Control Design”.
• Manually tune many control architectures using Control System Designer. See
“Classical Control Design”.
• Use tuning commands such as systune or Control System Tuner to
automatically tune a control system that you represent as a genss model with
tunable blocks. See “Multiloop, Multiobjective Tuning”.

1-23
1 Linear System Model Objects

References
[1] Dorf, R.C. and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park, CA,
1998.

1-24
 2

Model Creation

• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3

• “State-Space Models” on page 2-6
• “Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models” on page 2-10
• “Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-13
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16
• “Discrete-Time Numeric Models” on page 2-23
• “Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-24
• “MIMO Transfer Functions” on page 2-28
• “MIMO State-Space Models” on page 2-31
• “MIMO Frequency Response Data Models” on page 2-37
• “Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models” on page 2-39
• “Time Delays in Linear Systems” on page 2-40
• “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays” on page 2-45
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model” on page 2-50
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model” on page 2-55
• “Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders” on page 2-60
• “Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z” on page 2-64
• “Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time Delay” on page 2-69
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73
• “Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter” on page 2-78
• “Create Tunable Second-Order Filter” on page 2-79
• “Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters” on page 2-81
• “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83
• “Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points” on page 2-85
• “Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design” on page 2-89
2 Model Creation

• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100

• “Select Models from Array” on page 2-103
• “Query Array Size and Characteristics” on page 2-106
• “Linear Parameter-Varying Models” on page 2-109
• “Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics” on page 2-118

2-2
 Transfer Functions

Transfer Functions
Transfer Function Representations
Control System Toolbox software supports transfer functions that are continuous-time or
discrete-time, and SISO or MIMO. You can also have time delays in your transfer function
representation.

A SISO continuous-time transfer function is expressed as the ratio:

N ( s)
G ( s) = ,
D( s )

of polynomials N(s) and D(s), called the numerator and denominator polynomials,
respectively.

You can represent linear systems as transfer functions in polynomial or factorized (zero-
pole-gain) form. For example, the polynomial-form transfer function:

s2 - 3 s - 4
G ( s) =
s2 + 5 s + 6

can be rewritten in factorized form as:

( s + 1) (s - 4)
G ( s) = .
( s + 2)( s + 3)
The tf model object represents transfer functions in polynomial form. The zpk model
object represents transfer functions in factorized form.

MIMO transfer functions are arrays of SISO transfer functions. For example:

Ès - 3˘
Ís + 4˙
G ( s) = Í ˙
Í s + 1˙
ÍÎ s + 2 ˙˚

is a one-input, two output transfer function.

2-3
2 Model Creation

Commands for Creating Transfer Functions

Use the commands described in the following table to create transfer functions.

Command Description
tf Create tf objects representing continuous-time or discrete-
time transfer functions in polynomial form.
zpk Create zpk objects representing continuous-time or discrete-
time transfer functions in zero-pole-gain (factorized) form.
filt Create tf objects representing discrete-time transfer
functions using digital signal processing (DSP) convention.

Create Transfer Function Using Numerator and Denominator

Coefficients
This example shows how to create continuous-time single-input, single-output (SISO)
transfer functions from their numerator and denominator coefficients using tf.

s
Create the transfer function G ( s ) = :
2
s + 3s + 2
num = [1 0];
den = [1 3 2];
G = tf(num,den);

num and den are the numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients in descending
powers of s. For example, den = [1 3 2] represents the denominator polynomial
s2 + 3s + 2.

G is a tf model object, which is a data container for representing transfer functions in

polynomial form.

Tip Alternatively, you can specify the transfer function G(s) as an expression in s:

1 Create a transfer function model for the variable s.

s = tf('s');
2 Specify G(s) as a ratio of polynomials in s.

2-4
 See Also

G = s/(s^2 + 3*s + 2);

Create Transfer Function Model Using Zeros, Poles, and Gain

This example shows how to create single-input, single-output (SISO) transfer functions in
factored form using zpk.

s
Create the factored transfer function G ( s ) = 5 :
( s + 1 + i) ( s + 1 - i) ( s + 2)
Z = [0];
P = [-1-1i -1+1i -2];
K = 5;
G = zpk(Z,P,K);

Z and P are the zeros and poles (the roots of the numerator and denominator,
respectively). K is the gain of the factored form. For example, G(s) has a real pole at s = –
2 and a pair of complex poles at s = –1 ± i. The vector P = [-1-1i -1+1i -2] specifies
these pole locations.

G is a zpk model object, which is a data container for representing transfer functions in
zero-pole-gain (factorized) form.

See Also
filt | tf | zpk

Related Examples
• “MIMO Transfer Functions” on page 2-28
• “State-Space Models” on page 2-6
• “Discrete-Time Numeric Models” on page 2-23

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-5
2 Model Creation

State-Space Models
State-Space Model Representations
State-space models rely on linear differential equations or difference equations to
describe system dynamics. Control System Toolbox software supports SISO or MIMO
state-space models in continuous or discrete time. State-space models can include time
delays. You can represent state-space models in either explicit or descriptor (implicit)
form.

State-space models can result from:

• Linearizing a set of ordinary differential equations that represent a physical model of

the system.
• State-space model identification using System Identification Toolbox software.
• State-space realization of transfer functions. (See “Conversion Between Model Types”
on page 5-2 for more information.)

Use ss model objects to represent state-space models.

Explicit State-Space Models

Explicit continuous-time state-space models have the following form:

dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

where x is the state vector. u is the input vector, and y is the output vector. A, B, C, and D
are the state-space matrices that express the system dynamics.

A discrete-time explicit state-space model takes the following form:

x [ n + 1] = Ax[ n] + Bu [ n]
y [ n] = Cx [ n ] + Du [ n]

where the vectors x[n], u[n], and y[n] are the state, input, and output vectors for the nth
sample.

2-6
 State-Space Models

Descriptor (Implicit) State-Space Models

A descriptor state-space model is a generalized form of state-space model. In continuous
time, a descriptor state-space model takes the following form:

dx
E = Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

where x is the state vector. u is the input vector, and y is the output vector. A, B, C, D, and
E are the state-space matrices.

Commands for Creating State-Space Models

Use the commands described in the following table to create state-space models.

Command Description
ss Create explicit state-space model.
dss Create descriptor (implicit) state-space model.
delayss Create state-space models with specified time delays.

Create State-Space Model From Matrices

This example shows how to create a continuous-time single-input, single-output (SISO)
state-space model from state-space matrices using ss.

Create a model of an electric motor where the state-space equations are:

dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

where the state variables are the angular position θ and angular velocity dθ/dt:

Èq ˘
x = Í dq ˙ ,
Í ˙
ÎÍ dt ˙˚

2-7
2 Model Creation

u is the electric current, the output y is the angular velocity, and the state-space matrices
are:

È0 1˘ È0 ˘
A=Í ˙, B = Í ˙ , C = [ 0 1] , D = [ 0 ].
Î -5 -2 ˚ Î3 ˚

To create this model, enter:

A = [0 1;-5 -2];
B = [0;3];
C = [0 1];
D = 0;
sys = ss(A,B,C,D);

sys is an ss model object, which is a data container for representing state-space models.

Tip To represent a system of the form:

dx
E = Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

use dss. This command creates a ss model with a nonempty E matrix, also called a
descriptor state-space model. See “MIMO Descriptor State-Space Models” on page 2-32
for an example.

See Also
delayss | dss | ss

Related Examples
• “MIMO State-Space Models” on page 2-31
• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3
• “Discrete-Time Numeric Models” on page 2-23

2-8
 See Also

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-9
2 Model Creation

Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models

Frequency Response Data

In the Control System Toolbox software, you can use frd models to store, manipulate,
and analyze frequency response data. An frd model stores a vector of frequency points
with the corresponding complex frequency response data you obtain either through
simulations or experimentally.

For example, suppose you measure frequency response data for the SISO system you
want to model. You can measure such data by driving the system with a sine wave at a set
of frequencies ω1, ω2, ,...,ωn, as shown:

sini (wit) Gi (w) yi (t)

At steady state, the measured response yi(t) to the driving signal at each frequency ωi
takes the following form:

yi ( t ) = a sin (wi t + b ) , i = 1,…, n.

The measurement yields the complex frequency response G at each input frequency:

G ( jwi ) = ae jb, i = 1,…, n.

You can do most frequency-domain analysis tasks on frd models, but you cannot perform
time-domain simulations with them. For information on frequency response analysis of
linear systems, see Chapter 8 of [1].

Commands for Creating FRD Models

Use the following commands to create FRD models.

Command Description
frd Create frd objects from frequency response data.

2-10
 Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models

Command Description
frestimate Create frd objects by estimating the frequency response of a
Simulink® model. This approach requires Simulink Control
Design™ software. See “Frequency Response Estimation”
(Simulink Control Design) for more information.

Create Frequency-Response Model from Data

This example shows how to create a single-input, single-output (SISO) frequency-response
model using frd.

A frequency-response model stores a vector of frequency points with corresponding

complex frequency response data you obtain either through simulations or
experimentally. Thus, if you measure the frequency response of your system at a set of
test frequencies, you can use the data to create a frequency response model:

1 Load the frequency response data in AnalyzerData.mat.

load AnalyzerData

This command loads the data into the MATLAB workspace as the column vectors
freq and resp. The variables freq and resp contain 256 test frequencies and the
corresponding complex-valued frequency response points, respectively.

Tip To inspect these variables, enter:

whos freq resp

2 Create a frequency response model.

sys = frd(resp,freq);

sys is an frd model object, which is a data container for representing frequency
response data.

You can use frd models with many frequency-domain analysis commands. For example,
visualize the frequency response data using bode.

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2 Model Creation

Tip By default, the frd command assumes that the frequencies are in radians/second. To
specify different frequency units, use the TimeUnit and FrequencyUnit properties of
the frd model object. For example:

sys = frd(resp,freq,'TimeUnit','min','FrequencyUnit','rad/TimeUnit')

sets the frequency units to radians/minute.

See Also
frd | frestimate

Related Examples
• “MIMO Frequency Response Data Models” on page 2-37
• “Discrete-Time Numeric Models” on page 2-23

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-12
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers

You can represent PID controllers using the specialized model objects pid and pidstd.
This topic describes the representation of PID controllers in MATLAB. For information
about automatic PID controller tuning, see “PID Controller Tuning”.

Continuous-Time PID Controller Representations

You can represent continuous-time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers in
either parallel or standard form. The two forms differ in the parameters used to express
the proportional, integral, and derivative actions and the filter on the derivative term, as
shown in the following table.

Form Formula
Parallel (pid object) Ki Kd s
C = Kp + + ,
s Tf s + 1

where:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ki = integrator gain
• Kd = derivative gain
• Tf = derivative filter time
Standard (pidstd Ê ˆ
object) Á 1 Td s ˜
C = K p Á1 + + ˜,
Á Ti s Td
Á s + 1 ˜˜
Ë N ¯

where:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ti = integrator time
• Td = derivative time
• N = derivative filter divisor

2-13
2 Model Creation

Use a controller form that is convenient for your application. For example, if you want to
express the integrator and derivative actions in terms of time constants, use standard
form.

For information on representing PID Controllers in discrete time, see “Discrete-Time

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-24

Create Continuous-Time Parallel-Form PID Controller

This example shows how to create a continuous-time Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) controller in parallel form using pid.

26 .2 4.3 s
Create the following parallel-form PID controller: C = 29 .5 + - .
s 0 .06 s + 1
Kp = 29.5;
Ki = 26.2;
Kd = 4.3;
Tf = 0.06;
C = pid(Kp,Ki,Kd,Tf)

C is a pid model object, which is a data container for representing parallel-form PID
controllers. For more examples of how to create PID controllers, see the pid reference
page.

Create Continuous-Time Standard-Form PID Controller

This example shows how to create a continuous-time Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) controller in standard form using pidstd.

Ê ˆ
Á 1 0 .15 s ˜
Create the following standard-form PID controller: C = 29 .5 Á 1 + + ˜.
ÁÁ 1.13s 0 .15 s + 1 ˜
˜
Kp = 29.5; Ë 2.3 ¯
Ti = 1.13;
Td = 0.15;
N = 2.3;
C = pidstd(Kp,Ti,Td,N)

2-14
 See Also

C is a pidstd model object, which is a data container for representing standard-form PID
controllers. For more examples of how to create standard-form PID controllers, see the
pidstd reference page.

See Also
pid | pidTuner | pidstd | pidtune

Related Examples
• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3
• “Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-24
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-15
2 Model Creation

Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers

Two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) PID controllers include setpoint weighting on the
proportional and derivative terms. A 2-DOF PID controller is capable of fast disturbance
rejection without significant increase of overshoot in setpoint tracking. 2-DOF PID
controllers are also useful to mitigate the influence of changes in the reference signal on
the control signal.

You can represent PID controllers using the specialized model objects pid2 and
pidstd2. This topic describes the representation of 2-DOF PID controllers in MATLAB.
For information about automatic PID controller tuning, see “PID Controller Tuning”.

Continuous-Time 2-DOF PID Controller Representations

This illustration shows a typical control architecture using a 2-DOF PID controller.

The relationship between the 2-DOF controller’s output (u) and its two inputs (r and y)
can be represented in either parallel or standard form. The two forms differ in the
parameters used to express the proportional, integral, and derivative actions of the
controller, as expressed in the following table.

2-16
 Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers

Form Formula
Parallel (pid2 object) Ki K s
u = K p ( br - y ) + ( r - y) + d ( cr - y) .
s Tf s + 1

In this representation:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ki = integrator gain
• Kd = derivative gain
• Tf = derivative filter time
• b = setpoint weight on proportional term
• c = setpoint weight on derivative term
Standard (pidstd2 object) È ˘
Í 1 Td s ˙
u = K p Í( br - y ) + (r - y) + T ( cr - y ) ˙ .
Í Ti s d ˙
s +1
ÍÎ N ˙˚

In this representation:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ti = integrator time
• Td = derivative time
• N = derivative filter divisor
• b = setpoint weight on proportional term
• c = setpoint weight on derivative term

Use a controller form that is convenient for your application. For instance, if you want to
express the integrator and derivative actions in terms of time constants, use standard
form. For examples showing how to create parallel-form and standard-form controllers,
see the pid2 and pidstd2 reference pages, respectively.

For information on representing PID Controllers in discrete time, see “Discrete-Time

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-24.

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2 Model Creation

2-DOF Control Architectures

The 2-DOF PID controller is a two-input, one output controller of the form C2(s), as shown
in the following figure. The transfer function from each input to the output is itself a PID
controller.

Each of the components Cr(s) and Cy(s) is a PID controller, with different weights on the
proportional and derivative terms. For example, in continuous time, these components are
given by:

Ki cK d s
Cr ( s ) = bK p + + ,
s Tf s + 1
È K Kd s ˘
Cy ( s ) = - Í K p + i + ˙.
ÍÎ s Tf s + 1 ˙˚

You can access these components by converting the PID controller into a two-input, one-
output transfer function. For example, suppose that C2 is a 2-DOF PID controller, stored
as a pid2 object.

C2tf = tf(C2);
Cr = C2tf(1);
Cy = C2tf(2);

Cr(s) is the transfer function from the first input of C2 to the output. Similarly, Cy(s) is the
transfer function from the second input of C2 to the output.

2-18
 Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers

Suppose that G is a dynamic system model, such as a zpk model, representing the plant.
Build the closed-loop transfer function from r to y. Note that the Cy(s) loop has positive
feedback, by the definition of Cy(s).

T = Cr*feedback(G,Cy,+1)

Alternatively, use the connect command to build an equivalent closed-loop system

directly with the 2-DOF controller C2. To do so, set the InputName and OutputName
properties of G and C2.

G.InputName = 'u';
G.OutputName = 'y';
C2.Inputname = {'r','y'};
C2.OutputName = 'u';
T = connect(G,C2,'r','y');

There are other configurations in which you can decompose a 2-DOF PID controller into
SISO components. For particular choices of C(s) and X(s), each of the following
configurations is equivalent to the 2-DOF architecture with C2(s). You can obtain C(s) and
X(s) for each of these configurations using the getComponents command.

Feedforward

In the feedforward configuration, the 2-DOF PID controller is decomposed into a

conventional SISO PID controller that takes the error signal as its input, and a
feedforward controller.

For a continuous-time, parallel-form 2-DOF PID controller, the components are given by:

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2 Model Creation

Ki Kd s
C ( s) = K p + + ,
s Tf s + 1
( c - 1 ) Kd s
X ( s) = ( b - 1 ) K p + .
Tf s + 1

Access these components using getComponents.

[C,X] = getComponents(C2,'feedforward');

The following command constructs the closed-loop system from r to y for the feedforward
configuration.

T = G*(C+X)*feedback(1,G*C);

Feedback

In the feedback configuration, the 2-DOF PID controller is decomposed into a

conventional SISO PID controller and a feedback controller.

For a continuous-time, parallel-form 2-DOF PID controller, the components are given by:

Ki cK d s
C ( s) = bK p + + ,
s Tf s + 1
(1 - c ) Kd s
X ( s) = (1 - b ) K p + .
Tf s + 1

Access these components using getComponents.

2-20
 Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers

[C,X] = getComponents(C2,'feedback');

The following command constructs the closed-loop system from r to y for the feedback
configuration.

T = G*C*feedback(1,G*(C+X));

Filter

In the filter configuration, the 2-DOF PID controller is decomposed into a conventional
SISO PID controller and a prefilter on the reference signal.

For a continuous-time, parallel-form 2-DOF PID controller, the components are given by:

Ki Kd s
C ( s) = K p + + ,
s Tf s + 1

X ( s) =
(bK pTf + cK d ) s2 + ( bK p + K iTf ) s + K i .
( K pTf + Kd ) s2 + ( K p + KiTf ) s + Ki
The filter X(s) can also be expressed as the ratio: –[Cr(s)/Cy(s)].

The following command constructs the closed-loop system from r to y for the filter
configuration.

T = X*feedback(G*C,1);

For an example illustrating the decomposition of a 2-DOF PID controller into these
configurations, see “Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO Components” on page
5-8.

The formulas shown above pertain to continuous-time, parallel-form controllers.

Standard-form controllers and controllers in discrete time can be decomposed into

2-21
2 Model Creation

analogous configurations. The getComponents command works on all 2-DOF PID

controller objects.

See Also
getComponents | pid2 | pidTuner | pidstd2 | pidtune

Related Examples
• “Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-24
• “Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-13

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-22
 Discrete-Time Numeric Models

Discrete-Time Numeric Models

Create Discrete-Time Transfer Function Model

This example shows how to create a discrete-time transfer function model using tf.

z
Create the transfer function G ( z ) = with a sample time of 0.1 s.
2
z - 2z - 6
num = [1 0];
den = [1 -2 -6];
Ts = 0.1;
G = tf(num,den,Ts)

num and den are the numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients in descending
powers of z. G is a tf model object.

The sample time is stored in the Ts property of G. Access the sample time Ts, using dot
notation:

G.Ts

Other Model Types in Discrete Time Representations

Create discrete-time zpk, ss, and frd models in a similar way to discrete-time transfer
functions, by appending a sample time to the input arguments. For examples, see the
reference pages for those commands.

See Also
frd | ss | tf | zpk

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2

2-23
2 Model Creation

Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)

Controllers
All the PID controller object types, pid, pidstd, pid2, and pidstd2, can represent PID
controllers in discrete time.

Discrete-Time PID Controller Representations

Discrete-time PID controllers are expressed by the following formulas.

Form Formula
Parallel (pid) Kd
C = K p + Ki IF ( z) + ,
Tf + DF ( z )

where:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ki = integrator gain
• Kd = derivative gain
• Tf = derivative filter time
Standard (pidstd) Ê ˆ
Á 1 Td ˜
C = K p Á 1 + IF ( z) + ˜,
Á Ti Td
Á + DF ( ) ˜˜
z
Ë N ¯

where:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ti = integrator time
• Td = derivative time
• N = derivative filter divisor

2-24
 Discrete-Time Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers

Form Formula
2-DOF Parallel (pid2) The relationship between the 2-DOF controller’s output (u) and
its two inputs (r and y) is:

Kd
u = K p ( br - y ) + Ki IF ( z ) ( r - y ) + ( cr - y) .
Tf + DF ( z )

In this representation:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ki = integrator gain
• Kd = derivative gain
• Tf = derivative filter time
• b = setpoint weight on proportional term
• c = setpoint weight on derivative term
2-DOF Standard È ˘
(pidstd2 object) Í 1 Td ˙
u = K p Í( br - y ) + IF ( z) ( r - y) + ( cr - y) ˙ .
Í Ti Td ˙
+ DF ( z )
ÍÎ N ˙˚

In this representation:

• Kp = proportional gain
• Ti = integrator time
• Td = derivative time
• N = derivative filter divisor
• b = setpoint weight on proportional term
• c = setpoint weight on derivative term

In all of these expressions, IF(z) and DF(z) are the discrete integrator formulas for the
integrator and derivative filter, respectively. Use the IFormula and DFormula properties
of the controller objects to set the IF(z) and DF(z) formulas. The next table shows
available formulas for IF(z) and DF(z). Ts is the sample time.

2-25
2 Model Creation

IFormula or DFormula IF(z) or DF(z)

ForwardEuler (default) Ts
z -1
BackwardEuler Ts z
z -1
Trapezoidal Ts z + 1
2 z -1

If you do not specify a value for IFormula, DFormula, or both when you create the
controller object, ForwardEuler is used by default. For more information about setting
and changing the discrete integrator formulas, see the reference pages for the controller
objects, pid, pidstd, pid2, and pidstd2.

Create Discrete-Time Standard-Form PID Controller

This example shows how to create a standard-form discrete-time Proportional-Integral-
Derivative (PID) controller that has Kp = 29.5, Ti = 1.13, Td = 0.15 N = 2.3, and sample
time Ts 0.1 :
C = pidstd(29.5,1.13,0.15,2.3,0.1,...
'IFormula','Trapezoidal','DFormula','BackwardEuler')

Ts z + 1 Tz
This command creates a pidstd model with IF ( z) = and DF ( z ) = s .
2 z -1 z -1
You can set the discrete integrator formulas for a parallel-form controller in the same way,
using pid.

Discrete-Time 2-DOF PI Controller in Standard Form

Create a discrete-time 2-DOF PI controller in standard form, using the trapezoidal
discretization formula. Specify the formula using Name,Value syntax.
Kp = 1;
Ti = 2.4;
Td = 0;
N = Inf;

2-26
 See Also

b = 0.5;
c = 0;
Ts = 0.1;
C2 = pidstd2(Kp,Ti,Td,N,b,c,Ts,'IFormula','Trapezoidal')

C2 =

1 Ts*(z+1)
u = Kp * [(b*r-y) + ---- * -------- * (r-y)]
Ti 2*(z-1)

with Kp = 1, Ti = 2.4, b = 0.5, Ts = 0.1

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time 2-DOF PI controller in standard form

Setting Td = 0 specifies a PI controller with no derivative term. As the display shows, the
values of N and c are not used in this controller. The display also shows that the
trapezoidal formula is used for the integrator.

See Also
pid | pid2 | pidstd | pidstd2

Related Examples
• “Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-13
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-27
2 Model Creation

MIMO Transfer Functions

MIMO transfer functions are two-dimensional arrays of elementary SISO transfer
functions. There are two ways to specify MIMO transfer function models:

• Concatenation of SISO transfer function models

• Using tf with cell array arguments

Concatenation of SISO Models

Consider the following single-input, two-output transfer function.

È s-1 ˘
Í s+1 ˙
H ( s) = Í ˙.
Í s+ 2 ˙
ÍÎ s2 + 4 s + 5 ˙˚

You can specify H(s) by concatenation of its SISO entries. For instance,

h11 = tf([1 -1],[1 1]);

h21 = tf([1 2],[1 4 5]);

or, equivalently,

s = tf('s')
h11 = (s-1)/(s+1);
h21 = (s+2)/(s^2+4*s+5);

can be concatenated to form H(s).

H = [h11; h21]

This syntax mimics standard matrix concatenation and tends to be easier and more
readable for MIMO systems with many inputs and/or outputs.

Tip Use zpk instead of tf to create MIMO transfer functions in factorized form on page
2-5.

2-28
 See Also

Using the tf Function with Cell Arrays

Alternatively, to define MIMO transfer functions using tf, you need two cell arrays (say, N
and D) to represent the sets of numerator and denominator polynomials, respectively. See
“What Is a Cell Array?” (MATLAB) for more details on cell arrays.

For example, for the rational transfer matrix H(s), the two cell arrays N and D should
contain the row-vector representations of the polynomial entries of

È s-1 ˘ È s +1 ˘
N ( s) = Í ˙, D( s) = Í ˙.
Îs + 2˚ Î s2 + 4 s + 5 ˚

You can specify this MIMO transfer matrix H(s) by typing

N = {[1 -1];[1 2]}; % Cell array for N(s)

D = {[1 1];[1 4 5]}; % Cell array for D(s)
H = tf(N,D)

Transfer function from input to output...

s - 1
#1: -----
s + 1

s + 2
#2: -------------
s^2 + 4 s + 5

Notice that both N and D have the same dimensions as H. For a general MIMO transfer
matrix H(s), the cell array entries N{i,j} and D{i,j} should be row-vector
representations of the numerator and denominator of Hij(s), the ijth entry of the transfer
matrix H(s).

See Also
tf | zpk

Related Examples
• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3

2-29
2 Model Creation

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-30
 MIMO State-Space Models

MIMO State-Space Models

MIMO Explicit State-Space Models

You create a MIMO state-space model in the same way as you create a SISO state-space
model on page 2-7. The only difference between the SISO and MIMO cases is the
dimensions of the state-space matrices. The dimensions of the B, C, and D matrices
increase with the numbers of inputs and outputs as shown in the following illustration.

# of columns =
# of inputs

A B
# of rows =
# of outputs C D

In this example, you create a state-space model for a rotating body with inertia tensor J,
damping force F, and three axes of rotation, related as:

dw
J + Fw = T
dt
y = w.

The system input T is the driving torque. The output y is the vector of angular velocities of
the rotating body.

To express this system in state-space form:

2-31
2 Model Creation

dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

rewrite it as:

dw
= - J -1 Fw + J -1T
dt
y = w.

Then the state-space matrices are:

A = - J -1 F, B = J -1 , C = I , D = 0.

To create this model, enter the following commands:

J = [8 -3 -3; -3 8 -3; -3 -3 8];

F = 0.2*eye(3);
A = -J\F;
B = inv(J);
C = eye(3);
D = 0;
sys_mimo = ss(A,B,C,D);

These commands assume that J is the inertia tensor of a cube rotating about its corner,
and the damping force has magnitude 0.2.

sys_mimo is an ss model.

MIMO Descriptor State-Space Models

This example shows how to create a continuous-time descriptor (implicit) state-space
model using dss.

This example uses the same rotating-body system shown in “MIMO Explicit State-Space
Models” on page 2-31, where you inverted the inertia matrix J to obtain the value of the B
matrix. If J is poorly-conditioned for inversion, you can instead use a descriptor (implicit)
state-space model. A descriptor (implicit) state-space model is of the form:

2-32
 MIMO State-Space Models

dx
E = Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du

Create a state-space model for a rotating body with inertia tensor J, damping force F, and
three axes of rotation, related as:

dw
J + Fw = T
dt
y = w.

The system input T is the driving torque. The output y is the vector of angular velocities of
the rotating body. You can write this system as a descriptor state-space model having the
following state-space matrices:

A = - F, B = I, C = I, D = 0, E = J.

To create this system, enter:

J = [8 -3 -3; -3 8 -3; -3 -3 8];
F = 0.2*eye(3);
A = -F;
B = eye(3);
C = eye(3);
D = 0;
E = J;
sys_mimo = dss(A,B,C,D,E)

These commands assume that J is the inertia tensor of a cube rotating about its corner,
and the damping force has magnitude 0.2.

sys is an ss model with a nonempty E matrix.

State-Space Model of Jet Transport Aircraft

This example shows how to build a MIMO model of a jet transport. Because the
development of a physical model for a jet aircraft is lengthy, only the state-space
equations are presented here. See any standard text in aviation for a more complete
discussion of the physics behind aircraft flight.

The jet model during cruise flight at MACH = 0.8 and H = 40,000 ft. is

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2 Model Creation

A = [-0.0558 -0.9968 0.0802 0.0415

0.5980 -0.1150 -0.0318 0
-3.0500 0.3880 -0.4650 0
0 0.0805 1.0000 0];

B = [ 0.0073 0
-0.4750 0.0077
0.1530 0.1430
0 0];

C = [0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1];

D = [0 0
0 0];

Use the following commands to specify this state-space model as an LTI object and attach
names to the states, inputs, and outputs.

states = {'beta' 'yaw' 'roll' 'phi'};

inputs = {'rudder' 'aileron'};
outputs = {'yaw rate' 'bank angle'};

sys_mimo = ss(A,B,C,D,'statename',states,...
'inputname',inputs,...
'outputname',outputs);

You can display the LTI model by typing sys_mimo.

sys_mimo

a =
beta yaw roll phi
beta -0.0558 -0.9968 0.0802 0.0415
yaw 0.598 -0.115 -0.0318 0
roll -3.05 0.388 -0.465 0
phi 0 0.0805 1 0

b =
rudder aileron
beta 0.0073 0
yaw -0.475 0.0077
roll 0.153 0.143

2-34
 MIMO State-Space Models

phi 0 0

c =
beta yaw roll phi
yaw rate 0 1 0 0
bank angle 0 0 0 1

d =
rudder aileron
yaw rate 0 0
bank angle 0 0

Continuous-time model.

The model has two inputs and two outputs. The units are radians for beta (sideslip angle)
and phi (bank angle) and radians/sec for yaw (yaw rate) and roll (roll rate). The rudder
and aileron deflections are in degrees.

As in the SISO case, use tf to derive the transfer function representation.

tf(sys_mimo)

Transfer function from input "rudder" to output...

-0.475 s^3 - 0.2479 s^2 - 0.1187 s - 0.05633
yaw rate: ---------------------------------------------------
s^4 + 0.6358 s^3 + 0.9389 s^2 + 0.5116 s + 0.003674

0.1148 s^2 - 0.2004 s - 1.373

bank angle: ---------------------------------------------------
s^4 + 0.6358 s^3 + 0.9389 s^2 + 0.5116 s + 0.003674

Transfer function from input "aileron" to output...

0.0077 s^3 - 0.0005372 s^2 + 0.008688 s + 0.004523
yaw rate: ---------------------------------------------------
s^4 + 0.6358 s^3 + 0.9389 s^2 + 0.5116 s + 0.003674

0.1436 s^2 + 0.02737 s + 0.1104

bank angle: ---------------------------------------------------
s^4 + 0.6358 s^3 + 0.9389 s^2 + 0.5116 s + 0.003674

2-35
2 Model Creation

See Also
ss

Related Examples
• “State-Space Models” on page 2-6

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-36
 MIMO Frequency Response Data Models

MIMO Frequency Response Data Models

This example shows how to create a MIMO frequency-response model using frd.

Frequency response data for a MIMO system includes a vector of complex response data
for each of the input/output (I/O) pair of the system. Thus, if you measure the frequency
response of each I/O pair of your system at a set of test frequencies, you can use the data
to create a frequency response model:
1 Load frequency response data in AnalyzerDataMIMO.mat.
load AnalyzerDataMIMO H11 H12 H21 H22 freq

This command loads the data into the MATLAB workspace as five column vectors
H11, H12, H21, H22, and freq. The vector freq contains 100 test frequencies. The
other four vectors contain the corresponding complex-valued frequency response of
each I/O pair of a two-input, two-output system.

Tip To inspect these variables, enter:

whos H11 H12 H21 H22 freq

2 Organize the data into a three-dimensional array.

Hresp = zeros(2,2,length(freq));
Hresp(1,1,:) = H11;
Hresp(1,2,:) = H12;
Hresp(2,1,:) = H21;
Hresp(2,2,:) = H22;

The dimensions of Hresp are the number of outputs, number of inputs, and the
number of frequencies for which there is response data. Hresp(i,j,:) contains the
frequency response from input j to output i.
3 Create a frequency-response model.
H = frd(Hresp,freq);

H is an frd model object, which is a data container for representing frequency response
data.

You can use frd models with many frequency-domain analysis commands. For example,
visualize the response of this two-input, two-output system using bode.

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2 Model Creation

Tip By default, the frd command assumes that the frequencies are in radians/second. To
specify different frequency units, use the TimeUnit and FrequencyUnit properties of
the frd model object. For example:

H = frd(Hresp,freq,'TimeUnit','min','FrequencyUnit','rad/TimeUnit')

sets the frequency units to in radians/minute.

See Also
frd

Related Examples
• “Frequency Response Data (FRD) Models” on page 2-10

More About
• “What Are Model Objects?” on page 1-2
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-38
 Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models

Select Input/Output Pairs in MIMO Models

This example shows how to select the response from the first input to the second output
of a MIMO model.

1 Create a two-input, one-output transfer function.

N = {[1 -1],[1];[1 2],[3 1 4]};

D = [1 1 10];
H = tf(N,D)

Note For more information about using cell arrays to create MIMO transfer
functions, see the tf reference page.
2 Select the response from the second input to the output of H.

To do this, use MATLAB array indexing.

H12 = H(1,2)

For any MIMO system H, the index notation H(i,j) selects the response from the jth
input to the ith output.

See Also

Related Examples
• “MIMO Transfer Functions” on page 2-28
• “MIMO State-Space Models” on page 2-31

More About
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

2-39
2 Model Creation

Time Delays in Linear Systems

Use the following model properties to represent time delays in linear systems.

• InputDelay, OutputDelay — Time delays at system inputs or outputs

• ioDelay, InternalDelay — Time delays that are internal to the system

In discrete-time models, these properties are constrained to integer values that represent
delays expressed as integer multiples of the sample time. To approximate discrete-time
models with delays that are a fractional multiple of the sample time, use thiran.

First Order Plus Dead Time Model

This example shows how to create a first order plus dead time model using the
InputDelay or OutputDelay properties of tf.

To create the following first-order transfer function with a 2.1 s time delay:

1
G ( s ) = e-2.1s ,
s + 10

enter:

G = tf(1,[1 10],'InputDelay',2.1)

where InputDelay specifies the delay at the input of the transfer function.

Tip You can use InputDelay with zpk the same way as with tf:

G = zpk([],-10,1,'InputDelay',2.1)

For SISO transfer functions, a delay at the input is equivalent to a delay at the output.
Therefore, the following command creates the same transfer function:

G = tf(1,[1 10],'OutputDelay',2.1)

Use dot notation to examine or change the value of a time delay. For example, change the
time delay to 3.2 as follows:

2-40
 Time Delays in Linear Systems

G.OutputDelay = 3.2;

To see the current value, enter:

G.OutputDelay

ans =

3.2000

Tip An alternative way to create a model with a time delay is to specify the transfer
function with the delay as an expression in s:
1 Create a transfer function model for the variable s.
s = tf('s');
2 Specify G(s) as an expression in s.
G = exp(-2.1*s)/(s+10);

Input and Output Delay in State-Space Model

This example shows how to create state-space models with delays at the inputs and
outputs, using the InputDelay or OutputDelay properties of ss.

Create a state-space model describing the following one-input, two-output system:

dx ( t )
= -2 x ( t ) + 3u ( t - 1 .5 )
dt
È x ( t - 0 .7 ) ˘
y (t ) = Í ˙.
Î - x (t ) ˚

This system has an input delay of 1.5. The first output has an output delay of 0.7, and the
second output is not delayed.

Note In contrast to SISO transfer functions, input delays are not equivalent to output
delays for state-space models. Shifting a delay from input to output in a state-space model
requires introducing a time shift in the model states. For example, in the model of this

2-41
2 Model Creation

example, defining T = t – 1.5 and X(T) = x(T + 1.5) results in the following equivalent
system:

dX ( T )
= -2 X ( T ) + 3u ( T )
dT
È X ( T - 2 .2 ) ˘
y (T ) = Í ˙.
Î - X ( T - 1 .5 ) ˚

All of the time delays are on the outputs, but the new state variable X is time-shifted
relative to the original state variable x. Therefore, if your states have physical meaning,
or if you have known state initial conditions, consider carefully before shifting time delays
between inputs and outputs.

To create this system:

1 Define the state-space matrices.

A = -2;
B = 3;
C = [1;-1];
D = 0;
2 Create the model.

G = ss(A,B,C,D,'InputDelay',1.5,'OutputDelay',[0.7;0])

G is a ss model.

Tip Use delayss to create state-space models with more general combinations of input,
output, and state delays, of the form:

N
dx
= Ax (t ) + Bu( t ) + Â ( Ajx (t - tj ) + Bju (t - t j))
dt j =1
N
y (t ) = Cx (t ) + Du (t ) + Â ( Cjx( t - tj) + Dju (t - tj ))
j =1

2-42
 Time Delays in Linear Systems

Transport Delay in MIMO Transfer Function

This example shows how to create a MIMO transfer function with different transport
delays for each input-output (I/O) pair.

Create the MIMO transfer function:

È - 0 .1 2 s +1 ˘
Íe e - 0 .3
s s + 10 ˙
H (s ) = Í ˙.
Í 10 -0.2 s - 1 ˙
e
ÍÎ s + 5 ˙˚

Time delays in MIMO systems can be specific to each I/O pair, as in this example. You
cannot use InputDelay and OutputDelay to model I/O-specific transport delays.
Instead, use ioDelay to specify the transport delay across each I/O pair.

To create this MIMO transfer function:

1 Create a transfer function model for the variable s.

s = tf('s');
2 Use the variable s to specify the transfer functions of H without the time delays.

H = [2/s (s+1)/(s+10); 10 (s-1)/(s+5)];

3 Specify the ioDelay property of H as an array of values corresponding to the
transport delay for each I/O pair.

H.IODelay = [0.1 0.3; 0 0.2];

H is a two-input, two-output tf model. Each I/O pair in H has the time delay specified by
the corresponding entry in tau.

Discrete-Time Transfer Function with Time Delay

This example shows how to create a discrete-time transfer function with a time delay.

In discrete-time models, a delay of one sampling period corresponds to a factor of in

the transfer function. For example, the following transfer function represents a discrete-
time SISO system with a delay of 25 sampling periods.

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2 Model Creation

To represent integer delays in discrete-time systems in MATLAB, set the 'InputDelay'

property of the model object to an integer value. For example, the following command
creates a tf model representing with a sampling time of 0.1 s.

H = tf(2,[1 -0.95],0.1,'InputDelay',25)

H =

2
z^(-25) * --------
z - 0.95

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

If system has a time delay that is not an integer multiple of the sampling time, you can
use the thiran command to approximate the fractional portion of the time delay with an
all-pass filter. See “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays” on page 2-45
• “Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z” on page 2-64

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48

2-44
 Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays

Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays

This example shows how internal delays arise when you interconnect models that have
input, output, or transport time delays.

Create a model of the following control architecture:

2.3 e-2.1s
r 0.5 + s +10
y
- s
C G

G is the plant model, which has an input delay. C is a proportional-integral (PI) controller.

To create a model representing the closed-loop response of this system:

1 Create the plant G and the controller C.

G = tf(1,[1 10],'InputDelay',2.1);
C = pid(0.5,2.3);

C has a proportional gain of 0.5 and an integral gain of 2.3.

2 Use feedback to compute the closed-loop response from r to y.

T = feedback(C*G,1);

The time delay in T is not an input delay as it is in G. Because the time delay is internal to
the closed-loop system, the software returns T as an ss model with an internal time delay
of 2.1 seconds.

Note In addition to feedback, any system interconnection function (including parallel

and series) can give rise to internal delays.

T is an exact representation of the closed-loop response, not an approximation. To access

the internal delay value, enter:

T.InternalDelay

A step plot of T confirms the presence of the time delay:

2-45
2 Model Creation

step(T)

Note Most analysis commands, such as step, bode and margin, support models with
internal delays.

The internal time delay is stored in the InternalDelay property of T. Use dot notation
to access InternalDelay. For example, to change the internal delay to 3.5 seconds,
enter:

T.InternalDelay = 3.5

2-46
 See Also

You cannot modify the number of internal delays because they are structural properties of
the model.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z” on page 2-64

More About
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

2-47
2 Model Creation

Time-Delay Approximation
Many control design algorithms cannot handle time delays directly. For example,
techniques such as root locus, LQG, and pole placement do not work properly if time
delays are present. A common technique is to replace delays with all-pass filters that
approximate the delays.

To approximate time delays in continuous-time LTI models, use the pade command to
compute a Padé approximation. The Padé approximation is valid only at low frequencies,
and provides better frequency-domain approximation than time-domain approximation. It
is therefore important to compare the true and approximate responses to choose the right
approximation order and check the approximation validity.

Time-Delay Approximation in Discrete-Time Models

For discrete-time models, use absorbDelay to convert a time delay to factors of 1/z
where the time delay is an integer multiple of the sample time.

Use the thiran command to approximate a time delay that is a fractional multiple of the
sample time as a Thiran all-pass filter.

For a time delay of tau and a sample time of Ts, the syntax thiran(tau,Ts) creates a
discrete-time transfer function that is the product of two terms:

• A term representing the integer portion of the time delay as a pure line delay, (1/z)N,
where N = ceil(tau/Ts).
• A term approximating the fractional portion of the time delay (tau - NTs) as a Thiran
all-pass filter.

Discretizing a Padé approximation does not guarantee good phase matching between the
continuous-time delay and its discrete approximation. Using thiran to generate a
discrete-time approximation of a continuous-time delay can yield much better phase
matching. For example, the following figure shows the phase delay of a 10.2-second time
delay discretized with a sample time of 1 s, approximated in three ways:

• a first-order Padé approximation, discretized using the tustin method of c2d

• an 11th-order Padé approximation, discretized using the tustin method of c2d
• an 11th-order Thiran filter

2-48
 See Also

The Thiran filter yields the closest approximation of the 10.2-second delay.

See the thiran reference page for more information about Thiran filters.

See Also
absorbDelay | pade | thiran

Related Examples
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model” on page 2-50
• “Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z” on page 2-64
• “Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders” on page 2-60

2-49
2 Model Creation

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-

Loop Model
This example shows how to approximate delays in a continuous-time open-loop system
using pade.

Padé approximation is helpful when using analysis or design tools that do not support
time delays.

1 Create sample open-loop system with an output delay.

1
u e-2.6s y
s 2 + 0.9s + 1

s = tf('s');
P = exp(-2.6*s)/(s^2+0.9*s+1);

P is a second-order transfer function (tf) object with a time delay.

2 Compute the first-order Padé approximation of P.

Pnd1 = pade(P,1)

Pnd1 =

-s + 0.7692
----------------------------------
s^3 + 1.669 s^2 + 1.692 s + 0.7692

Continuous-time transfer function.

This command replaces all time delays in P with a first-order approximation.

Therefore, Pnd1 is a third-order transfer function with no delays.
3 Compare the frequency response of the original and approximate models using
bodeplot.

h = bodeoptions;
h.PhaseMatching = 'on';
bodeplot(P,'-b',Pnd1,'-.r',{0.1,10},h)
legend('Exact delay','First-Order Pade','Location','SouthWest')

2-50
 Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model

The magnitude of P and Pnd1 match exactly. However, the phase of Pnd1 deviates
from the phase of P beyond approximately 1 rad/s.
4 Increase the Padé approximation order to extend the frequency band in which the
phase approximation is good.

Pnd3 = pade(P,3);
5 Compare the frequency response of P, Pnd1 and Pnd3.

bodeplot(P,'-b',Pnd3,'-.r',Pnd1,':k',{0.1 10},h)
legend('Exact delay','Third-Order Pade','First-Order Pade',...
'Location','SouthWest')

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2 Model Creation

The phase approximation error is reduced by using a third-order Padé approximation.

6 Compare the time domain responses of the original and approximated systems using
stepplot.

stepplot(P,'-b',Pnd3,'-.r',Pnd1,':k')
legend('Exact delay','Third-Order Pade','First-Order Pade',...
'Location','Southeast')

2-52
 Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model

Using the Padé approximation introduces a nonminimum phase artifact (“wrong way”
effect) in the initial transient response. The effect is quite pronounced in the first-
order approximation, which dips significantly below zero before changing direction.
The effect is reduced in the higher-order approximation, which far more closely
matches the exact system’s response.

Note Using too high an approximation order may result in numerical issues and
possibly unstable poles. Therefore, avoid Padé approximations with order N>10.

2-53
2 Model Creation

See Also
pade

Related Examples
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model” on page 2-55

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

2-54
 Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model

Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-

Loop Model
This example shows how to approximate delays in a continuous-time closed-loop system
with internal delays, using pade.

Padé approximation is helpful when using analysis or design tools that do not support
time delays.

1 Create sample continuous-time closed-loop system with an internal delay.

0.15 e-4.2s s +1
r 0.06 + + 0.006s s2 + 0.68s + 1 y
- s
C G

Construct a model Tcl of the closed-loop transfer function from r to y.

s = tf('s');
G = (s+1)/(s^2+.68*s+1)*exp(-4.2*s);
C = pid(0.06,0.15,0.006);
Tcl = feedback(G*C,1);

Examine the internal delay of Tcl.

Tcl.InternalDelay

ans = 4.2000
2 Compute the first-order Padé approximation of Tcl.

Tnd1 = pade(Tcl,1);

Tnd1 is a state-space (ss) model with no delays.

3 Compare the frequency response of the original and approximate models.

h = bodeoptions;
h.PhaseMatching = 'on';
bodeplot(Tcl,'-b',Tnd1,'-.r',{.1,10},h);
legend('Exact delay','First-Order Pade','Location','SouthWest');

2-55
2 Model Creation

The magnitude and phase approximation errors are significant beyond 1 rad/s.
4 Compare the time domain response of Tcl and Tnd1 using stepplot.

stepplot(Tcl,'-b',Tnd1,'-.r');
legend('Exact delay','First-Order Pade','Location','SouthEast');

2-56
 Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Closed-Loop Model

Using the Padé approximation introduces a nonminimum phase artifact (“wrong way”
effect) in the initial transient response.
5 Increase the Padé approximation order to see if this will extend the frequency with
good phase and magnitude approximation.

Tnd3 = pade(Tcl,3);
6 Observe the behavior of the third-order Padé approximation of Tcl. Compare the
frequency response of Tcl and Tnd3.

bodeplot(Tcl,'-b',Tnd3,'-.r',Tnd1,'--k',{.1,10},h);
legend('Exact delay','Third-Order Pade','First-Order Pade',...
'Location','SouthWest');

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2 Model Creation

The magnitude and phase approximation errors are reduced when a third-order Padé
approximation is used.

Increasing the Padé approximation order extends the frequency band where the
approximation is good. However, too high an approximation order may result in numerical
issues and possibly unstable poles. Therefore, avoid Padé approximations with order
N>10.

See Also
pade

2-58
 See Also

Related Examples
• “Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders” on page 2-60

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

2-59
2 Model Creation

Approximate Different Delays with Different

Approximation Orders
This example shows how to specify different Padé approximation orders to approximate
internal and output delays in a continuous-time open-loop system.

Load a sample continuous-time open-loop system that contains internal and output time
delays.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','PadeApproximation1.mat'),'sys')
sys

sys =

A =
x1 x2
x1 -1.5 -0.1
x2 1 0

B =
u1
x1 1
x2 0

C =
x1 x2
y1 0.5 0.1

D =
u1
y1 0

(values computed with all internal delays set to zero)

Output delays (seconds): 1.5

Internal delays (seconds): 3.4

Continuous-time state-space model.

sys is a second-order continuous-time ss model with internal delay 3.4 s and output
delay 1.5 s.

2-60
 Approximate Different Delays with Different Approximation Orders

Use the pade function to compute a third-order approximation of the internal delay and a
first-order approximation of the output delay.

P13 = pade(sys,inf,1,3);
size(P13)

State-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, and 6 states.

The three input arguments following sys specify the approximation orders of any input,
output, and internal delays of sys, respectively. inf specifies that a delay is not to be
approximated. The approximation orders for the output and internal delays are one and
three respectively.

Approximating the time delays with pade absorbs delays into the dynamics, adding as
many states to the model as orders in the approximation. Thus, P13 is a sixth-order model
with no delays.

For comparison, approximate only the internal delay of sys, leaving the output delay
intact.

P3 = pade(sys,inf,inf,3);
size(P3)

State-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, and 5 states.

P3.OutputDelay

ans = 1.5000

P3.InternalDelay

ans =

0x1 empty double column vector

P3 retains the output delay, but the internal delay is approximated and absorbed into the
state-space matrices, resulting in a fifth-order model without internal delays.

Compare the frequency response of the exact and approximated systems sys, P13, P3.

h = bodeoptions;
h.PhaseMatching = 'on';
bode(sys,'b-',P13,'r-.',P3,'k--',h,{.01,10});
legend('sys','approximated output and internal delays','approximated internal delay onl
'location','SouthWest')

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2 Model Creation

Notice that approximating the internal delay loses the gain ripple displayed in the exact
system.

See Also
pade

Related Examples
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model” on page 2-50

2-62
 See Also

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

2-63
2 Model Creation

Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of

1/z
This example shows how to convert a time delay in a discrete-time model to factors of 1/
_z_.

In a discrete-time model, a time delay of one sampling interval is equivalent to a factor of

1/_z_ (a pole at z = 0) in the model. Therefore, time delays stored in the InputDelay,
OutputDelay, or IODelay properties of a discrete-time model can be rewritten in the
model dynamics by rewriting them as poles at z = 0. However, the additional poles
increase the order of the system. Particularly for large time delays, this can yield systems
of very high order, leading to long computation times or numerical inaccuracies.

To illustrate how to eliminate time delays in a discrete-time closed-loop model, and to

observe the effects of doing so, create the following closed-loop system:

G is a first-order discrete-time system with an input delay, and C is a PI controller.

G = ss(0.9,0.125,0.08,0,'Ts',0.01,'InputDelay',7);
C = pid(6,90,0,0,'Ts',0.01);
T = feedback(C*G,1);

Closing the feedback loop on a plant with input delays gives rise to internal delays in the
closed-loop system. Examine the order and internal delay of T.
order(T)

ans =

T.InternalDelay

ans =

2-64
 Convert Time Delay in Discrete-Time Model to Factors of 1/z

T is a second-order state-space model. One state is contributed by the first-order plant,

and the other by the one pole of the PI controller. The delays do not increase the order of
T. Instead, they are represented as an internal delay of seven time steps.

Replace the internal delay by .

Tnd = absorbDelay(T);

This command converts the internal delay to seven poles at z = 0. To confirm this,
examine the order and internal delay of Tnd.

order(Tnd)

ans =

Tnd.InternalDelay

ans =

0x1 empty double column vector

Tnd has no internal delay, but it is a ninth-order model, due to the seven extra poles
introduced by absorbing the seven-unit delay into the model dynamics.

Despite this difference in representation, the responses of Tnd exactly match those of T.

stepplot(T,Tnd,'r--')
legend('T','Tnd')

2-65
2 Model Creation

bodeplot(T,Tnd,'r--')
legend('T','Tnd')

2-66
 See Also

See Also
pade

Related Examples
• “Time-Delay Approximation in Continuous-Time Open-Loop Model” on page 2-50

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48

2-67
2 Model Creation

• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

2-68
 Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time Delay

Frequency Response Data (FRD) Model with Time Delay

This example shows that absorbing time delays into frequency response data can cause
undesirable phase wrapping at high frequencies.

When you collect frequency response data for a system that includes time delays, you can
absorb the time delay into the frequency response as a phase shift. Alternatively, if you
are able to separate time delays from your measured frequency response, you can
represent the delays using the InputDelay, OutputDelay, or ioDelay properties of the
frd model object. The latter approach can give better numerical results, as this example
illustrates.

The frd model fsys includes a transport delay of 2 s. Load the model into the MATLAB®
workspace and inspect the time delay.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','frddelayexample.mat'),'fsys')
fsys.IODelay

ans =

A Bode plot of fsys shows the effect of the transport delay, causing the accumulation of
phase as frequency increases.

bodeplot(fsys)

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2 Model Creation

The absorbDelay command absorbs all time delays directly into the frequency response,
resulting in an frd model with IODelay = 0.

fsys2 = absorbDelay(fsys);
fsys2.IODelay

ans =

Comparing the two ways of representing the delay shows that absorbing the delay into
the frequency response causes phase-wrapping.

2-70
 See Also

bode(fsys,fsys2)

Phase wrapping can introduce numerical inaccuracy at high frequencies or where the
frequency grid is sparse. For that reason, if your system takes the form , you
might get better results by measuring frequency response data for G(s) and using
InputDelay, OutputDelay, or ioDelay to model the time delay .

See Also
absorbDelay

2-71
2 Model Creation

More About
• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48

2-72
 Internal Delays

Internal Delays
Using the InputDelay, OutputDelay, and ioDelay properties, you can model simple
processes with transport delays. However, these properties cannot model more complex
situations, such as feedback loops with delays. In addition to the InputDelay and
OutputDelay properties, state-space (ss) models have an InternalDelay property.
This property lets you model the interconnection of systems with input, output, or
transport delays, including feedback loops with delays. You can use InternalDelay
property to accurately model and analyze arbitrary linear systems with delays. Internal
delays can arise from the following:

• Concatenating state-space models with input and output delays.

• Feeding back a delayed signal.
• Converting MIMO tf or zpk models with transport delays to state-space form.

Using internal time delays, you can do the following:

• In continuous time, generate approximate-free time and frequency simulations,

because delays do not have to be replaced by a Padé approximation. In continuous
time, this allows for more accurate analysis of systems with long delays.
• In discrete time, keep delays separate from other system dynamics, because delays
are not replaced with poles at z = 0, which boosts efficiency of time and frequency
simulations for discrete-time systems with long delays.
• Use most Control System Toolbox functions.
• Test advanced control strategies for delayed systems. For example, you can implement
and test an accurate model of a Smith predictor. See the example “Control of
Processes with Long Dead Time: The Smith Predictor”.

Why Internal Delays Are Necessary

This example illustrates why input, output, and transport delays not enough to model all
types of delays that can arise in dynamic systems. Consider the simple feedback loop with
a 2 s. delay:

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2 Model Creation

e-2s
s+2

The closed-loop transfer function is

e- 2 s
s + 2 + e- 2s

The delay term in the numerator can be represented as an output delay. However, the
delay term in the denominator cannot. In order to model the effect of the delay on the
feedback loop, the InternalDelay property is needed to keep track of internal coupling
between delays and ordinary dynamics.

Typically, you do not create state-space models with internal delays directly, by specifying
the A, B, C, and D matrices together with a set of internal delays. Rather, such models
arise when you interconnect models having delays. There is no limitation on how many
delays are involved and how the models are connected. For an example of creating an
internal delay by closing a feedback loop, see “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays”
on page 2-45.

Behavior of Models With Internal Delays

When you work with models having internal delays, be aware of the following behavior:

• When a model interconnection gives rise to internal delays, the software returns an ss
model regardless of the interconnected model types. This occurs because only ss
supports internal delays.
• The software fully supports feedback loops. You can wrap a feedback loop around any
system with delays.
• When displaying the A, B, C, and D matrices, the software sets all delays to zero
(creating a zero-order Padé approximation). This approximation occurs for the display
only, and not for calculations using the model.

For some systems, setting delays to zero creates singular algebraic loops, which result
in either improper or ill-defined, zero-delay approximations. For these systems:

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 Internal Delays

• Entering sys returns only sizes for the matrices of a system named sys.
• Entering sys.A produces an error.

The limited display and the error do not imply a problem with the model sys itself.

Inside Time Delay Models

State-space objects use generalized state-space equations to keep track of internal delays.
Conceptually, such models consist of two interconnected parts:

• An ordinary state-space model H(s) with an augmented I/O set

• A bank of internal delays.

The corresponding state-space equations are:

x& = Ax(t) + B1u(t) + B2w(t)

y( t) = C1 x( t) + D11u( t) + D12 w(t)
z(t) = C2 x(t) + D21u( t) + D22 w(t)
w j (t) = z(t - t j ), j = 1,..., N

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2 Model Creation

You need not bother with this internal representation to use the tools. If, however, you
want to extract H or the matrices A, B1, B2, ... , you can use getDelayModel, For the
example:

P = 5*exp(-3.4*s)/(s+1);
C = 0.1 * (1 + 1/(5*s));
T = feedback(ss(P*C),1);
[H,tau] = getDelayModel(T,'lft');
size(H)

Note that H is a two-input, two-output model whereas T is SISO. The inverse operation
(combining H and tau to construct T) is performed by setDelayModel.

See [1], [2] for details.

Functions That Support Internal Time Delays

The following commands support internal delays for both continuous- and discrete-time
systems:

• All interconnection functions

• Time domain response functions—except for impulse and initial
• Frequency domain functions—except for norm

Limitations on Functions that Support Internal Time Delays

The following commands support internal delays for both continuous- and discrete-time
systems and have certain limitations:

• allmargin, margin—Uses interpolation, therefore these commands are only as

precise as the fineness of the specified grid.
• pole, zero—Returns poles and zeros of the system with all delays set to zero.
• ssdata, get—If an SS model has internal delays, these commands return the A, B, C,
and D matrices of the system with all internal delays set to zero. Use getDelayModel
to access the internal state-space representation of models with internal delays.

Functions That Do Not Support Internal Time Delays

The following commands do not support internal time delays:

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 See Also

• System dynamics—norm and isstable

• Time-domain analysis—initial and initialplot
• Model simplification—balreal, balred, and modred
• Compensator design—rlocus, lqg, lqry, lqrd, kalman, kalmd, lqgreg, lqgtrack,
lqi, and augstate.

To use these functions on a system with internal delays, use pade to approximate the
internal delays. See “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48.

References

[1] P. Gahinet and L.F. Shampine, "Software for Modeling and Analysis of Linear Systems
with Delays," Proc. American Control Conf., Boston, 2004, pp. 5600-5605

[2] L.F. Shampine and P. Gahinet, Delay-differential-algebraic Equations in Control Theory,

Applied Numerical Mathematics, 56 (2006), pp. 574-588

See Also

Related Examples
• “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays” on page 2-45

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2 Model Creation

Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter

This example shows how to create a low-pass filter with one tunable parameter a:

You cannot use tunableTF to represent F, because the numerator and denominator
coefficients of a tunableTF block are independent. Instead, construct F using the
tunable real parameter object realp.

Create a tunable real parameter with an initial value of 10.

a = realp('a',10);

Use tf to create the tunable filter F.

F = tf(a,[1 a]);

F is a genss object which has the tunable parameter a in its Blocks property. You can
connect F with other tunable or numeric models to create more complex control system
models. For example, see “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83.

See Also
genss | realp | tunableTF

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19
• “Create Tunable Second-Order Filter” on page 2-79
• “Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters” on page 2-81
• “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83

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 Create Tunable Second-Order Filter

Create Tunable Second-Order Filter

This example shows how to create a parametric model of the second-order filter:

where the damping and the natural frequency are tunable parameters.

Define the tunable parameters using realp.

wn = realp('wn',3);
zeta = realp('zeta',0.8);

wn and zeta are realp parameter objects, with initial values 3 and 0.8, respectively.

Create a model of the filter using the tunable parameters.

F = tf(wn^2,[1 2*zeta*wn wn^2]);

The inputs to tf are the vectors of numerator and denominator coefficients expressed in
terms of wn and zeta.

F is a genss model. The property F.Blocks lists the two tunable parameters wn and
zeta.
F.Blocks

ans = struct with fields:

wn: [1x1 realp]
zeta: [1x1 realp]

You can examine the number of tunable blocks in a generalized model using nblocks.
nblocks(F)

ans = 6

F has two tunable parameters, but the parameter wn appears five times - Twice in the
numerator and three times in the denominator.

To reduce the number of tunable blocks, you can rewrite F as:

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2 Model Creation

Create the alternative filter.

F = tf(1,[(1/wn)^2 2*zeta*(1/wn) 1]);

Examine the number of tunable blocks in the new model.

nblocks(F)

ans = 4

In the new formulation, there are only three occurrences of the tunable parameter wn.
Reducing the number of occurrences of a block in a model can improve the performance
of calculations involving the model. However, the number of occurrences does not affect
the results of tuning the model or sampling it for parameter studies.

See Also
genss | nblocks | realp

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19
• “Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter” on page 2-78
• “Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters” on page 2-81
• “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83

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 Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters

Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable

Parameters
This example shows how to create a state-space genss model having both fixed and
tunable parameters.

where a and b are tunable parameters, whose initial values are -1 and 3, respectively.

Create the tunable parameters using realp.

a = realp('a',-1);
b = realp('b',3);

Define a generalized matrix using algebraic expressions of a and b.

A = [1 a+b;0 a*b];

A is a generalized matrix whose Blocks property contains a and b. The initial value of A
is [1 2;0 -3], from the initial values of a and b.

Create the fixed-value state-space matrices.

B = [-3.0;1.5];
C = [0.3 0];
D = 0;

Use ss to create the state-space model.

sys = ss(A,B,C,D)

sys =

Generalized continuous-time state-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, 2 states, and

a: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.
b: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.

Type "ss(sys)" to see the current value, "get(sys)" to see all properties, and "sys.Blo

sys is a generalized LTI model (genss) with tunable parameters a and b. Confirm that
the A property of sys is stored as a generalized matrix.

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sys.A

ans =

Generalized matrix with 2 rows, 2 columns, and the following blocks:

a: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.
b: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.

Type "double(ans)" to see the current value, "get(ans)" to see all properties, and "ans

See Also

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19
• “Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter” on page 2-78
• “Create Tunable Second-Order Filter” on page 2-79
• “Control System with Tunable Components” on page 2-83

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 Control System with Tunable Components

Control System with Tunable Components

This example shows how to create a tunable model of the control system in the following
illustration.

The plant response is . The model of sensor dynamics is

. The controller is a tunable PID controller, and the prefilter
is a low-pass filter with one tunable parameter, .

Create models representing the plant and sensor dynamics. Since the plant and sensor
dynamics are fixed, represent them using numeric LTI models zpk and tf.
G = zpk([],[-1,-1],1);
S = tf(5,[1 4]);

Create a tunable representation of the controller .

C = tunablePID('C','PID');

C is a tunablePID object, which is a Control Design Block with a predefined

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) structure.

Create a model of the filter with one tunable parameter.

a = realp('a',10);
F = tf(a,[1 a]);

a is a realp (real tunable parameter) object with initial value 10. Using a as a coefficient
in tf creates the tunable genss model object F.

Connect the models together to construct a model of the closed-loop response from to
.

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2 Model Creation

T = feedback(G*C,S)*F

T =

Generalized continuous-time state-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, 5 states, and

C: Parametric PID controller, 1 occurrences.
a: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.

Type "ss(T)" to see the current value, "get(T)" to see all properties, and "T.Blocks" t

T is a genss model object. In contrast to an aggregate model formed by connecting only

Numeric LTI models, T keeps track of the tunable elements of the control system. The
tunable elements are stored in the Blocks property of the genss model object.

Display the tunable elements of T.

T.Blocks

ans = struct with fields:

C: [1x1 tunablePID]
a: [1x1 realp]

You can use tuning commands such as systune to tune the free parameters of T to meet
design requirements you specify.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Create Tunable Low-Pass Filter” on page 2-78
• “Create Tunable Second-Order Filter” on page 2-79
• “Create State-Space Model with Both Fixed and Tunable Parameters” on page 2-81

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19

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 Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points

Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points

This example shows how to insert multichannel analysis points in a generalized state-
space model of a MIMO control system.

Consider the following two-input, two-output control system.

The plant G has two inputs and two outputs. Therefore, the line marked y in the block
diagram represents two signals, y(1) and y(2). Similarly, r and e each represent two
signals.

Suppose you want to create tuning requirements or extract responses that require
injecting or measuring signals at the locations L and V. To do so, create an
AnalysisPoint block and include it in the closed-loop model of the control system as
shown in the following illustration.

To create a model of this system, first create the numeric LTI models and control design
blocks that represent the plant and controller elements. D is a tunable gain block, and
C_L and C_V are tunable PI controllers. Suppose the plant model is the following:

s = tf('s');
G = [87.8 -86.4 ; 108.2 -109.6]/(75*s+1);

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2 Model Creation

D = tunableGain('Decoupler',eye(2));
C_L = tunablePID('C_L','pi');
C_V = tunablePID('C_V','pi');

Create an AnalysisPoint block that bundles together the L and V channels.

AP_1 = AnalysisPoint('AP_1',2)

AP_1 =

Multi-channel analysis point at locations:

AP_1(1)
AP_1(2)

Type "ss(AP_1)" to see the current value and "get(AP_1)" to see all properties.

For convenience, rename the channels to match the corresponding signals.

AP_1.Location = {'L';'V'}

AP_1 =

Multi-channel analysis point at locations:

L
V

Type "ss(AP_1)" to see the current value and "get(AP_1)" to see all properties.

The following diagram illustrates the input names, output names, and channel names
(locations) in the block AP_1.

The input and output names of the AnalysisPoint block are distinct from the channel
names. Use the channel names to refer to the analysis-point locations when extracting
responses or defining design goals for tuning. You can use the input and output names
AP_1.u and AP_1.y, for example, when interconnecting blocks using the connect
command.

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 Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points

You can now build the closed-loop model of the control system. First, join all the plant and
controller blocks along with the first AnalysisPoint block.

GC = G*AP_1*append(C_L,C_V)*D;

Then, close the feedback loop. Recall that GC has two inputs and outputs.

CL = feedback(GC,eye(2));

You can now use the analysis points for analysis or tuning. For example, extract the SISO
closed-loop transfer function from 'L' to the first output. Assign a name to the output so
you can reference it in analysis functions. The software automatically expands the
assigned name 'y' to the vector-valued output signals {y(1),y(2)}.

CL.OutputName = 'y';
TLy1 = getIOTransfer(CL,'L','y(1)');
bodeplot(TLy1);

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2 Model Creation

See Also
AnalysisPoint

More About
• “Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design” on page 2-89

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 Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and

Design

Analysis Points
Whether you model your control system in MATLAB or Simulink, use analysis points to
mark points of interest in the model. Analysis points allow you to access internal signals,
perform open-loop analysis, or specify requirements for controller tuning. In the block
diagram representation, an analysis point can be thought of as an access port to a signal
flowing from one block to another. In Simulink, analysis points are attached to the
outports of Simulink blocks. For example, in the following model, the reference signal, r,
and the control signal, u, are analysis points that originate from the outputs of the
setpoint and C blocks respectively.

Each analysis point can serve one or more of the following purposes:

• Input — The software injects an additive input signal at an analysis point, for
example, to model a disturbance at the plant input.
• Output — The software measures the signal value at a point, for example, to study the
impact of a disturbance on the plant output.
• Loop Opening — The software inserts a break in the signal flow at a point, for
example, to study the open-loop response at the plant input.

You can apply these purposes concurrently. For example, to compute the open-loop
response from u to y, you can treat u as both a loop opening and an input. When you use
an analysis point for more than one purpose, the software applies the purposes in this
sequence: output measurement, then loop opening, then input.

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2 Model Creation

Using analysis points, you can extract open-loop and closed-loop responses from a control
system model. For example, suppose T represents the closed-loop system in the model
above, and u and y are marked as analysis points. T can be either a generalized state-
space model or an slLinearizer or slTuner interface to a Simulink model. You can
plot the closed-loop response to a step disturbance at the plant input with the following
commands:

Tuy = getIOTransfer(T,'u','y');
stepplot(Tuy)

Analysis points are also useful to specify design requirements when tuning control
systems with the systune command. For example, you can create a requirement that
attenuates disturbances at the plant input by a factor of 10 (20 dB) or more.

Req = TuningGoal.Rejection('u',10);

Specify Analysis Points for MATLAB Models

Consider an LTI model of the following block diagram.

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 Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

G = tf(10,[1 3 10]);
C = pid(0.2,1.5);
T = feedback(G*C,1);

With this model, you can obtain the closed-loop response from r to y. However, you
cannot analyze the open-loop response at the plant input or simulate the rejection of a
step disturbance at the plant input. To enable such analysis, mark the signal u as an
analysis point by inserting an AnalysisPoint block between the plant and controller.

AP = AnalysisPoint('u');
T = feedback(G*AP*C,1);
T.OutputName = 'y';

The plant input, u, is now available for analysis.

In creating the model T, you manually created the analysis point block AP and explicitly
included it in the feedback loop. When you combine models using the connect command,
you can instruct the software to insert analysis points automatically at the locations you
specify. For more information, see connect.

Specify Analysis Points for Simulink Models

In Simulink, you can mark analysis points either explicitly in the block diagram, or
programmatically using the addPoint command for slLinearizer or slTuner
interfaces.

To mark an analysis point explicitly in the model, right-click a signal and, under Linear
Analysis Points, select an analysis point type.

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You can select any of the following closed-loop analysis point types, which are equivalent
within an slLinearizer or slTuner interface; that is, they are treated the same way by
analysis functions, such as getIOTransfer, and tuning goals, such as
TuningGoal.StepTracking.

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 Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

• Input Perturbation
• Output Measurement
• Sensitivity
• Complementary Sensitivity

If you want to introduce a permanent loop opening at a signal as well, select one of the
following open-loop analysis point types:

• Open-Loop Input
• Open-Loop Output
• Loop Transfer
• Loop Break

When you define a signal as an open-loop point, analysis functions such as

getIOTransfer always enforce a loop break at that signal during linearization. All open-
loop analysis point types are equivalent within an slLinearizer or slTuner interface.
For more information on how the software treats loop openings during linearization, see
“How the Software Treats Loop Openings” (Simulink Control Design).

When you create an slLinearizer or slTuner interface for a model, any analysis
points defined in the model are automatically added to the interface. If you defined an
analysis point using:

• A closed-loop type, the signal is added as an analysis point only.

• An open-loop type, the signal is added as both an analysis point and a permanent
opening.

To mark analysis points programmatically, use the addPoint command. For example,
consider the scdcascade model.

open_system('scdcascade')

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2 Model Creation

To mark analysis points, first create an slTuner interface.

ST = slTuner('scdcascade');

To add a signal as an analysis point, use the addPoint command, specifying the source
block and port number for the signal.

addPoint(ST,'scdcascade/C1',1);

If the source block has a single output port, you can omit the port number.

addPoint(ST,'scdcascade/G2');

For convenience, you can also mark analysis points using the:

• Name of the signal.

addPoint(ST,'y2');
• Combined source block path and port number.

addPoint(ST,'scdcascade/C1/1')
• End of the full source block path when unambiguous.

addPoint(ST,'G1/1')

You can also add permanent openings to an slLinearizer or slTuner interface using
the addOpening command, and specifying signals in the same way as for addPoint. For

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 Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

more information on how the software treats loop openings during linearization, see
“How the Software Treats Loop Openings” (Simulink Control Design).

addOpening(ST,'y1m');

You can also define analysis points by creating linearization I/O objects using the linio
command.

io(1) = linio('scdcascade/C1',1,'input');
io(2) = linio('scdcascade/G1',1,'output');
addPoint(ST,io);

As when you define analysis points directly in your model, if you specify a linearization I/O
object with:

• A closed-loop type, the signal is added as an analysis point only.

• An open-loop type, the signal is added as both an analysis point and a permanent
opening.

When you specify response I/Os in a tool such as Linear Analysis Tool or Control System
Tuner, the software creates analysis points as needed.

Refer to Analysis Points for Analysis and Tuning

Once you have marked analysis points, you can analyze the response at any of these
points using the following analysis functions:

• getIOTransfer — Transfer function for specified inputs and outputs

• getLoopTransfer — Open-loop transfer function from an additive input at a
specified point to a measurement at the same point
• getSensitivity — Sensitivity function at a specified point
• getCompSensitivity — Complementary sensitivity function at a specified point

You can also create tuning goals that constrain the system response at these points. The
tools to perform these operations operate in a similar manner for models created at the
command line and models created in Simulink.

To view the available analysis points, use the getPoints function. You can view the
analysis for models created:

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2 Model Creation

• At the command line:

• In Simulink:

For closed-loop models created at the command line, you can also use the model input
and output names when:

• Computing a closed-loop response.

ioSys = getIOTransfer(T,'u','y');
stepplot(ioSys)

• Computing an open-loop response.

loopSys = getLoopTransfer(T,'u',-1);
bodeplot(loopSys)

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 Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design

• Creating tuning goals for systune.

R = TuningGoal.Margins('u',10,60);

Use the same method to refer to analysis points for models created in Simulink. In
Simulink models, for convenience, you can use any unambiguous abbreviation of the
analysis point names returned by getPoints.
ioSys = getIOTransfer(ST,'u1','y1');
sensG2 = getSensitivity(ST,'G2');
R = TuningGoal.Margins('u1',10,60);

Finally, if some analysis points are vector-valued signals or multichannel locations, you
can use indices to select particular entries or channels. For example, suppose u is a two-
entry vector in a closed-loop MIMO model.

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2 Model Creation

G = ss([-1 0.2;0 -2],[1 0;0.3 1],eye(2),0);

C = pid(0.2,0.5);
AP = AnalysisPoint('u',2);
T = feedback(G*AP*C,eye(2));
T.OutputName = 'y';

You can compute the open-loop response of the second channel and measure the impact
of a disturbance on the first channel.

L = getLoopTransfer(T,'u(2)',-1);
stepplot(getIOTransfer(T,'u(1)','y'))

When you create tuning goals in Control System Tuner, the software creates analysis
points as needed.

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 See Also

See Also
AnalysisPoint | getIOTransfer | getPoints

More About
• “Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points” on page 2-85
• “Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models” on page 4-13

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2 Model Creation

Model Arrays

What Are Model Arrays?

In many applications, it is useful to consider collections multiple model objects. For
example, you may want to consider a model with a parameter that varies across a range
of values, such as

sys1 = tf(1, [1 1 1]);

sys2 = tf(1, [1 1 2]);
sys3 = tf(1, [1 1 3]);

and so on. Model arrays are a convenient way to store and analyze such a collection.
Model arrays are collections of multiple linear models, stored as elements in a single
MATLAB array.

For all models collected in a single model array, the following attributes must be the
same:

• The number of inputs and outputs

• The sample time Ts
• The time unit TimeUnit

Uses of Model Arrays

Uses of model arrays include:

• Representing and analyzing sensitivity to parameter variations

• Validating a controller design against several plant models
• Representing linear models arising from the linearization of a nonlinear system at
several operating points
• Storing models obtained from several system identification experiments applied to one
plant

Using model arrays, you can apply almost all of the basic model operations that work on
single model objects to entire sets of models at once. Functions operate on arrays model
by model, allowing you to manipulate an entire collection of models in a vectorized
fashion. You can also use analysis functions such as bode, nyquist, and step to model

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 Model Arrays

arrays to analyze multiple models simultaneously. You can access the individual models in
the collection through MATLAB array indexing.

Visualizing Model Arrays

To visualize the concept of a model array, consider the set of five transfer function models
shown below. In this example, each model has two inputs and two outputs. They differ by
parameter variations in the individual model components.

Just as you might collect a set of two-by-two matrices in a multidimensional array, you can
collect this set of five transfer function models as a list in a model array under one
variable name, say, sys. Each element of the model array is a single model object.

Visualizing Selection of Models From Model Arrays

The following illustration shows how indexing selects models from a one-dimensional
model array. The illustration shows a 1-by-5 array sysa of 2-input, 2-output transfer
functions.

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The following illustration shows selection of models from the two-dimensional model
array m2d.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Query Array Size and Characteristics” on page 2-106
• “Select Models from Array” on page 2-103
• “Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters” on page 9-6

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 Select Models from Array

Select Models from Array

This example shows how to select individual models or sets of models from a model array
using array indexing.

1 Load the transfer function array m2d into the MATLAB workspace.

load LTIexamples m2d

2 (Optional) Plot the step response of m2d.

step(m2d)

The step response shows that m2d contains six one-input, two-output models. The
step command plots all of the models in an array on a single plot.
3 (Optional) Examine the dimensions of m2d.

arraydim = size(m2d)

This command produces the result:

arraydim =

2 1 2 3

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• The first entries of arraydim, 2 and 1, show that m2d is an array of two-output,
one-input transfer functions.
• The remaining entries in arraydim give the array dimensions of m2d, 2-by-3.

In general, the dimensions of a model array are [Ny,Nu,S1,...,Sk]. Ny and Nu are

the numbers of outputs and inputs of each model in the array. S1,...,Sk are the
array dimensions. Thus, Si is the number of models along the ith array dimension.
4 Select the transfer function in the second row, first column of m2d.

To do so, use MATLAB array indexing.

sys = m2d(:,:,2,1)

Tip You can also access models using single index referencing of the array
dimensions. For example,

sys = m2d(:,:,4)

selects the same model as m2d(:,:,2,1).

5 Select the array of subsystems from the first input to the first output of each model in
m2d.

m11 = m2d(1,1,:,:)
6 (Optional) Plot the step response of m11.

step(m11)

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 See Also

The step response shows that m11 is an array of six single-input, single-output (SISO)
models.

Note For frequency response data (FRD) models, the array indices can be followed
by the keyword 'frequency' and some expression selecting a subset of the
frequency points, as in:

sys(outputs,inputs,n1,...,nk,'frequency',SelectedFreqs)

See Also

More About
• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100
• “Query Array Size and Characteristics” on page 2-106

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2 Model Creation

Query Array Size and Characteristics

This example shows how to query the size of model arrays, including the number of inputs
and outputs of the models in the array, and the array dimensions. It also shows how to
query characteristics of the models in the array, such as stability.

Array Size

Model arrays have two different sets of dimensions, the I/O dimensions and the array
dimensions. The I/O dimensions are the numbers of inputs and outputs of the models in
the array. (Each model in an array must have the same I/O dimensions.) The array
dimensions are the dimensions of the array itself. Load a saved model array and query its
dimensions.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','queryexample.mat'),'sysarr')
size(sysarr)

2x4 array of state-space models.

Each model has 3 outputs, 1 inputs, and 3 states.

When you use the size command on a model array with no output argument, the display
shows the two sets of dimensions.

To obtain the array dimensions as a numeric array, use size with an output argument.

dims = size(sysarr)

dims = 1×4

3 1 2 4

The first two entries in dims are the I/O dimensions of the models in sysarr, which each
have three outputs and one input. The remaining entries in dims are the dimensions of
the array itself. Thus, sysarr is a 2-by-4 array of models.

To query the number of dimensions in the array, rather than the values of those
dimensions, use ndims.

dims = ndims(sysarr)

dims = 4

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 Query Array Size and Characteristics

In this case, sysarr has 4 = 2 + 2 dimensions: The I/O dimensions (outputs and inputs),
and the array dimensions. Query the I/O dimensions alone using the iosize command.

ios = iosize(sysarr)

ios = 1×2

3 1

Query the total number of models in the array.

N = nmodels(sysarr)

N = 8

Because sysarr is a 2-by-4 array of models, this command returns a value of 2 × 4 = 8.

Characteristics of Models in the Array

Query commands such as isproper and isstable work on model arrays. For example,
query whether the models in sysarr are stable.

Bsiso = isstable(sysarr)

Bsiso = logical
1

By default, isstable returns 1 (true) if all of the models in the array are stable. The
commands returns 0 (false) if one or more of the models is not stable. To perform an
element-by-element query of a model array, use the 'elem' option.

Bsiso = isstable(sysarr,'elem')

Bsiso = 2x4 logical array

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

Now isstable returns an array of Boolean values. The dimensions of this array match
the array dimensions of sysarr. Each entry in the array Bsiso indicates whether the

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corresponding model of sysarr is stable. The 'elem' option works similarly for many
query commands.

See Also

More About
• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100
• “Select Models from Array” on page 2-103

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 Linear Parameter-Varying Models

Linear Parameter-Varying Models

What are Linear Parameter-Varying Models?

A linear parameter-varying (LPV) system is a linear state-space model whose dynamics
vary as a function of certain time-varying parameters called scheduling parameters. In
MATLAB, an LPV model is represented in a state-space form using coefficients that are
parameter dependent.

Mathematically, an LPV system is represented as:

dx ( t ) = A ( p) x ( t ) + B ( p) u ( t )
y ( t ) = C ( p) x ( t ) + D ( p) u ( t)
x ( 0 ) = x0

where

• u(t) are the inputs

• y(t) the outputs
• x(t) are the model states with initial value x0
•
dx ( t ) is the state derivative vector x& for continuous-time systems and the state

update vector x ( t + DT ) for discrete-time systems. ΔT is the sample time.

• A(p), B(p), C(p) and D(p) are the state-space matrices parameterized by the
scheduling parameter vector p.
• The parameters p = p(t) are measurable functions of the inputs and the states of
the model. They can be a scalar quantity or a vector of several parameters. The set of
scheduling parameters define the scheduling space over which the LPV model is
defined.

Grid-Based LPV Model

A common way of representing LPV models is as an interpolated array of linear state-

space models. A certain number of points in the scheduling space are selected, usually
forming a regular grid on page 2-112. An LTI system is assigned to each point,
representing the dynamics in the local vicinity of that point. The dynamics at scheduling

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locations in between the grid points is obtained by interpolation of LTI systems at

neighboring points.

For example, the aerodynamic behavior of an aircraft is often scheduled over a grid of
incidence angle (α) and wind speed (V) values. For each scheduling parameter, a range of
values is chosen, such as α = 0:5:20 degrees, V = 700:100:1400 m/s. For each
combination of (α,V) values, a linear approximation of the aircraft behavior is obtained.
The local models are connected as shown in the following figure:

Each donut represents a local LTI model, and the connecting curves represent the
interpolation rules. The abscissa and ordinate of the surface are the scheduling
parameters (α, V).

This form is sometimes called the grid-based LPV representation. This is the form used by
the LPV System block. For meaningful interpolations of system matrices, all the local
models must use the same state basis.

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 Linear Parameter-Varying Models

Affine Form of LPV Model

The LPV system representation can be extended to allow offsets in dx, x, u and y
variables. This form is known as affine form of the LPV model. Mathematically, the
following represents an LPV system:

(
dx ( t ) = A ( p) x ( t ) + B ( p) u ( t ) + dx ( p) - A ( p) x ( p) - B( p)u( p) )
y ( t ) = C ( p) x ( t ) + D ( p) u ( t) + ( y ( p) - C ( p) x ( p) - D( p)u ( p) )
x ( 0 ) = x0

dx ( p) , x ( p) , u ( p) , y ( p) are the offsets in the values of dx(t), x(t), u(t) and y(t) at
a given parameter value p = p(t).

To obtain such representations of the linear system array, linearize a Simulink model over
a batch of operating points (see “Batch Linearization” (Simulink Control Design).) The
offsets correspond to the operating points at which you linearized the model.

You can obtain the offsets by returning additional linearization information when calling
functions such as linearize or getIOTransfer. You can then extract the offsets using
getOffsetsForLPV. For an example, see “LPV Approximation of a Boost Converter
Model” (Simulink Control Design).

In the affine representation, the linear model at a given point p = p* in the scheduling
space is:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
dDx(t, p* ) = A p* Dx t, p* + B p* Du t, p*

D y( t, p ) = C ( p* ) Dx ( t, p* ) + D ( p* ) D u ( t, p* )
*

The states of this linear model are related to the states of the overall LPV model

(“Equation 2-2” on page 2-111) by ( )

Dx t, p* = x ( t ) - x p*( ) . Similarly,
( ) ( )
Dy t, p* = y ( t) - y p* and ( )
Du t, p* = u ( t ) - u p* ( ).

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2 Model Creation

Regular vs. Irregular Grids

Consider a system that uses two scheduling parameters, α and β. When α and β vary
monotonically, a regular grid is formed, as shown in the next figure. The state space array
contains a value at every combination of α and β values. Regular grid does not imply
uniform spacing between values.

When parameters co-vary, that is, α and β increase together, an irregular grid is formed.
The system array parameters are available only along the diagonal in the parameter
plane.

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 Linear Parameter-Varying Models

If certain samples are missing from an otherwise regular grid, the grid is considered to be
irregular.

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2 Model Creation

Use Model Arrays to Create Linear Parameter-Varying Models

The array of state-consistent linear models that define an LPV model are represented by
an array of state-space model objects. For more information on model arrays, see “Model
Arrays”.

The system array size is equal to the grid size in scheduling space. In the aircraft
example, α takes 5 values in the 0–20 degrees range and V takes 8 values in the 700–1400
m/s range. If you define a linear model at every combination of (α,V) values (i.e., the grid
is regular), the grid size is 5-by-8. Therefore, the model array size must be 5-by-8.

The information about scheduling parameters is attached to the linear model array using
its SamplingGrid property. The value of the SamplingGrid property must be a
structure with as many fields as there are scheduling parameters. For each field, the
value must be set to all the values assumed by the corresponding variable in the
scheduling space.

For the aircraft example, you can define the SamplingGrid property as:

Alpha = 0:5:20;
V = 700:100:1400;

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 Linear Parameter-Varying Models

[Alpha_Grid,V_Grid] = ndgrid(Alpha, V);

linsysArray.SamplingGrid = struct('Alpha',Alpha_Grid,'V',V_Grid);

Approximate Nonlinear Systems using LPV Models

In the same way as a linear model provides the approximation of system behavior at a
given operating condition, an LPV model provides the approximation of the behavior over
a span on operating conditions. A common approach for constructing the LPV model is by
batch trimming and linearization, followed by stacking the local models in a state-space
model array.

Note When obtaining linear models by linearization, do not reduce or alter the state
variables used by the models.

The operating region is usually of a high dimension because it consists of all the input and
state variables. Generating or interpolating local models in such high-dimensional spaces
is usually infeasible. A simpler approach is to use a small set of scheduling parameters as
a proxy for the operating space variables. The scheduling parameters are derived from
the inputs and state variables of the original system. You must choose the values carefully
so that for a fixed value of the scheduling parameters, the system behavior is
approximately linear. This approach is not always possible.

Consider a nonlinear system described by the following equations:

x& 1 = x12 + x22

x& 2 = -2 x1 - 3 x2 + 2u
y =   x1 + 2

Suppose you use p( t) = x& 1 as a scheduling variable. At a given time instant t = t0, you
have:

x& 1 ª 2 x1 ( t0 ) x1 + 2 x2 ( t0 ) x2 - x&1 ( t0 )
x& 2 = -2 x1 - 3 x2 + 2u
y =   x1 + 2

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2 Model Creation

Thus, the dynamics are linear (affine) in the neighborhood of a given value of x& . The
approximation holds for all time spans and values of input u as long as of x& does not
deviate much from its nominal value at sampling point t0. Note that scheduling on input u
or states x1 or x2 does not help locally linearize the system. Therefore, they are not good
candidates for scheduling parameters.

For an example of this approach, see “Approximating Nonlinear Behavior Using an Array
of LTI Systems” (Simulink Control Design).

Applications of Linear Parameter-Varying Models

Modeling Multimode Dynamics

You can use LPV models to represent systems that exhibit multiple modes (regimes) of
operation. Examples of such systems include colliding bodies, systems controlled by
operator switches, and approximations of systems affected by dry friction and hysteresis
effects. For an example, see “Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics” on
page 2-118.

Proxy Modeling for Faster Simulations

This approach is useful for generating surrogate models that you can use in place of the
original system for enabling faster simulations, reducing memory footprint of target
hardware code, and hardware-in-loop (HIL) simulations. You can also use surrogate
models of this type for designing gain-scheduled controllers and for initializing the
parameter estimation tasks in Simulink. For an example of approximating a general
nonlinear system behavior by an LPV model, see “Approximating Nonlinear Behavior
Using an Array of LTI Systems” (Simulink Control Design).

LPV models can help speed up the simulation of physical component based systems, such
as those built using Simscape™ Multibody™ and Simscape Power Systems™ software.
For an example of this approach, see “LPV Approximation of a Boost Converter Model”
(Simulink Control Design).

See Also
LPV System | getOffsetsForLPV

2-116
 See Also

More About
• “Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics” on page 2-118
• “Approximating Nonlinear Behavior Using an Array of LTI Systems” (Simulink
Control Design)
• “LPV Approximation of a Boost Converter Model” (Simulink Control Design)

2-117
2 Model Creation

Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics

This example shows how to construct a Linear Parameter Varying (LPV) representation of
a system that exhibits multi-mode dynamics.

Introduction

We often encounter situations where an elastic body collides with, or presses against, a
possibly elastic surface. Examples of such situations are:

• An elastic ball bouncing on a hard surface.

• An engine throttle valve that is constrained to close to no more than using a hard
spring.
• A passenger sitting on a car seat made of polyurethane foam, a viscoelastic material.

In these situations, the motion of the moving body exhibits different dynamics when it is
moving freely than when it is in contact with a surface. In the case of a bouncing ball, the
motion of the mass can be described by rigid body dynamics when it is falling freely.
When the ball collides and deforms while in contact with the surface, the dynamics have
to take into account the elastic properties of the ball and of the surface. A simple way of
modeling the impact dynamics is to use lumped mass spring-damper descriptions of the
colliding bodies. By adjusting the relative stiffness and damping coefficients of the two
bodies, we can model the various situations described above.

Modeling Bounce Dynamics

Figure 1 shows a mass-spring-damper model of the system. Mass 1 is falling freely under
the influence of gravity. Its elastic properties are described by stiffness constant and
damping coefficient . When this mass hits the fixed surface, the impact causes Mass 1
and Mass 2 to move downwards together. After a certain "residence time" during which
the Mass 1 deforms and recovers, it loses contact with Mass 2 completely to follow a
projectile motion. The overall dynamics are thus broken into two distinct modes - when
the masses are not in contact and when they are moving jointly.

Figure 1: Elastic body bouncing on a fixed elastic surface.

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 Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics

The unstretched (load-free) length of spring attached to Mass 1 is , while that of Mass 2
is . The variables and denote the positions of the two masses. When the
masses are not in contact ("Mode 1"), their motions are governed by the following
equations:

with initial conditions , , , . is the height from

which Mass 1 is originally dropped. is the initial location of Mass 2 which
corresponds to an unstretched state of its spring.

When Mass 1 touches Mass 2 ("Mode 2"), their displacements and velocities get
interlinked. The governing equations in this mode are:

with , where is the time at which Mass 1 first touches Mass 2.

LPV Representation

The governing equations are linear and time invariant. However, there are two distinct
behavioral modes corresponding to different equations of motion. Both modes are
governed by sets of second order equations. If we pick the positions and velocities of the
masses as state variables, we can represent each mode by a 4th order state-space
equation.

In the state-space view, it becomes possible to treat the two modes as a single system
whose coefficients change as a function of a certain condition which determines which
mode is active. The condition is, of course, whether the two masses are moving freely or
jointly. Such a representation, where the coefficients of a linear system are parameterized
by an external but measurable parameter is called a Linear Parameter Varying (LPV)
model. A common representation of an LPV model is by means of an array of linear state-
space models and a set of scheduling parameters that dictate the rules for choosing the
correct model under a given condition. The array of linear models must all be defined
using the same state variables.

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2 Model Creation

For our example, we need two state-space models, one for each mode of operation. We
also need to define a scheduling variable to switch between them. We begin by writing the
above equations of motion in state-space form.

Define values of masses and their spring constants.

m1 = 7; % first mass (g)
k1 = 100; % spring constant for first mass (g/s^2)
c1 = 2; % damping coefficient associated with first mass (g/s)

m2 = 20; % second mass (g)

k2 = 300; % spring constant for second mass (g/s^2)
c2 = 5; % damping coefficient associated with second mass (g/s)

g = 9.81; % gravitational acceleration (m/s^2)

a1 = 12; % uncompressed lengths of spring 1 (mm)

a2 = 20; % uncompressed lengths of spring 2 (mm)

h1 = 100; % initial height of mass m1 (mm)

h2 = a2; % initial height of mass m2 (mm)

First mode: state-space representation of dynamics when the masses are not in contact.
A11 = [0 1; 0 0];
B11 = [0; -g];
C11 = [1 0];
D11 = 0;

A12 = [0 1; -k2/m2, -c2/m2];

B12 = [0; -g+(k2*a2/m2)];
C12 = [1 0];
D12 = 0;

A1 = blkdiag(A11, A12);
B1 = [B11; B12];
C1 = blkdiag(C11, C12);
D1 = [D11; D12];

sys1 = ss(A1,B1,C1,D1);

Second mode: state-space representation of dynamics when the masses are in contact.
A2 = [ 0 1, 0, 0; ...
-k1/m1, -c1/m1, k1/m1, c1/m1;...

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 Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics

0, 0, 0, 1; ...
k1/m2, c1/m2, -(k1+k2)/m2, -(c1+c2)/m2];

B2 = [0; -g+k1*a1/m1; 0; -g+(k2/m2*a2)-(k1/m2*a1)];

C2 = [1 0 0 0; 0 0 1 0];
D2 = [0;0];

sys2 = ss(A2,B2,C2,D2);

Now we stack the two models sys1 and sys2 together to create a state-space array.

sys = stack(1,sys1,sys2);

Use the information on whether the masses are moving freely or jointly for scheduling.
Let us call this parameter "FreeMove" which takes the value of 1 when masses are
moving freely and 0 when they are in contact and moving jointly. The scheduling
parameter information is incorporated into the state-space array object (sys) by using its
"SamplingGrid" property:

sys.SamplingGrid = struct('FreeMove',[1; 0]);

Whether the masses are in contact or not is decided by the relative positions of the two
masses; when , the masses are not in contact.

Simulation of LPV Model in Simulink

The state-space array sys has the necessary information to represent an LPV model. We
can simulate this model in Simulink using the "LPV System" block from the Control
System Toolbox™'s block library.

Open the preconfigured Simulink model LPVBouncingMass.slx

open_system('LPVBouncingMass')
open_system('LPVBouncingMass/Bouncing Mass Model','mask')

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2 Model Creation

The block called "Bouncing Mass Model" is an LPV System block. Its parameters are
specified as follows:

• For "State-space array" field, specify the state-space model array sys that was created
above.
• For "Initial state" field, specify the initial positions and velocities of the two masses.
Note that the state vector is: . Specify its value as [h1 0 h2 0]'.
• Under the "Scheduling" tab, set the "Interpolation method" to "Nearest". This choice
causes only one of the two models in the array to be active at any time. In our
example, the behavior modes are mutually exclusive.
• Under the "Outputs" tab, uncheck all the checkboxes for optional output ports. We will
be observing only the positions of the two masses.

The constant block outputs a unit value. This serves as the input to the model and is
supplied from the first input port of the LPV block. The block has only one output port
which outputs the positions of the two masses as a 2-by-1 vector.

The second input port of the LPV block is for specifying the scheduling signal. As
discussed before, this signal represents the scheduling parameter "FreeMove" and takes
discrete values 0 (masses in contact) or 1 (masses not in contact). The value of this
parameter is computed as a function of the block's output signal. This computation is
performed by the blocks with cyan background color. We take the difference between the
two outputs (after demuxing) and compare the result to the unstretched length of spring
attached to Mass 1. The resulting Boolean result is converted into a double signal which
serves as the scheduling parameter value.

We are now ready to perform the simulation.

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 Using LTI Arrays for Simulating Multi-Mode Dynamics

open_system('LPVBouncingMass/Scope')
sim('LPVBouncingMass')

The yellow curve shows the position of Mass 1 while the magenta curve shows the
position of Mass 2. At the start of simulation, Mass 1 undergoes free fall until it hits Mass
2. The collision causes the Mass 2 to be displaced but it recoils quickly and bounces Mass
1 back. The two masses are in contact for the time duration where . When the
masses settle down, their equilibrium values are determined by the static settling due to
gravity. For example, the absolute location of Mass 1 is

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2 Model Creation

Conclusions

This example shows how a Linear Parameter Varying model can be constructed by using
an array of state-space models and suitable scheduling variables. The example describes
the case of mutually exclusive modes, although a similar approach can be used in cases
where the dynamics behavior at a given value of scheduling parameters is influenced by
several linear models.

The LPV System block facilitates the simulation of parameter varying systems. The block
also supports code generation for various hardware targets.

2-124
Working with Linear Models

125
 3

Data Manipulation

• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

• “Extract Model Coefficients” on page 3-6
• “Attach Metadata to Models” on page 3-9
• “Query Model Characteristics” on page 3-14
• “Customize Model Display” on page 3-17
3 Data Manipulation

Store and Retrieve Model Data

Model Properties
Model properties are the data fields that store all data about a dynamic system model.
Data stored in model properties includes model dynamics, such as transfer-function
coefficients, state-space matrices, and time delays. Model properties also let you specify
other model attributes such as sample time, channel names, and state names.

For information about the properties associated with each model type, see the
corresponding reference page, such as tf, pid, or ss.

Specify Model Properties at Model Creation

When you create a dynamic system model, the software sets all property values.
Properties that contain model dynamics are automatically set with the appropriate values.
Other properties are set to default values. (See model reference pages for information
about default property values.)

You can specify other values for model properties at model creation using the
Name,Value pair syntax of the model-creation command. In this syntax, you specify the
name of the property you want to set, followed by the value. You can set multiple property
values in one command. For example, assign a transport delay and input and output
names to a new transfer function model.

H = tf(1,[1 10],'IODelay',6.5,'InputName','torque','OutputName','velocity')

H =

From input "torque" to output "velocity":

1
exp(-6.5*s) * ------
s + 10

Continuous-time transfer function.

Some property values are reflected in the model display, such as the input and output
names. You can use Name,Value pair syntax when creating any type of model.

3-2
 Store and Retrieve Model Data

Examine and Change Properties of an Existing Model

Load an existing state-space (ss) model.
load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','PadeApproximation1.mat'),'sys')
sys

sys =

A =
x1 x2
x1 -1.5 -0.1
x2 1 0

B =
u1
x1 1
x2 0

C =
x1 x2
y1 0.5 0.1

D =
u1
y1 0

(values computed with all internal delays set to zero)

Output delays (seconds): 1.5

Internal delays (seconds): 3.4

Continuous-time state-space model.

The display shows that sys is a state-space model, and includes some of the property
values of sys. To see all properties of sys, use the get command.
get(sys)

A: [2x2 double]
B: [2x1 double]
C: [0.5000 0.1000]
D: 0
E: []
Scaled: 0

3-3
3 Data Manipulation

StateName: {2x1 cell}

StateUnit: {2x1 cell}
InternalDelay: 3.4000
InputDelay: 0
OutputDelay: 1.5000
Ts: 0
TimeUnit: 'seconds'
InputName: {''}
InputUnit: {''}
InputGroup: [1x1 struct]
OutputName: {''}
OutputUnit: {''}
OutputGroup: [1x1 struct]
Notes: [0x1 string]
UserData: []
Name: ''
SamplingGrid: [1x1 struct]

Use dot notation to access the values of particular properties. For example, display the A
matrix of sys.

Amat = sys.A

Amat = 2×2

-1.5000 -0.1000
1.0000 0

Dot notation also lets you change the value of individual model properties.

sys.InputDelay = 4.2;
sys.InputName = 'thrust';
sys.OutputName = 'velocity';

When you must change multiple property values at the same time to preserve the validity
of the model, such as changing the dimensions of the state-space matrices, you can use
the set command. For example, create a 1-state state-space model, and then replace the
matrices with new values representing a 2-state model.

sys2 = rss(1);
Anew = [-2, 1; 0.5 0];
Bnew = [1; -1];
Cnew = [0, -0.4];

3-4
 See Also

set(sys2,'A',Anew,'B',Bnew,'C',Cnew)
sys2

sys2 =

A =
x1 x2
x1 -2 1
x2 0.5 0

B =
u1
x1 1
x2 -1

C =
x1 x2
y1 0 -0.4

D =
u1
y1 0.3426

Continuous-time state-space model.

Changing certain properties, such as Ts or TimeUnit, can cause undesirable changes in

system behavior. See the property descriptions in the model reference pages for more
information.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Attach Metadata to Models” on page 3-9
• “Extract Model Coefficients” on page 3-6

3-5
3 Data Manipulation

Extract Model Coefficients

Functions for Extracting Model Coefficients

Control System Toolbox software includes several commands for extracting model
coefficients such as transfer function numerator and denominator coefficients, state-space
matrices, and proportional-integral-derivative (PID) gains.

The following commands are available for data extraction.

Command Result
tfdata Extract transfer function coefficients
zpkdata Extract zero and pole locations and system gain
ssdata Extract state-space matrices
dssdata Extract descriptor state-space matrices
frdata Extract frequency response data from frd model
piddata Extract parallel-form PID data
pidstddata Extract standard-form PID data
get Access all model property values

Extracting Coefficients of Different Model Type

When you use a data extraction command on a model of a different type, the software
computes the coefficients of the target model type. For example, if you use zpkdata on a
ss model, the software converts the model to zpk form and returns the zero and pole
locations and system gain.

Extract Numeric Model Data and Time Delay

This example shows how to extract transfer function numerator and denominator
coefficients using tfdata.

1 Create a first-order plus dead time transfer function model.

s = tf('s');
H = exp(-2.5*s)/(s+12);

3-6
 Extract Model Coefficients

2 Extract the numerator and denominator coefficients.

[num,den] = tfdata(H,'v')

The variables num and den are numerical arrays. Without the 'v' flag, tfdata
returns cell arrays.

Note For SISO transfer function models, you can also extract coefficients using:
num = H.Numerator{1};
den = H.Denominator{1};

3 Extract the time delay.

a Determine which property of H contains the time delay.

In a SISO tf model, you can express a time delay as an input delay, an output
delay, or a transport delay (I/O delay).
get(H)

Numerator: {[0 1]}

Denominator: {[1 12]}
Variable: 's'
IODelay: 0
InputDelay: 0
OutputDelay: 2.5000
Ts: 0
TimeUnit: 'seconds'
InputName: {''}
InputUnit: {''}
InputGroup: [1×1 struct]
OutputName: {''}
OutputUnit: {''}
OutputGroup: [1×1 struct]
Notes: [0×1 string]
UserData: []
Name: ''
SamplingGrid: [1×1 struct]

The time delay is stored in the OutputDelay property.

b Extract the output delay.
delay = H.OutputDelay;

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3 Data Manipulation

Extract PID Gains from Transfer Function

This example shows how to extract PID (proportional-integral-derivative) gains from a
transfer function using piddata. You can use the same steps to extract PID gains from a
model of any type that represents a PID controller, using piddata or pidstddata.

1 Create a transfer function that represents a PID controller with a first-order filter on
the derivative term.

Czpk = zpk([-6.6,-0.7],[0,-2],0.2)
2 Obtain the PID gains and filter constant.

[Kp,Ki,Kd,Tf] = piddata(Czpk)

This command returns the proportional gain Kp, integral gain Ki, derivative gain Kd,
and derivative filter time constant Tf. Because piddata automatically computes the
PID controller parameters, you can extract the PID coefficients without creating a
pid model.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Attach Metadata to Models” on page 3-9

More About
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

3-8
 Attach Metadata to Models

Attach Metadata to Models

Specify Model Time Units

This example shows how to specify time units of a transfer function model.

The TimeUnit property of the tf model object specifies units of the time variable, time
delays (for continuous-time models), and the sample time Ts (for discrete-time models).
The default time units is seconds.

4s + 2
Create a SISO transfer function model sys = with time units in milliseconds:
2
s + 3 s + 10
num = [4 2];
den = [1 3 10];
sys = tf(num,den,'TimeUnit','milliseconds');

You can specify the time units of any dynamic system on page 1-10 in a similar way.

The system time units appear on the time- and frequency-domain plots. For multiple
systems with different time units, the units of the first system are used if the time and
frequency units in the “Toolbox Preferences Editor” on page 19-2 are auto.

Note Changing the TimeUnit property changes the system behavior. If you want to use
different time units without modifying system behavior, use chgTimeUnit.

Interconnect Models with Different Time Units

This example shows how to interconnect transfer function models with different time
units.

To interconnect models using arithmetic operations or interconnection commands, the

time units of all models must match.

1 Create two transfer function models with time units of milliseconds and seconds,
respectively.

sys1 = tf([1 2],[1 2 3],'TimeUnit','milliseconds');

sys2 = tf([4 2],[1 3 10]);

3-9
3 Data Manipulation

2 Change the time units of sys2 to milliseconds.

sys2 = chgTimeUnit(sys2,'milliseconds');
3 Connect the systems in parallel.
sys = sys1+sys2;

Specify Frequency Units of Frequency-Response Data Model

This example shows how to specify units of the frequency points of a frequency-response
data model.

The FrequencyUnit property specifies units of the frequency vector in the Frequency
property of the frd model object. The default frequency units are rad/TimeUnit, where
TimeUnit is the time unit specified in the TimeUnit property.

Create a SISO frequency-response data model with frequency data in GHz.

load AnalyzerData;
sys = frd(resp,freq,'FrequencyUnit','GHz');

You can independently specify the units in which you measure the frequency points and
sample time in the FrequencyUnit and TimeUnit properties, respectively. You can also
specify the frequency units of a genfrd in a similar way.

The frequency units appear on the frequency-domain plots. For multiple systems with
different frequency units, the units of the first system are used if the frequency units in
the “Toolbox Preferences Editor” on page 19-2 is auto.

Note Changing the FrequencyUnit property changes the system behavior. If you want
to use different frequency units without modifying system behavior, use chgFreqUnit.

Extract Subsystems of Multi-Input, Multi-Output (MIMO)

Models
This example shows how to extract subsystems of a MIMO model using MATLAB indexing
and using channel names.

Extracting subsystems is useful when, for example, you want to analyze a portion of a
complex system.

3-10
 Attach Metadata to Models

Create a MIMO transfer function.

G1 = tf(3,[1 10]);
G2 = tf([1 2],[1 0]);
G = [G1,G2];

Extract the subsystem of G from the first input to all outputs.

Gsub = G(:,1);

This command uses MATLAB indexing to specify a subsystem as G(out,in), where out
specifies the output indices and in specifies the input indices.

Using channel names, you can use MATLAB indexing to extract all the dynamics relating
to a particular channel. By using this approach, you can avoid having to keep track of
channel order in a complex MIMO model.

Assign names to the model inputs.

G.InputName = {'temperature';'pressure'};

Because G has two inputs, use a cell array to specify the two channel names.

Extract the subsystem of G that contains all dynamics from the 'temperature' input to
all outputs.

Gt = G(:,'temperature');

Gt is the same subsystem as Gsub.

Note When you extract a subsystem from a state-space (ss) model, the resulting state-
space model may not be minimal. Use sminreal to eliminate unnecessary states in the
subsystem.

Specify and Select Input and Output Groups

This example shows how to specify groups of input and output channels in a model object
and extract subsystems using the groups.

Input and output groups are useful for keeping track of inputs and outputs in complex
MIMO models.

3-11
3 Data Manipulation

1 Create a state-space model with three inputs and four outputs.

H = rss(3,4,3);
2 Group the inputs as follows:

• Inputs 1 and 2 in a group named controls

• Outputs 1 and 3 to a group named temperature
• Outputs 1, 3, and 4 to a group named measurements

H.InputGroup.controls = [1 2];
H.OutputGroup.temperature = [1 3];
H.OutputGroup.measurements = [1 3 4];

InputGroup and OutputGroup are structures. The name of each field in the
structure is the name of the input or output group. The value of each field is a vector
that identifies the channels in that group.
3 Extract the subsystem corresponding to the controls inputs and the temperature
outputs.

You can use group names to index into subsystems.

Hc = H('temperature','controls')

Hc is a two-input, two-output ss model containing the I/O channels from the

'controls' input to the 'temperature' outputs.

You can see the relationship between H and the subsystem Hc in this illustration.

Hc

1 1
controls 2 temperature
2 H
3
3 4

3-12
 See Also

See Also

Related Examples
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2
• “Extract Model Coefficients” on page 3-6
• “Query Model Characteristics” on page 3-14

3-13
3 Data Manipulation

Query Model Characteristics

This example shows how to query model characteristics such as stability, time domain,
and number of inputs and outputs. You can use the techniques of this example on any type
of dynamic system model.

Load a saved state-space (ss) model.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','queryexample.mat'),'T')

Query whether T has stable dynamics.

Bstab = isstable(T)

Bstab = logical
1

The isstable command returns 1 (true) if all system poles are in the open left-half
plane (for continuous-time models) or inside the open unit disk (for discrete-time models).
Otherwise, isstable command returns 0 (false). Here, the result shows that the model
is stable.

Query whether T has time delays.

Bdel = hasdelay(T)

Bdel = logical
1

The returned value, 1, indicates that T has a time delay. For a state-space model, time
delay can be stored as input delay, output delay, internal delay, or a combination. Use
get(T) to determine which properties of T hold the time delay, and use dot notation to
access the delay values. The hasInternalDelay command tells you whether there is
any internal delay.

Query whether T is proper.

Bprop = isproper(T)

Bprop = logical
1

3-14
 See Also

The returned value indicates that the system has relative degree less than or equal to 0.
This is true of a SISO system when it can be represented as a transfer function in which
the degree of the numerator does not exceed the degree of the denominator.

Query the order of T.

N = order(T)

N = 5

For a state-space model, order returns the number of states, which is 5 in this case. For
a tf or zpk model, the order is the number of states required for a state-space realization
of the system.

Query whether T is a discrete-time system.

Bdisc = isdt(T)

Bdisc = logical
1

The returned value indicates that T is a discrete-time model. Similarly, use isct to query
whether T is a continuous-time model.

Load a MIMO model and query the input/output dimensions.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','queryexample.mat'),'Tmimo')
ios = iosize(Tmimo)

ios = 1×2

7 4

In the resulting array, the number of outputs is first. Therefore, Tmimo has 4 inputs and 7
outputs.

See Also
isproper | isstable | size

3-15
3 Data Manipulation

Related Examples
• “Select Models from Array” on page 2-103

More About
• “Store and Retrieve Model Data” on page 3-2

3-16
 Customize Model Display

Customize Model Display

Configure Transfer Function Display Variable

This example shows how to configure the MATLAB command-window display of transfer
function (tf) models.

You can use the same steps to configure the display variable of transfer function models
in factorized form (zpk models).

By default, tf and zpk models are displayed in terms of s in continuous time and z in
discrete time. Use the Variable property change the display variable to 'p' (equivalent
to 's'), 'q' (equivalent to 'z'), 'z^-1', or 'q^-1'.

1
z -1
Create the discrete-time transfer function H ( z) =
2
z - 3z + 2
with a sample time of 1 s.

H = tf([1 -1],[1 -3 2],0.1)

H =

z - 1
-------------
z^2 - 3 z + 2

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

The default display variable is z.

2 Change the display variable to q^-1.

H.Variable = 'q^-1'

H =

q^-1 - q^-2
-------------------
1 - 3 q^-1 + 2 q^-2

3-17
3 Data Manipulation

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

When you change the Variable property, the software computes new coefficients
and displays the transfer function in terms of the new variable. The num and den
properties are automatically updated with the new coefficients.

Tip Alternatively, you can directly create the same transfer function expressed in terms
of 'q^-1'.

H = tf([0 1 -1],[1 -3 2],0.1,'Variable','q^-1');

For the inverse variables 'z^-1' and 'q^-1', tf interprets the numerator and
denominator arrays as coefficients of ascending powers of 'z^-1' or 'q^-1'.

Configure Display Format of Transfer Function in Factorized

Form
This example shows how to configure the display of transfer function models in factorized
form (zpk models).

You can configure the display of the factorized numerator and denominator polynomials to
highlight:

• The numerator and denominator roots

• The natural frequencies and damping ratios of each root
• The time constants and damping ratios of each root

See the DisplayFormat property on the zpk reference page for more information about
these quantities.

1 Create a zpk model having a zero at s = 5, a pole at s = –10, and a pair of complex
poles at s = –3 ± 5i.

H = zpk(5,[-10,-3-5*i,-3+5*i],10)

H =

10 (s-5)
----------------------

3-18
 Customize Model Display

(s+10) (s^2 + 6s + 34)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

The default display format, 'roots', displays the standard factorization of the
numerator and denominator polynomials.
2 Configure the display format to display the natural frequency of each polynomial root.
H.DisplayFormat = 'frequency'

H =

-0.14706 (1-s/5)
-------------------------------------------
(1+s/10) (1 + 1.029(s/5.831) + (s/5.831)^2)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

You can read the natural frequencies and damping ratios for each pole and zero from
the display as follows:

• Factors corresponding to real roots are displayed as (1 – s/ω0). The variable ω0 is

the natural frequency of the root. For example, the natural frequency of the zero
of H is 5.
• Factors corresponding to complex pairs of roots are displayed as 1 – 2ζ(s/ω0) +
(s/ω0)2. The variable ω0 is the natural frequency, and ζ is the damping ratio of the
root. For example, the natural frequency of the complex pole pair is 5.831, and the
damping ratio is 1.029/2.
3 Configure the display format to display the time constant of each pole and zero.
H.DisplayFormat = 'time constant'

H =

-0.14706 (1-0.2s)
-------------------------------------------
(1+0.1s) (1 + 1.029(0.1715s) + (0.1715s)^2)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

You can read the time constants and damping ratios from the display as follows:

• Factors corresponding to real roots are displayed as (τs). The variable τ is the
time constant of the root. For example, the time constant of the zero of H is 0.2.

3-19
3 Data Manipulation

• Factors corresponding to complex pairs of roots are displayed as 1 – 2ζ(τs) + (τs)2.

The variable τ is the time constant, and ζ is the damping ratio of the root. For
example, the time constant of the complex pole pair is 0.1715, and the damping
ratio is 1.029/2.

See Also
tf | zpk

Related Examples
• “Transfer Functions” on page 2-3

3-20
 4

Model Interconnections

• “Why Interconnect Models?” on page 4-2

• “Catalog of Model Interconnections” on page 4-3
• “Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop” on page 4-6
• “Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable Components” on page 4-8
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models” on page 4-13
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19
• “MIMO Feedback Loop” on page 4-22
• “How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models” on page 4-27
• “Rules That Determine Model Type” on page 4-29
• “Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams” on page 4-31
4 Model Interconnections

Why Interconnect Models?

Interconnecting models of components allows you to construct models of control systems.
You can conceptualize your control system as a block diagram containing multiple
interconnected components, such as a plant or a controller. Using model arithmetic or
interconnection commands, you combine models of each of these components into a
single model representing the entire block diagram.

For example, you can interconnect dynamic system models of a plant G(s), a controller
C(s), sensor dynamics S(s), and a filter F(s) to construct a single model that represents
the entire closed-loop control system in the following illustration:

+
r F(s) C(s) G(s) y
-

S(s)

See Also

More About
• “Catalog of Model Interconnections” on page 4-3

4-2
 Catalog of Model Interconnections

Catalog of Model Interconnections

Each type of block diagram connection corresponds to a model interconnection command
or arithmetic expression. The following tables summarize the block diagram connections
with the corresponding interconnection command and arithmetic expression.

Model Interconnection Commands

Block Diagram Connection Command Arithmetic
Expression
series(H1,H2) H2*H1
u H1 H2 y
parallel(H1,H2) H1+H2
H1
+
u y
+
H2
parallel(H1,-H2) H1-H2
H1
+
u y
-
H2

+ feedback(H1,H2) H1/(1+H2*H1) (not

u H1 y recommended)
-

H2
N/A H1/H2 (division)
u H2-1 H1 y

4-3
4 Model Interconnections

Block Diagram Connection Command Arithmetic

Expression
N/A H1\H2 (left division)
u H2 H1-1 y
inv(H1) N/A
u H1-1 y
lft(H1,H2,nu,ny) N/A
w1 z1
H1
u y

z2 H2 w2

Arithmetic Operations
You can apply almost all arithmetic operations to dynamic system models, including those
shown below.

Operation Description
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
.* Element-by-element multiplication
/ Right matrix divide
\ Left matrix divide
inv Matrix inversion
' Conjugate system. For a system G, the transfer function of G' is:

• G(–s)T in continuous time.

• G(1/z)T in discrete time.
.' Transposition

4-4
 See Also

Operation Description
^ Powers of a dynamic system model, as in the following syntax for
creating transfer functions:

s = tf('s');
G = 25/(s^2 + 10*s + 25);

In some cases, you might obtain better results using model interconnection commands,
such as feedback or connect, instead of model arithmetic. For example, the command T
= feedback(H1,H2) returns better results than the algebraic expression T = H1/
(1+H2*H1). The latter expression duplicates the poles of H1, which inflates the model
order and might lead to computational inaccuracy.

See Also
connect | feedback | parallel | series

Related Examples
• “Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop” on page 4-6
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19

More About
• “How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models” on page 4-27
• “Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams” on page 4-31

4-5
4 Model Interconnections

Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop

This example shows how to interconnect numeric LTI models on page 1-13 representing
multiple system components to build a single numeric model of a closed-loop system,
using model arithmetic and interconnection commands.

Construct a model of the following single-loop control system.

+
r F(s) C(s) G(s) y
-

S(s)

The feedback loop includes a plant G(s), a controller C(s), and a representation of sensor
dynamics, S(s). The system also includes a prefilter F(s).
1 Create model objects representing each of the components.
G = zpk([],[-1,-1],1);
C = pid(2,1.3,0.3,0.5);
S = tf(5,[1 4]);
F = tf(1,[1 1]);

The plant G is a zero-pole-gain (zpk) model with a double pole at s = –1. Model object
C is a PID controller. The models F and S are transfer functions.
2 Connect the controller and plant models.
H = G*C;

To combine models using the multiplication operator *, enter the models in reverse
order compared to the block diagram.

Tip Alternatively, construct H(s) using the series command:

H = series(C,G);

3
H
Construct the unfiltered closed-loop response T ( s ) = .
1 + HS

4-6
 See Also

T = feedback(H,S);

Caution Do not use model arithmetic to construct T algebraically:

T = H/(1+H*S)

This computation duplicates the poles of H, which inflates the model order and might
lead to computational inaccuracy.
4 Construct the entire closed-loop system response from r to y.

T_ry = T*F;

T_ry is a Numeric LTI Model representing the aggregate closed-loop system. T_ry does
not keep track of the coefficients of the components G, C, F, and S.

You can operate on T_ry with any Control System Toolbox control design or analysis
commands.

See Also
connect | feedback | parallel | series

Related Examples
• “Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable Components” on page 4-8
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19

More About
• “Catalog of Model Interconnections” on page 4-3

4-7
4 Model Interconnections

Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable

Components
This example shows how to create a tunable model of a control system that has both fixed
plant and sensor dynamics and tunable control components.

Consider the control system of the following illustration.

Suppose that the plant response is , and that the model of the sensor
dynamics is . The controller is a tunable PID controller, and the
prefilter is a low-pass filter with one tunable parameter, a.

Create models representing the plant and sensor dynamics. Because the plant and sensor
dynamics are fixed, represent them using numeric LTI models.
G = zpk([],[-1,-1],1);
S = tf(5,[1 4]);

To model the tunable components, use Control Design Blocks. Create a tunable
representation of the controller C.
C = tunablePID('C','PID');

C is a tunablePID object, which is a Control Design Block with a predefined

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) structure.

Create a model of the filter with one tunable parameter.

a = realp('a',10);
F = tf(a,[1 a]);

a is a realp (real tunable parameter) object with initial value 10. Using a as a coefficient
in tf creates the tunable genss model object F.

4-8
 See Also

Interconnect the models to construct a model of the complete closed-loop response from r
to y.

T = feedback(G*C,S)*F

T =

Generalized continuous-time state-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, 5 states, and

C: Parametric PID controller, 1 occurrences.
a: Scalar parameter, 2 occurrences.

Type "ss(T)" to see the current value, "get(T)" to see all properties, and "T.Blocks" t

T is a genss model object. In contrast to an aggregate model formed by connecting only

numeric LTI models, T keeps track of the tunable elements of the control system. The
tunable elements are stored in the Blocks property of the genss model object. Examine
the tunable elements of T.

T.Blocks

ans = struct with fields:

C: [1x1 tunablePID]
a: [1x1 realp]

When you create a genss model of a control system that has tunable components, you
can use tuning commands such as systune to tune the free parameters to meet design
requirements you specify.

See Also
feedback | tunablePID

More About
• “Control Design Blocks” on page 1-16
• “Dynamic System Models” on page 1-10

4-9
4 Model Interconnections

Multi-Loop Control System

This example shows how to build an arbitrary block diagram by connecting models using
connect. The system is a Smith Predictor, the single-input, single-output (SISO) multi-
loop control system shown in the following block diagram.

u
P y

sum1
+ e yp y1 +
ysp C Gp Dp sum3
- -
ym
+
sum2
+
dp dy
F

For more information about the Smith Predictor, see “Control of Processes with Long
Dead Time: The Smith Predictor”.

The connect command lets you construct the overall transfer function from ysp to y. To
use connect, specify the input and output channel names of the components of the block
diagram. connect automatically joins ports that have the same name, as shown in the
following figure.

error
B1 B1
connect(B1,B2)

error
B2 error B2

To build the closed loop model of the Smith Predictor system from ysp to y:

1 Create the components of the block diagram: the process model P, the predictor
model Gp, the delay model Dp, the filter F, and the PI controller C. Specify names for
the input and output channels of each model so that connect can automatically join
them to build the block diagram.

4-10
 See Also

s = tf('s');

P = exp(-93.9*s) * 5.6/(40.2*s+1);
P.InputName = 'u'; P.OutputName = 'y';

Gp = 5.6/(40.2*s+1);
Gp.InputName = 'u'; Gp.OutputName = 'yp';

Dp = exp(-93.9*s);
Dp.InputName = 'yp'; Dp.OutputName = 'y1';

F = 1/(20*s+1);
F.InputName = 'dy'; F.OutputName = 'dp';

C = pidstd(0.574,40.1);
C.Inputname = 'e'; C.OutputName = 'u';
2 Create the summing junctions needed to complete the block diagram.

sum1 = sumblk('e = ysp - ym');

sum2 = sumblk('ym = yp + dp');
sum3 = sumblk('dy = y - y1');

The argument to sumblk is a formula that relates the input and output signals of the
summing junction. sumblk creates a summing junction with the input and output
signal names specified in the formula. For example, in sum1, the formula 'e = ysp
- ym' specifies an output signal named e, which is the difference between input
signals named ysp and ym.
3 Assemble the complete model from ysp to y.

T = connect(P,Gp,Dp,C,F,sum1,sum2,sum3,'ysp','y');

You can list the models and summing junctions in any order because connect
automatically interconnects them using their input and output channel names.

The last two arguments specify the input and output signals of the multi-loop control
structure. Thus, T is a ss model with input ysp and output y.

See Also
connect | sumblk

4-11
4 Model Interconnections

Related Examples
• “Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable Components” on page 4-8
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19
• “Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models” on page 4-13

More About
• “How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models” on page 4-27

4-12
 Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models

Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models

This example shows how to build a block diagram and insert analysis points at locations
of interest using the connect command. You can then use the analysis points to extract
various system responses from the model.

For this example, create a model of a Smith predictor, the SISO multiloop control system
shown in the following block diagram.

Points marked by x are analysis points to mark for this example. For instance, if you want
to calculate the step response of the closed-loop system to a disturbance at the plant
input, you can use an analysis point at u. If you want to calculate the response of the
system with one or both of the control loops open, you can use the analysis points at yp or
dp.

To build this system, first create the dynamic components of the block diagram. Specify
names for the input and output channels of each model so that connect can
automatically join them to build the block diagram.
s = tf('s');

% Process model
P = exp(-93.9*s) * 5.6/(40.2*s+1);
P.InputName = 'u';
P.OutputName = 'y';

% Predictor model
Gp = 5.6/(40.2*s+1);

4-13
4 Model Interconnections

Gp.InputName = 'u';
Gp.OutputName = 'yp';

% Delay model
Dp = exp(-93.9*s);
Dp.InputName = 'yp';
Dp.OutputName = 'y1';

% Filter
F = 1/(20*s+1);
F.InputName = 'dy';
F.OutputName = 'dp';

% PI controller
C = pidstd(0.574,40.1);
C.Inputname = 'e';
C.OutputName = 'u';

Create the summing junctions needed to complete the block diagram. (For more
information about creating summing junctions, see sumblk).
sum1 = sumblk('e = ysp - ym');
sum2 = sumblk('ym = yp + dp');
sum3 = sumblk('dy = y - y1');

Assemble the complete model.

input = 'ysp';
output = 'y';
APs = {'u','dp','yp'};
T = connect(P,Gp,Dp,C,F,sum1,sum2,sum3,input,output,APs)

T =

Generalized continuous-time state-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, 4 states, and

AnalysisPoints_: Analysis point, 3 channels, 1 occurrences.

Type "ss(T)" to see the current value, "get(T)" to see all properties, and "T.Blocks" t

When you use the APs input argument, the connect command automatically inserts an
AnalysisPoint block into the generalized state-space (genss) model, T. The
automatically generated block is named AnalysisPoints_. The three channels of
AnalysisPoints_ correspond to the three locations specified in the APs argument to

4-14
 Mark Analysis Points in Closed-Loop Models

the connect command. Use getPoints to see a list of the available analysis points in
the model.

getPoints(T)

ans =

3x1 cell array

{'dp'}
{'u' }
{'yp'}

Use these locations as inputs, outputs, or loop openings when you extract responses from
the model. For example, extract and plot the response at the system output to a step
disturbance at the plant input, u.

Tp = getIOTransfer(T,'u','y');
stepplot(Tp)

4-15
4 Model Interconnections

Similarly, calculate the open-loop response of the plant and controller by opening both
feedback loops.

openings = {'dp','yp'};
L = getIOTransfer(T,'ysp','y',openings);
bodeplot(L)

4-16
 See Also

When you create a control system model, you can create an AnalysisPoint block
explicitly and assign input and output names to it. You can then include it in the input
arguments to connect as one of the blocks to combine. However, using the APs
argument to connect as illustrated in this example is a simpler way to mark points of
interest when building control system models.

See Also
AnalysisPoint | connect | sumblk

4-17
4 Model Interconnections

Related Examples
• “Control System with Multichannel Analysis Points” on page 2-85

More About
• “Mark Signals of Interest for Control System Analysis and Design” on page 2-89

4-18
 MIMO Control System

MIMO Control System

This example shows how to build a MIMO control system using connect to interconnect
Numeric LTI models on page 1-13 and tunable Control Design Blocks on page 1-16.

Consider the following two-input, two-output control system.

pL L
+ e CL
r D G y
pV CV
-
V

The plant G is a distillation column with two inputs and two outputs. The two inputs are
the reflux L and boilup V. The two outputs are the concentrations of two chemicals,
represented by the vector signal y = [y1,y2]. You can represent this plant model as:

1 È 87 .8 -86 .4 ˘
G ( s) = Í ˙.
75s + 1 Î108.2 -109 .6 ˚

The vector setpoint signal r = [r1,r2] specifies the desired concentrations of the two
chemicals. The vector error signal e represents the input to D, a static 2-by-2 decoupling
matrix. CL and CV represent independent PI controllers that control the two inputs of G.

To create a two-input, two-output model representing this closed-loop control system:

1 Create a Numeric LTI model representing the 2-by-2 plant G.
s = tf('s','TimeUnit','minutes');
G = [87.8 -86.4 ; 108.2 -109.6]/(75*s+1);
G.InputName = {'L','V'};
G.OutputName = 'y';

When you construct the closed-loop model, connect uses the input and output
names to form connections between the block diagram components. Therefore, you
must assign names to the inputs and outputs of the transfer function G in either of the
following ways: .

4-19
4 Model Interconnections

• You can assign input and output names to individual signals by specifying signal
names in a cell array, as in G.InputName = {'L','V'}
• Alternatively, you can use vector signal naming, which the software automatically
expands. For example, the command G.OutputName = 'y' assigns the names
'y(1)' and 'y(2)' to the outputs of G.
2 Create tunable Control Design Blocks representing the decoupling matrix D and the
PI controllers CL and CV.

D = tunableGain('Decoupler',eye(2));
D.u = 'e';
D.y = {'pL','pV'};

C_L = tunablePID('C_L','pi'); C_L.TimeUnit = 'minutes';

C_L.u = 'pL'; C_L.y = 'L';

C_V = tunablePID('C_V','pi'); C_V.TimeUnit = 'minutes';

C_V.u = 'pV'; C_V.y = 'V';

Note u and y are shorthand notations for the InputName and OutputName
properties, respectively. Thus, for example, entering:

D.u = 'e';
D.y = {'pL','pV'};

is equivalent to entering:

D.InputName = 'e';
D.OutputName = {'pL','pV'};

3 Create the summing junction.

The summing junction produces the error signals e by taking the difference between
r and y.

Sum = sumblk('e = r - y',2);

Sum represents the transfer function for the summing junction described by the
formula 'e = r - y'. The second argument to sumblk specifies that the inputs and
outputs of Sum are each vector signals of length 2. The software therefore
automatically assigns the signal names {'r(1)','r(2)','y(1)','y(2)'} to
Sum.InputName and {'e(1)','e(2)'} to Sum.OutputName.

4-20
 See Also

4 Join all components to build the closed-loop system from r to y.

CLry = connect(G,D,C_L,C_V,Sum,'r','y');

The arguments to the connect function include all the components of the closed-loop
system, in any order. connect automatically combines the components using the
input and output names to join signals.

The last two arguments to connect specify the output and input signals of the
closed-loop model, respectively. The resulting genss model CLry has two-inputs and
two outputs.

See Also
connect | sumblk

Related Examples
• “Control System Model With Both Numeric and Tunable Components” on page 4-8
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19

More About
• “Catalog of Model Interconnections” on page 4-3

4-21
4 Model Interconnections

MIMO Feedback Loop

This example shows how to obtain the closed-loop response of a MIMO feedback loop in
three different ways.

In this example, you obtain the response from Azref to Az of the MIMO feedback loop of
the following block diagram.

You can compute the closed-loop response using one of the following three approaches:

• Name-based interconnection with connect

• Name-based interconnection with feedback
• Index-based interconnection with feedback

You can use whichever of these approaches is most convenient for your application.

Load the plant Aerodyn and the controller Autopilot into the MATLAB® workspace.
These models are stored in the datafile MIMOfeedback.mat.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','MIMOfeedback.mat'))

Aerodyn is a 4-input, 7-output state-space (ss) model. Autopilot is a 5-input, 1-output

ss model. The inputs and outputs of both models names appear as shown in the block
diagram.

Compute the closed-loop response from Azref to Az using connect.

4-22
 MIMO Feedback Loop

T1 = connect(Autopilot,Aerodyn,'Azref','Az');

Warning: The following block inputs are not used: Rho,a,Thrust.

Warning: The following block outputs are not used: Xe,Ze,Altitude.

The connect function combines the models by joining the inputs and outputs that have
matching names. The last two arguments to connect specify the input and output signals
of the resulting model. Therefore, T1 is a state-space model with input Azref and output
Az. The connect function ignores the other inputs and outputs in Autopilot and
Aerodyn.

Compute the closed-loop response from Azref to Az using name-based interconnection

with the feedback command. Use the model input and output names to specify the
interconnections between Aerodyn and Autopilot.

When you use the feedback function, think of the closed-loop system as a feedback
interconnection between an open-loop plant-controller combination L and a diagonal
unity-gain feedback element K. The following block diagram shows this interconnection.

L = series(Autopilot,Aerodyn,'Fin');

FeedbackChannels = {'Alpha','Mach','Az','q'};
K = ss(eye(4),'InputName',FeedbackChannels,...
'OutputName',FeedbackChannels);

4-23
4 Model Interconnections

T2 = feedback(L,K,'name',+1);

The closed-loop model T2 represents the positive feedback interconnection of L and K.

The 'name' option causes feedback to connect L and K by matching their input and
output names.

T2 is a 5-input, 7-output state-space model. The closed-loop response from Azref to Az is

T2('Az','Azref').

Compute the closed-loop response from Azref to Az using feedback, using indices to
specify the interconnections between Aerodyn and Autopilot.

L = series(Autopilot,Aerodyn,1,4);
K = ss(eye(4));
T3 = feedback(L,K,[1 2 3 4],[4 3 6 5],+1);

The vectors [1 2 3 4] and [4 3 6 5] specify which inputs and outputs, respectively,

complete the feedback interconnection. For example, feedback uses output 4 and input
1 of L to create the first feedback interconnection. The function uses output 3 and input 2
to create the second interconnection, and so on.

T3 is a 5-input, 7-output state-space model. The closed-loop response from Azref to Az is

T3(6,5).

Compare the step response from Azref to Az to confirm that the three approaches yield
the same results.

step(T1,T2('Az','Azref'),T3(6,5),2)

4-24
 See Also

See Also
connect | feedback

Related Examples
• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10
• “MIMO Control System” on page 4-19

4-25
4 Model Interconnections

More About
• “How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models” on page 4-27

4-26
 How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models

How the Software Determines Properties of Connected

Models
When you interconnect models, the operation and the properties of the models you are
connecting determine the resulting model's properties. The following table summarizes
some general rules governing how resulting model property values are determined.

Property Expected Behavior

Ts When connecting discrete-time models, all models must
have identical or unspecified (sys.Ts = -1) sample
time. The resulting model inherits the sample time from
the connected models.
InputName In general, the resulting model inherits I/O names and
OutputName I/O groups from connected models. However, conflicting
InputGroup I/O names or I/O groups are not inherited. For example,
InputGroup the InputName property for sys1 + sys2 is left
unspecified if sys1 and sys2 have different InputName
property values.
TimeUnit All connected models must have identical TimeUnit
properties. The resulting model inherits its TimeUnit
from the connected models.
Variable A model resulting from operations on tf or zpk models
inherits its Variable property value from the operands.
Conflicts are resolved according the following rules:

• For continuous-time models, 'p' has precedence over

's'.
• For discrete-time models, 'q^-1' and 'z^-1' have
precedence over 'q' and 'z', while 'q' has
precedence over 'z'.
Notes Most operations ignore the Notes and UserData
UserData properties. These properties of the resulting model are
empty.

4-27
4 Model Interconnections

See Also

More About
• “Rules That Determine Model Type” on page 4-29

4-28
 Rules That Determine Model Type

Rules That Determine Model Type

When you combine numeric LTI models on page 1-13 other than frd models using
connect, the resulting model is a state-space (ss) model. For other interconnection
commands, the resulting model is determined by the following order of precedence:

ss > zpk > tf > pid > pidstd

For example, connect an ss model with a pid model.

P = ss([-0.8,0.4;0.4,-1.0],[-3.0;1.4],[0.3,0],0);
C = pid(-0.13,-0.61);
CL = feedback(P*C,1)

The ss model has the highest precedence among Numeric LTI models. Therefore,
combining P and C with any model interconnection command returns an ss model.

Combining Numeric LTI models with Generalized LTI models on page 1-16 or with Control
Design Blocks on page 1-16 results in Generalized LTI models.

For example, connect the ss model CL with a Control Design Block.

F = tunableTF('F',0,1);
CLF = F*CL

CLF is a genss model.

Any connection that includes a frequency-response model (frd or genfrd) results in a

frequency-response model.

Note The software automatically converts all models to the resulting model type before
performing the connection operation.

See Also
connect | feedback | parallel | series

Related Examples
• “Numeric Model of SISO Feedback Loop” on page 4-6

4-29
4 Model Interconnections

• “Multi-Loop Control System” on page 4-10

More About
• “How the Software Determines Properties of Connected Models” on page 4-27
• “Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams” on page 4-31

4-30
 Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams

Recommended Model Type for Building Block Diagrams

This example shows how choice of model type can affect numerical accuracy when
interconnecting models.

You can represent block diagram components with any model type. However, certain
connection operations yield better numerical accuracy for models in ss form.

For example, interconnect two models in series using different model types to see how
different representations introduce numerical inaccuracies.

Load the models Pd and Cd. These models are ninth-order and second-order discrete-time
transfer functions, respectively.

load numdemo Pd Cd

Compute the open-loop transfer function L = Pd*Cd using the tf, zpk, ss, and frd
representations.

Ltf = Pd*Cd;
Lzp = zpk(Pd)*Cd;
Lss = ss(Pd)*Cd;

w = logspace(-1,3,100);
Lfrd = frd(Pd,w)*Cd;

Plot the magnitude of the frequency response to compare the four representations.

bodemag(Ltf,Lzp,Lss,Lfrd)
legend('tf','zpk','ss','frd')

4-31
4 Model Interconnections

The tf representation has lost low-frequency dynamics that other representations

preserve.

See Also

More About
• “Rules That Determine Model Type” on page 4-29

4-32
 5

Model Transformation

• “Conversion Between Model Types” on page 5-2

• “Convert From One Model Type to Another” on page 5-4
• “Get Current Value of Generalized Model by Model Conversion” on page 5-6
• “Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO Components” on page 5-8
• “Discretize a Compensator” on page 5-13
• “Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay” on page 5-19
• “Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time” on page 5-23
• “Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods” on page 5-26
• “Upsample Discrete-Time System” on page 5-36
• “Choosing a Resampling Command” on page 5-40
5 Model Transformation

Conversion Between Model Types

Explicit Conversion Between Model Types

You can explicitly convert a model from one representation to another using the model-
creation command for the target model type. For example, convert to state-space
representation usingss, and convert to parallel-form PID using pid. For information
about converting to a particular model type, see the reference page for that model type.

In general, you can convert from any model type to any other. However, there are a few
limitations. For example, you cannot convert:

• frd models to analytic model types such as ss, tf, or zpk (unless you perform system
identification with System Identification Toolbox software).
• ss models with internal delays to tf or zpk.

You can convert between Numeric LTI models and Generalized LTI models.

• Converting a Generalized LTI model to a Numeric LTI model evaluates any Control
Design Blocks at their current (nominal) value.
• Converting a Numeric LTI model to a Generalized LTI model creates a Generalized LTI
model with an empty Blocks property.

Automatic Conversion Between Model Types

Some algorithms operate only on one type of model object. For example, the algorithm for
zero-order-hold discretization with c2d can only be performed on state-space models.
Similarly, commands such as tfdata or piddata expect a particular type of model (tf or
pid, respectively). For convenience, such commands automatically convert input models
to the appropriate or required model type. For example:

sys = ss(0,1,1,0)
[num,den] = tfdata(sys)

tfdata automatically converts the state-space model sys to transfer function form to
return numerator and denominator data.

Conversions to state-space form are not uniquely defined. For this reason, automatic
conversions to state space do not occur when the result depends on the choice of state

5-2
 See Also

coordinates. For example, the initial and kalman commands require state-space
models.

Recommended Working Representation

You can represent numeric system components using any model type. However, Numeric
LTI model types are not equally well-suited for numerical computations. In general, it is
recommended that you work with state-space (ss) or frequency response data (frd)
models, for the following reasons:

• The accuracy of computations using high-order transfer functions (tf or zpk models)
is sometimes poor, particularly for MIMO or high-order systems. Conversions to a
transfer function representation can incur a loss of accuracy.
• When you convert tf or zpk models to state space using ss, the software
automatically performs balancing and scaling operations. Balancing and scaling
improves the numeric accuracy of computations involving the model. For more
information about balancing and scaling state-space models, see “Scaling State-Space
Models” on page 23-2.

In addition, converting back and forth between model types can introduce additional
states or orders, or introduce numeric inaccuracies. For example, conversions to state
space are not uniquely defined, and are not guaranteed to produce a minimal realization
for MIMO models. For a given state-space model sys,

ss(tf(sys))

can return a model with different state-space matrices, or even a different number of
states in the MIMO case.

See Also
frd | pid | ss | tf | zpk

Related Examples
• “Convert From One Model Type to Another” on page 5-4

5-3
5 Model Transformation

Convert From One Model Type to Another

This example shows how to convert a numeric LTI model from one type (pid) to another
type (tf).

In general, you can convert a model from one type to another type using the model-
creation command for the target type. For example, you can use the tf command to
convert an ss model to transfer function form, or use the ss command to convert a zpk
model to state-space form.

Create a PID controller.

pid_sys = pid(1,1.5,3)

pid_sys =

1
Kp + Ki * --- + Kd * s
s

with Kp = 1, Ki = 1.5, Kd = 3

Continuous-time PID controller in parallel form.

Convert pid_sys to a transfer function model.

C = tf(pid_sys)

C =

3 s^2 + s + 1.5
---------------
s

Continuous-time transfer function.

C is a tf representation of pid_sys. C has the same dynamics as pid_sys, but stores the
dynamic parameters as transfer-function numerator and denominator coefficients instead
of proportional, integral, and derivative gains.

You can similarly convert transfer function models to pid models, provided the tf model
object represents a parallel-form PID controller with .

5-4
 See Also

In general, you can use the technique of this example to convert any type of model to
another type of model. For more specific information about converting to a particular
model type, see the reference page for that model type.

See Also
frd | pid | ss | tf | zpk

More About
• “Conversion Between Model Types” on page 5-2

5-5
5 Model Transformation

Get Current Value of Generalized Model by Model

Conversion
This example shows how to get the current value of a generalized model by converting it
to a numeric model. This conversion is useful, for example, when you have tuned the
parameters of the generalized model using a tuning command such as systune.

Create a Generalized Model

Represent the transfer function

containing a real, tunable parameter, a, which is initialized to 10.

a = realp('a',10);
F = tf(a,[1 a]);

F is a genss model parameterized by a.

Tune the Model

Typically, once of you have a generalized model, you tune the parameters of the model
using a tuning command such as systune. For this example, instead of tuning the model,
manually change the value of the tunable component of F.

F.Blocks.a.Value = 5;

Get the current value of the generalized model.

Get the current value of the generalized model by converting it to a numeric model.

F_cur_val = tf(F)

F_cur_val =

5
-----
s + 5

Continuous-time transfer function.

5-6
 See Also

tf(F) converts the generalized model, F, to a numeric transfer function, F_cur_val.

To view the state-space representation of the current value of F, type ss(F).

To examine the current values of the individual tunable components in a generalized

model, use showBlockValue.

See Also
realp | showBlockValue | tf

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19
• “Conversion Between Model Types” on page 5-2
• “Convert From One Model Type to Another” on page 5-4

5-7
5 Model Transformation

Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO

Components
This example shows how to extract SISO control components from a 2-DOF PID controller
in each of the feedforward, feedback, and filter configurations. The example compares the
closed-loop systems in all configurations to confirm that they are all equivalent.

Obtain a 2-DOF PID controller. For this example, create a plant model, and tune a 2-DOF
PID controller for it.

G = tf(1,[1 0.5 0.1]);

C2 = pidtune(G,'pidf2',1.5);

C2 is a pid2 controller object. The control architecture for C2 is as shown in the following
illustration.

This control system can be equivalently represented in several other architectures that
use only SISO components. In the feedforward configuration, the 2-DOF controller is
represented as a SISO PID controller and a feedforward compensator.

Decompose C2 into SISO control components using the feedforward configuration.

[Cff,Xff] = getComponents(C2,'feedforward')

5-8
 Decompose a 2-DOF PID Controller into SISO Components

Cff =

1 s
Kp + Ki * --- + Kd * --------
s Tf*s+1

with Kp = 1.12, Ki = 0.23, Kd = 1.3, Tf = 0.122

Continuous-time PIDF controller in parallel form.

Xff =

-10.898 (s+0.2838)
------------------
(s+8.181)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

This command returns the SISO PID controller Cff as a pid object. The feedforward
compensator X is returned as a zpk object.

Construct the closed-loop system for the feedforward configuration.

Tff = G*(Cff+Xff)*feedback(1,G*Cff);

In the feedback configuration, the 2-DOF controller is represented as a SISO PID

controller and an additional feedback compensator.

Decompose C2 using the feedback configuration and construct that closed-loop system.

[Cfb, Xfb] = getComponents(C2,'feedback');

Tfb = G*Cfb*feedback(1,G*(Cfb+Xfb));

5-9
5 Model Transformation

In the filter configuration, the 2-DOF controller is represented as a SISO PID controller
and prefilter on the reference signal.

Decompose C2 using the filter configuration. Construct that closed-loop system as well.

[Cfr, Xfr] = getComponents(C2,'filter');

Tfr = Xfr*feedback(G*Cfr,1);

Construct the closed-loop system for the original 2-DOF controller, C2. To do so, convert
C2 to a two-input, one-output transfer function, and use array indexing to access the
channels.

Ctf = tf(C2);
Cr = Ctf(1);
Cy = Ctf(2);
T = Cr*feedback(G,Cy,+1);

Compare the step responses of all the closed-loop systems.

stepplot(T,Tff,Tfb,Tfr)
legend('2-DOF','feedforward','feedback','filter','Location','Southeast')

5-10
 See Also

The plots coincide, demonstrating that all the systems are equivalent.

Using a 2-DOF PID controller can yield improved performance compared to a 1-DOF
controller. For more information, see “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)” on
page 11-15.

See Also
getComponents | pid2 | pidstd2

5-11
5 Model Transformation

Related Examples
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16

5-12
 Discretize a Compensator

Discretize a Compensator
This example shows how to convert a compensator from continuous to discrete time using
several discretization methods, to identify a method that yields a good match in the
frequency domain.

You might design a compensator in continuous time, and then need to convert it to
discrete time for a digital implementation. When you do so, you want the discretization to
preserve frequency-domain characteristics that are essential to your performance and
stability requirements.

In the following control system, G is a continuous-time second-order system with a sharp

resonance around 3 rad/s.

One valid controller for this system includes a notch filter in series with an integrator.
Create a model of this controller.

notch = tf([1,0.5,9],[1,5,9]);
integ = pid(0,0.34);
C = integ*notch;
bodeplot(C)

5-13
5 Model Transformation

The notch filter centered at 3 rad/s counteracts the effect of the resonance in G. This
configuration allows higher loop gain for a faster overall response.

Discretize the compensator.

Cdz = c2d(C,0.5);

The c2d command supports several different discretization methods. Since this command
does not specify a method, c2d uses the default method, Zero-Order Hold (ZOH). In the
ZOH method, the time-domain response of the discretized compensator matches the
continuous-time response at each time step.

5-14
 Discretize a Compensator

The discretized controller Cdz has a sample time of 0.5 s. In practice, the sample time you
choose might be constrained by the system in which you implement your controller, or by
the bandwidth of your control system.

Compare the frequency-domain response of C and Cdz.

bodeplot(C,Cdz)
legend('C','Cdz');

The vertical line marks the Nyquist frequency, , where is the sample time. Near
the Nyquist frequency, the response of the discretized compensator is distorted relative to
the continuous-time response. As a result, the discretized notched filter may not properly
counteract the plant resonance.

5-15
5 Model Transformation

To fix this, try discretizing the compensator using the Tustin method and compare to the
ZOH result. The Tustin discretization method often yields a better match in the frequency
domain than the ZOH method.
Cdt = c2d(C,0.5,'tustin');
plotopts = bodeoptions;
plotopts.Ylim = {[-60,40],[-225,0]};
bodeplot(C,Cdz,Cdt,plotopts)
legend('C','Cdz','Cdt')

The Tustin method preserves the depth of the notch. However, the method introduces a
frequency shift that is unacceptable for many applications. You can remedy the frequency
shift by specifying the notch frequency as the prewarping frequency in the Tustin
transform.

5-16
 Discretize a Compensator

Discretize the compensator using the Tustin method with frequency prewarping, and
compare the results.

discopts = c2dOptions('Method','tustin','PrewarpFrequency',3.0);
Cdtp = c2d(C,0.5,discopts);
bodeplot(C,Cdt,Cdtp,plotopts)
legend('C','Cdt','Cdtp')

To specify additional discretization options beyond the discretization method, use

c2dOptions. Here, the discretization options set discopts specifies both the Tustin
method and the prewarp frequency. The prewarp frequency is 3.0 rad/s, the frequency of
the notch in the compensator response.

5-17
5 Model Transformation

Using the Tustin method with frequency prewarping yields a better-matching frequency
response than Tustin without prewarping.

See Also
c2d | c2dOptions

More About
• “Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods” on page 5-26
• “Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay” on page 5-19

5-18
 Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay

Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time

Delay
This example shows how to improve the frequency-domain accuracy of a system with a
time delay that is a fractional multiple of the sample time.

For systems with time delays that are not integer multiples of the sample time, the
Tustin and Matched methods by default round the time delays to the nearest multiple of
the sample time. To improve the accuracy of these methods for such systems, c2d can
optionally approximate the fractional portion of the time delay by a discrete-time all-pass
filter (a Thiran filter). In this example, discretize the system both without and with an
approximation of the fractional portion of the delay and compare the results.

Create a continuous-time transfer function with a transfer delay of 2.5 s.

G = tf(1,[1,0.2,4],'ioDelay',2.5);

Discretize G using a sample time of 1 s. G has a sharp resonance at 2 rad/s. At a sample

time of 1 s, that peak is close to the Nyquist frequency. For a frequency-domain match
that preserves dynamics near the peak, use the Tustin method with prewarp frequency 2
rad/s.

discopts = c2dOptions('Method','tustin','PrewarpFrequency',2);
Gt = c2d(G,1,discopts)

Warning: Rounding delays to the nearest multiple of the sampling period. For more accur

Gt =

0.1693 z^2 + 0.3386 z + 0.1693

z^(-3) * ------------------------------
z^2 + 0.7961 z + 0.913

Sample time: 1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

The software warns you that it rounds the fractional time delay to the nearest multiple of
the sample time. In this example, the time delay of 2.5 times the sample time (2.5 s)
converts to an additional factor of z^(-3) in Gt.

Compare Gt to the continuous-time system G.

5-19
5 Model Transformation

plotopts = bodeoptions;
plotopts.Ylim = {[-100,20],[-1080,0]};
bodeplot(G,Gt,plotopts);
legend('G','Gt')

There is a phase lag between the discretized system Gt and the continuous-time system G,
which grows as the frequency approaches the Nyquist frequency. This phase lag is largely
due to the rounding of the fractional time delay. In this example, the fractional time delay
is half the sample time.

Discretize G again using a third-order discrete-time all-pass filter (Thiran filter) to

approximate the half-period portion of the delay.

5-20
 Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay

discopts.FractDelayApproxOrder = 3;
Gtf = c2d(G,1,discopts);

The FractDelayApproxOrder option specifies the order of the Thiran filter that
approximates the fractional portion of the delay. The other options in discopts are
unchanged. Thus Gtf is a Tustin discretization of G with prewarp at 2 rad/s.

Compare Gtf to G and Gt.

plotopts.PhaseMatching = 'on';
bodeplot(G,Gt,Gtf,plotopts);
legend('G','Gt','Gtf','Location','SouthWest')

5-21
5 Model Transformation

The magnitudes of Gt and Gtf are identical. However, the phase of Gtf provides a better
match to the phase of the continuous-time system through the resonance. As the
frequency approaches the Nyquist frequency, this phase match deteriorates. A higher-
order approximation of the fractional delay would improve the phase matching closer to
the Nyquist frequencies. However, each additional order of approximation adds an
additional order (or state) to the discretized system.

If your application requires accurate frequency-matching near the Nyquist frequency, use
c2dOptions to make c2d approximate the fractional portion of the time delay as a
Thiran filter.

See Also
c2d | c2dOptions | thiran

More About
• “Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods” on page 5-26
• “Discretize a Compensator” on page 5-13

5-22
 Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time

Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time

This example shows how to convert a discrete-time system to continuous time using d2c,
and compares the results using two different interpolation methods.

Convert the following second-order discrete-time system to continuous time using the
zero-order hold (ZOH) method:

G = zpk(-0.5,[-2,5],1,0.1);
Gcz = d2c(G)

Warning: The model order was increased to handle real negative poles.

Gcz =

2.6663 (s^2 + 14.28s + 780.9)

-------------------------------
(s-16.09) (s^2 - 13.86s + 1035)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

When you call d2c without specifying a method, the function uses ZOH by default. The
ZOH interpolation method increases the model order for systems that have real negative
poles. This order increase occurs because the interpolation algorithm maps real negative
poles in the domain to pairs of complex conjugate poles in the domain.

Convert G to continuous time using the Tustin method.

Gct = d2c(G,'tustin')

Gct =

0.083333 (s+60) (s-20)

----------------------
(s-60) (s-13.33)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

5-23
5 Model Transformation

In this case, there is no order increase.

Compare frequency responses of the interpolated systems with that of G.

bode(G,Gcz,Gct)
legend('G','Gcz','Gct')

In this case, the Tustin method provides a better frequency-domain match between the
discrete system and the interpolation. However, the Tustin interpolation method is

5-24
 See Also

undefined for systems with poles at z = -1 (integrators), and is ill-conditioned for systems
with poles near z = 1.

See Also
d2c | d2cOptions

More About
• “Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods” on page 5-26
• “Discretize a Compensator” on page 5-13

5-25
5 Model Transformation

Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods

Choosing a Conversion Method

The c2d command discretizes continuous-time models. Conversely, d2c converts discrete-
time models to continuous time. Both commands support several discretization and
interpolation methods, as shown in the following table.

Discretization Method Use When

“Zero-Order Hold” on page 5-27 You want an exact discretization in the time
domain for staircase inputs.
“First-Order Hold” on page 5-28 You want an exact discretization in the time
domain for piecewise linear inputs.
“Impulse-Invariant Mapping” on page 5-29 You want an exact discretization in the time
(c2d only) domain for impulse train inputs.
“Tustin Approximation” on page 5-30 • You want good matching in the
frequency domain between the
continuous- and discrete-time models.
• Your model has important dynamics at
some particular frequency.
“Zero-Pole Matching Equivalents” on page • You have a SISO model.
5-34 • You want good matching in the
frequency domain between the
continuous- and discrete-time models.
“Least Squares” on page 5-34 (c2d only) • You have a SISO model.
• You want good matching in the
frequency domain between the
continuous- and discrete-time models.
• You want to capture fast system
dynamics but must use a larger sample
time.

5-26
 Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods

Zero-Order Hold
The Zero-Order Hold (ZOH) method provides an exact match between the continuous-
and discrete-time systems in the time domain for staircase inputs.

The following block diagram illustrates the zero-order-hold discretization Hd(z) of a

continuous-time linear model H(s).

The ZOH block generates the continuous-time input signal u(t) by holding each sample
value u(k) constant over one sample period:

u ( t ) = u [ k] , kTs £ t £ ( k + 1 ) Ts

The signal u(t) is the input to the continuous system H(s). The output y[k] results from
sampling y(t) every Ts seconds.

Conversely, given a discrete system Hd(z), d2c produces a continuous system H(s). The
ZOH discretization of H(s) coincides with Hd(z).

The ZOH discrete-to-continuous conversion has the following limitations:

• d2c cannot convert LTI models with poles at z = 0.

• For discrete-time LTI models having negative real poles, ZOH d2c conversion
produces a continuous system with higher order. The model order increases because a
negative real pole in the z domain maps to a pure imaginary value in the s domain.
Such mapping results in a continuous-time model with complex data. To avoid this
issue, the software instead introduces a conjugate pair of complex poles in the s
domain. See “Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time” on page 5-23 for an
example.

5-27
5 Model Transformation

ZOH Method for Systems with Time Delays

You can use the ZOH method to discretize SISO or MIMO continuous-time models with
time delays. The ZOH method yields an exact discretization for systems with input delays,
output delays, or transfer delays.

For systems with internal delays (delays in feedback loops), the ZOH method results in
approximate discretizations. The following figure illustrates a system with an internal
delay.

H(s)

e-ts

For such systems, c2d performs the following actions to compute an approximate ZOH
discretization:

1
Decomposes the delay τ as t = kTs + r with 0 £ r < Ts .
2
Absorbs the fractional delay r into H(s).
3 Discretizes H(s) to H(z).
4 Represents the integer portion of the delay kTs as an internal discrete-time delay z–k.
The final discretized model appears in the following figure:

H(z)

H(s) e-sr

z-k

First-Order Hold
The First-Order Hold (FOH) method provides an exact match between the continuous-
and discrete-time systems in the time domain for piecewise linear inputs.

5-28
 Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods

FOH differs from ZOH by the underlying hold mechanism. To turn the input samples u[k]
into a continuous input u(t), FOH uses linear interpolation between samples:

t - kTs
u ( t ) = u [ k] +
Ts
(u [k + 1] - u [k]) , kTs £ t £ (k + 1) Ts

In general, this method is more accurate than ZOH for systems driven by smooth inputs.

This FOH method differs from standard causal FOH and is more appropriately called
triangle approximation (see [2], p. 228). The method is also known as ramp-invariant
approximation.

FOH Method for Systems with Time Delays

You can use the FOH method to discretize SISO or MIMO continuous-time models with
time delays. The FOH method handles time delays in the same way as the ZOH method.
See “ZOH Method for Systems with Time Delays” on page 5-28.

Impulse-Invariant Mapping
The impulse-invariant mapping produces a discrete-time model with the same impulse
response as the continuous time system. For example, compare the impulse response of a
first-order continuous system with the impulse-invariant discretization:

G = tf(1,[1,1]);
Gd1 = c2d(G,0.01,'impulse');
impulse(G,Gd1)

5-29
5 Model Transformation

The impulse response plot shows that the impulse responses of the continuous and
discretized systems match.

Impulse-Invariant Mapping for Systems with Time Delays

You can use impulse-invariant mapping to discretize SISO or MIMO continuous-time

models with time delays, except that the method does not support ss models with
internal delays. For supported models, impulse-invariant mapping yields an exact
discretization of the time delay.

Tustin Approximation
The Tustin or bilinear approximation yields the best frequency-domain match between the
continuous-time and discretized systems. This method relates the s-domain and z-domain
transfer functions using the approximation:

5-30
 Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods

sTs 1 + sTs / 2
z=e ª .
1 - sTs / 2

In c2d conversions, the discretization Hd(z) of a continuous transfer function H(s) is:

2 z-1
H d ( z ) = H ( s¢ ) , s¢ =
Ts z + 1

Similarly, the d2c conversion relies on the inverse correspondence

1 + sTs / 2
H ( s ) = Hd ( z¢ ) , z¢ =
1 - sTs / 2

When you convert a state-space model using the Tustin method, the states are not
preserved. The state transformation depends upon the state-space matrices and whether
the system has time delays. For example, for an explicit (E = I) continuous-time model
with no time delays, the state vector w[k] of the discretized model is related to the
continuous-time state vector x(t) by:

Ê T ˆ T T
w [ kTs ] = Á I - A s ˜ x ( kTs ) - s Bu ( kTs ) = x ( kTs ) - s ( Ax ( kTs ) + Bu ( kTs ) ) .
Ë 2 ¯ 2 2

Ts is the sample time of the discrete-time model. A and B are state-space matrices of the
continuous-time model.

Tustin Approximation with Frequency Prewarping

If your system has important dynamics at a particular frequency that you want the
transformation to preserve, you can use the Tustin method with frequency prewarping.
This method ensures a match between the continuous- and discrete-time responses at the
prewarp frequency.

The Tustin approximation with frequency prewarping uses the following transformation of
variables:

w z-1
H d ( z ) = H ( s¢ ) , s¢ =
tan (w Ts / 2 ) z + 1

5-31
5 Model Transformation

This change of variable ensures the matching of the continuous- and discrete-time
frequency responses at the prewarp frequency ω, because of the following
correspondence:

(
H ( jw ) = H d e jw Ts )
Tustin Approximation for Systems with Time Delays

You can use the Tustin approximation to discretize SISO or MIMO continuous-time models
with time delays.

By default, the Tustin method rounds any time delay to the nearest multiple of the sample
time. Therefore, for any time delay tau, the integer portion of the delay, k*Ts, maps to a
delay of k sampling periods in the discretized model. This approach ignores the residual
fractional delay, tau - k*Ts.

You can to approximate the fractional portion of the delay by a discrete all-pass filter
(Thiran filter) of specified order. To do so, use the FractDelayApproxOrder option of
c2dOptions. See “Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay” on page 5-
19 for an example.

To understand how the Tustin method handles systems with time delays, consider the
following SISO state-space model G(s). The model has input delay τi, output delay τo, and
internal delay τ.

G(s)

e-tis e-tos
H(s)

e-ts

The following figure shows the general result of discretizing G(s) using the Tustin
method.

5-32
 Continuous-Discrete Conversion Methods

Gd(z)

z-mi Fi(z) Fo(z) z-mo

Hd(z)

z-m F(z)

By default, c2d converts the time delays to pure integer time delays. The c2d command
computes the integer delays by rounding each time delay to the nearest multiple of the
sample time Ts. Thus, in the default case, mi = round(τi/Ts), mo = round(τo/Ts), and m =
round(τ/Ts).. Also in this case, Fi(z) = Fo(z) = F(z) = 1.

If you set FractDelayApproxOrder to a non-zero value, c2d approximates the

fractional portion of the time delays by Thiran filters Fi(z), Fo(z), and F(z).

The Thiran filters add additional states to the model. The maximum number of additional
states for each delay is FractDelayApproxOrder.

For example, for the input delay τi, the order of the Thiran filter Fi(z) is:

order(Fi(z)) = max(ceil(τi/Ts), FractDelayApproxOrder).

If ceil(τi/Ts) < FractDelayApproxOrder, the Thiran filter Fi(z) approximates the entire
input delay τi. If ceil(τi/Ts) > FractDelayApproxOrder, the Thiran filter only
approximates a portion of the input delay. In that case, c2d represents the remainder of
the input delay as a chain of unit delays z–mi, where

mi = ceil(τi/Ts) – FractDelayApproxOrder

c2d uses Thiran filters and FractDelayApproxOrder in a similar way to approximate

the output delay τo and the internal delay τ.

When you discretizetf and zpk models using the Tustin method, c2d first aggregates all
input, output, and transfer delays into a single transfer delay τTOT for each channel. c2d
then approximates τTOT as a Thiran filter and a chain of unit delays in the same way as
described for each of the time delays in ss models.

5-33
5 Model Transformation

For more information about Thiran filters, see the thiran reference page and [4].

Zero-Pole Matching Equivalents

This method of conversion, which computes zero-pole matching equivalents, applies only
to SISO systems. The continuous and discretized systems have matching DC gains. Their
poles and zeros are related by the transformation:

zi = esi Ts

where:

• zi is the ith pole or zero of the discrete-time system.

• si is the ith pole or zero of the continuous-time system.
• Ts is the sample time.

See [2] for more information.

Zero-Pole Matching for Systems with Time Delays

You can use zero-pole matching to discretize SISO continuous-time models with time
delay, except that the method does not support ss models with internal delays. The zero-
pole matching method handles time delays in the same way as the Tustin approximation.
See “Tustin Approximation for Systems with Time Delays” on page 5-32.

Least Squares
The least squares method minimizes the error between the frequency responses of the
continuous-time and discrete-time systems up to the Nyquist frequency using a vector-
fitting optimization approach. This method is useful when you want to capture fast system
dynamics but must use a larger sample time, for example, when computational resources
are limited.

This method is supported only by the c2d function and only for SISO systems.

As with Tustin approximation and zero-pole matching, the least squares method provides
a good match between the frequency responses of the original continuous-time system
and the converted discrete-time system. However, when using the least squares method
with:

5-34
 See Also

• The same sample time as Tustin approximation or zero-pole matching, you get a
smaller difference between the continuous-time and discrete-time frequency
responses.
• A lower sample time than what you would use with Tustin approximation or zero-pole
matching, you can still get a result that meets your requirements. Doing so is useful if
computational resources are limited, since the slower sample time means that the
processor must do less work.

References
[1] Åström, K.J. and B. Wittenmark, Computer-Controlled Systems: Theory and Design,
Prentice-Hall, 1990, pp. 48-52.

[2] Franklin, G.F., Powell, D.J., and Workman, M.L., Digital Control of Dynamic Systems
(3rd Edition), Prentice Hall, 1997.

[3] Smith, J.O. III, "Impulse Invariant Method", Physical Audio Signal Processing, August
2007. http://www.dsprelated.com/dspbooks/pasp/
Impulse_Invariant_Method.html.

[4] T. Laakso, V. Valimaki, "Splitting the Unit Delay", IEEE Signal Processing Magazine,
Vol. 13, No. 1, p.30-60, 1996.

See Also
c2d | c2dOptions | d2c | d2cOptions | d2d | d2dOptions | thiran

Related Examples
• “Discretize a Compensator” on page 5-13
• “Improve Accuracy of Discretized System with Time Delay” on page 5-19
• “Convert Discrete-Time System to Continuous Time” on page 5-23

5-35
5 Model Transformation

Upsample Discrete-Time System

This example shows how to upsample a system using both the d2d and upsample
commands and compares the results of both to the original system.

Upsampling a system can be useful, for example, when you need to implement a digital
controller at a faster rate than you originally designed it for.

Create the discrete-time system

with a sample time of 0.3 s.

G = tf([1,0.4],[1,-0.7],0.3);

Resample the system at 0.1 s using d2d.

G_d2d = d2d(G,0.1)

G_d2d =

z - 0.4769
----------
z - 0.8879

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

By default, d2d uses the zero-order-hold (ZOH) method to resample the system. The
resampled system has the same order as G.

Resample the system again at 0.1 s, using upsample.

G_up = upsample(G,3)

G_up =

z^3 + 0.4
---------
z^3 - 0.7

5-36
 Upsample Discrete-Time System

Sample time: 0.1 seconds

Discrete-time transfer function.

The second input, 3, tells upsample to resample G at a sample time three times faster
than the sample time of G. This input to upsample must be an integer.

G_up has three times as many poles and zeroes as G.

Compare the step responses of the original model G with the resampled models G_d2d
and G_up.

step(G,'-r',G_d2d,':g',G_up,'--b')
legend('G','d2d','upsample','Location','SouthEast')

5-37
5 Model Transformation

The step response of the upsampled model G_up matches exactly the step response of the
original model G. The response of the resampled model G_d2d matches only at every third
sample.

Compare the frequency response of the original model with the resampled models.
bode(G,'-r',G_d2d,':g',G_up,'--b')
legend('G','d2d','upsample','Location','SouthWest')

In the frequency domain as well, the model G_up created with the upsample command
matches the original model exactly up to the Nyquist frequency of the original model.

Using upsample provides a better match than d2d in both the time and frequency
domains. However, upsample increases the model order, which can be undesirable.

5-38
 See Also

Additionally, upsample is only available where the original sample time is an integer
multiple of the new sample time.

See Also
d2d | d2dOptions | upsample

More About
• “Choosing a Resampling Command” on page 5-40

5-39
5 Model Transformation

Choosing a Resampling Command

You can resample a discrete-time model using the commands described in the following
table.

To... Use the command...

• Downsample a system. d2d
• Upsample a system without any
restriction on the new sample time.
Upsample a system with the highest upsample
accuracy when:

• The new sample time is integer-value-

times faster than the sample time of the
original model.
• Your new model can have more states
than the original model.

See Also
d2d | d2dOptions | upsample

Related Examples
• “Upsample Discrete-Time System” on page 5-36

5-40
 6

Model Simplification

• “Model Reduction Basics” on page 6-2

• “Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App” on page 6-6
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47
• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57
• “Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67
6 Model Simplification

Model Reduction Basics

Working with lower-order models can simplify analysis and control design, relative to
higher-order models. Simpler models are also easier to understand and manipulate. High-
order models obtained by linearizing complex Simulink models or from other sources can
contain states that do not contribute much to the dynamics of particular interest to your
application. Therefore, it can be useful to reduce model order while preserving model
characteristics that are important for your application.

When to Reduce Model Order

Cases where you might want to reduce model order include these situations:

• You are working with a relatively high-order model obtained from linearizing a
Simulink model, performing a finite-element calculation, interconnecting model
elements, or other source.
• You want to improve the simulation speed of a Simulink model at a certain operating
point. In that case, you can linearize a portion of the model at that operating point and
compute a reduced-order simplification or approximation of the linearized model. You
can then replace the portion of the model with an LTI Block containing the reduced-
order model.
• You design a high-order controller that you want to implement as a lower-order
controller, such as a PID controller. For example, controller design using Linear-
Quadratic-Gaussian methods or H∞ synthesis techniques can yield a high-order result.
In this case, you can try reducing the plant order before synthesis, reducing the
controller order after synthesis, or both.
• You want to simplify a model obtained by identification with System Identification
Toolbox software.

The following diagram illustrates the relationship between model reduction and control
design.

6-2
 Model Reduction Basics

Plant reduction
G GR
Controller design

Controller design
Controller reduction
C CR
Higher Lower
Order Order

In general, when designing a controller for a system represented by a high-order model,

G, it is useful to start by simplifying the plant model. Then, design a relatively low-order
controller, CR, for the lower-order plant model GR. After you design a controller for either
the original or the reduced plant model, you can try to reduce the controller further.

Reducing the plant or controller can include:

• Discarding states that do not contribute to the system dynamics, such as structurally
disconnected states or canceling pole-zero pairs.
• Discarding low-energy states that contribute relatively little to system dynamics.
• Focusing on a particular frequency region and discarding dynamics outside that
region. For example, if your control bandwidth is limited by actuator dynamics,
discard higher-frequency dynamics.

In any case, when you reduce model order, you want to preserve model characteristics
that are important for your application. Whenever you compute a reduced-order model,
verify that the reduced model preserves time-domain or frequency-domain behavior that
you care about. For example, for control design, it is useful to verify that the reduced
closed-loop system is stable. It is also useful to check that the reduced open-loop transfer
function CRGR adequately matches the original models where the open-loop gain GC is
close to 1 (in the gain crossover region).

6-3
6 Model Simplification

Choosing a Model Reduction Method

To reduce the order of a model, you can either simplify your model, or compute a lower-
order approximation. The following table summarizes the differences among several
model-reduction approaches.

Approach Command Line Model Reducer App

Simplification — Reduce • sminreal — Eliminate “Pole-Zero Simplification”
model order exactly by states that are on page 6-47 method —
canceling pole-zero pairs or structurally disconnected Eliminate:
eliminating states that have from the inputs or
no effect on the overall outputs. • Structurally
model response disconnected states
• minreal — Eliminate
canceling or near- • Unobservable or
canceling pole-zero pairs uncontrollable states
from transfer functions. from state-space models
Eliminate unobservable • Canceling or near-
or uncontrollable states canceling pole-zero pairs
from state-space models. from transfer functions
Approximation — Compute balred — Discard states Balanced Truncation on
a lower-order approximation that have relatively low page 6-17 method —
of your model. effect on the overall model Discard states that have
response. relatively low effect on the
overall model response.
Mode Selection — freqsep — Separate model Mode Selection on page 6-
Eliminate poles and zeros into slow and fast dynamics 57 method — Select
that fall outside a specific around a specified cutoff frequency range of interest
frequency range of interest. frequency. and discard dynamics
outside that range.

Sometimes, approximation can yield better results, even if the model looks like a good
candidate for simplification. For example, models with near pole-zero cancellations are
sometimes better reduced by approximation than simplification. Similarly, using balred
to reduce state-space models can yield more accurate results than minreal.

When you use a reduced-order model, always verify that the simplification or
approximation preserves model characteristics that are important for your application.
For example, compare the frequency responses of the original and reduced models using

6-4
 See Also

bodeplot or sigmaplot. Or, compare the open-loop responses for the original and
reduced plant and controller models.

See Also
Apps
Model Reducer

Functions
balred | freqsep | minreal | sminreal

Related Examples
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47

6-5
6 Model Simplification

Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App

This example shows how to reduce model order while preserving important dynamics
using the Model Reducer app. This example illustrates the Balanced Truncation method,
which eliminates states based on their energy contributions to the system response.

Open Model Reducer With a Building Model

This example uses a model of the Los Angeles University Hospital building. The building
has eight floors, each with three degrees of freedom: two displacements and one rotation.
The input-output relationship for any one of these displacements is represented as a 48-
state model, where each state represents a displacement or its rate of change (velocity).
Load the building model and open Model Reducer with that model.

load build.mat
modelReducer(G)

Select the model in the Data Browser to display some information about the model in the
Preview section. Double-click the model to see more detailed information.

6-6
 Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App

Open the Balanced Truncation Tab

Model Reducer has three model reduction methods: Balanced Truncation, Mode
Selection, and Pole/Zero Simplification. For this example, click Balanced Truncation.

6-7
6 Model Simplification

Model Reducer opens the Balanced Truncation tab and automatically generates a
reduced-order model. The top plot compares the original and reduced model in the
frequency domain. The bottom plot shows the energy contribution of each state, where
the states are sorted from high energy to low energy. The order of the reduced model, 14,
is highlighted in the bar chart. In the reduced model, all states with lower energy
contribution than this one are discarded.

Compute Multiple Approximations

Suppose that you want to preserve the first, second, and third peaks of the model
response, around 5.2 rad/s, 13 rad/s, and 25 rad/s. Try other model orders to see whether

6-8
 Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App

you can achieve this goal with a lower model order. Compute a 5th-order and a 10th-order
approximation in one of the following ways:

• In the Reduced model orders text box, enter [5 10].

• In the state-contribution plot, ctrl-click the bars for state 5 and state 10.

Model Reducer computes two new reduced-order models and displays them on the
response plot with the original model G. To examine the three peaks more closely, Zoom in
on the relevant frequency range. The 10th-order model captures the three peaks
successfully, while the 5th-order model only approximates the first two peaks. (For
information about zooming and other interactions with the analysis plots, see “Visualize
Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67.)

6-9
6 Model Simplification

Compare Reduced Models With Different Visualizations

In addition to the frequency response plot of all three models, Model Reducer lets you
examine the absolute and relative error between the original and reduced models. Select
Absolute error plot to see the difference between the building and reduced models.

6-10
 Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App

The 5th-order reduced model has at most -60dB error in the frequency region of the first
two peaks, below about 30 rad/s. The error increases at higher frequencies. The 10th-
order reduced model has smaller error over all frequencies.

Create Reduced Models in Data Browser

Store the reduced models in the Data Browser by clicking Create Reduced Model. The
5th-order and 10th-order reduced models appear in the Data Browser with names
GReduced5 and Greduced10.

You can continue to change the model-reduction parameters and generate additional
reduced models. As you do so, GReduced5 and Greduced10 remain unchanged in the
Data Browser.

6-11
6 Model Simplification

Focus on Dynamics at Particular Frequencies

By default, balanced truncation in Model Reducer preserves DC gain, matching the

steady-state response of the original and reduced models. Clear the Preserve DC Gain
checkbox to better approximate high-frequency dynamics. Model Reducer computes
new reduced models. The error in the high-frequency region is decreased at the cost of a
slight increase in error at low frequencies.

You can also focus the balanced truncation on the model dynamics in a particular
frequency interval. For example, approximate only the second peak of the building model
around 13 rad/s. First, select the Model response plot to see the Bode plots of models.
Then check Select frequency range checkbox. Model Reducer analyzes state
contributions in the highlighted frequency interval only.

You can drag the boundaries to change the frequency range interactively. As you change
the frequency interval, the Hankel Singular Value plot reflects the changes in the energy
contributions of the states.

Enter the frequency limits [10 22] into the text box next to Select frequency range.
The 5th-order reduced model captures the essential dynamics. The 10th-order model has
almost the same dynamics as the original building model within this frequency range.

6-12
 Reduce Model Order Using the Model Reducer App

Optionally, store these additional models in the Data Browser by clicking Create
Reduced Model.

Compare Models In Time Domain

You can compare time-domain responses of the stored reduced models and the original in
the Plots tab. In the Data Browser, control-click to select the models you want to
compare, G, GReduced5, and GReduced10. Then, click Step. Model Reducer creates a
step plot with all three models.

6-13
6 Model Simplification

Zooming on the transient behavior of this plot shows that GReduced10 captures the time
domain behavior of the original model well. However, the response of GReduced5
deviates from the original model after about 3 seconds.

Export Model for Further Analysis

Comparison of the reduced and original models in the time and frequency domains shows
that GReduced10 adequately captures the dynamics of interest. Export that model to the
MATLAB® workspace for further analysis and design. In the Model Reducer tab, click
Export Model. Clear the check boxes for G and Greduced5, and click Export to export
Greduced10.

6-14
 See Also

Greduced10 appears in the MATLAB workspace as a state-space (ss) model.

See Also
Model Reducer

Related Examples
• “Model Reduction Basics” on page 6-2
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47

6-15
6 Model Simplification

• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

Balanced truncation computes a lower-order approximation of your model by neglecting
states that have relatively low effect on the overall model response. Using a lower-order
approximation that preserves the dynamics of interest can simplify analysis and control
design. In the balanced truncation method of model reduction, the software measures
state contributions by Hankel singular values (see hsvd) and discards states with smaller
values. There are two ways to compute a reduced-order model by balanced truncation:

• At the command line, using the balred command.

• In the Model Reducer, using the Balanced Truncation method.

For more general information about model reduction, see “Model Reduction Basics” on
page 6-2.

Balanced Truncation in the Model Reducer App

Model Reducer provides an interactive tool for performing model reduction and
examining and comparing the responses of the original and reduced-order models. To
approximate a model by balanced truncation in Model Reducer:

1 Open the app, and import an LTI model to reduce. For instance, suppose that there is
a model named build in the MATLAB workspace. The following command opens
Model Reducer and imports the model.

modelReducer(build)
2
In the Data Browser, select the model to reduce. Click Balanced Truncation.

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6 Model Simplification

In the Balanced Truncation tab, Model Reducer displays a plot of the frequency
response of the original model and a reduced version of the model. The frequency
response is a Bode plot for SISO models, and a singular-value plot for MIMO models.
The app also displays a Hankel singular-value plot of the original model.

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

The Hankel singular-value plot shows the relative energy contributions of each state
in the system. Model Reducer computes an initial reduced-order model based on
these values. The highlighted bar is the lowest-energy state in the initial reduced-
order model. Model Reducer discards states that have lower Hankel singular values
than the highlighted bar.

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3 Try different reduced-model orders to find the lowest-order model that preserves the
dynamics that are important for your application. To specify different orders, either:

• Enter model orders in the Reduced model orders field. You can enter a single
integer or an array of integers, such as 10:14 or [8,11,12].
• Click a bar on the Hankel singular-value plot to specify the lowest-energy state of
the reduced-order model. Ctrl-click to specify multiple values.

When you change the specified reduced model order, Model Reducer automatically
computes a new reduced-order model. If you specify multiple model orders, Model
Reducer computes multiple reduced-order models and displays their responses on
the plot.

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

4 Optionally, examine the absolute or relative error between the original and reduced-
order model, in addition to the frequency response. Select the error-plot type using
the buttons on the Balanced Truncation tab.

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6 Model Simplification

For more information about using the analysis plots, see “Visualize Reduced-Order
Models in the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67.
5 If low-frequency dynamics are not important to your application, you can clear the
Preserve DC Gain checkbox. Doing so sometimes yields a better match at higher
frequencies between the original and reduced-order models.

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

When you check or clear the Preserve DC Gain checkbox, Model Reducer
automatically computes new reduced-order models. For more information about this
option, see “Compare Truncated and DC Matched Low-Order Model Approximations”
on page 6-30.
6 Optionally, limit the Hankel singular-value computation to a specific frequency range.
Such a limit is useful when the model has modes outside the region of interest to your
particular application. When you apply a frequency limit, Model Reducer
determines which states to truncate based on their energy contribution within the
specified frequency range only. Neglecting energy contributions outside that range
can yield an even lower-order approximation that is still adequate for your
application.

To limit the singular-value computation, check Select frequency range. Then,

specify the frequency range by:

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• In the text box, entering a vector of the form [fmin,fmax]. Units are rad/
TimeUnit, where TimeUnit is the TimeUnit property of the model you are
reducing.
• On the response plot or error plot, dragging the boundaries of the shaded region
or the shaded region itself. Model Reducer analyzes the state contributions
within the shaded region only.

When you check or clear the Select frequency range checkbox or change the
selected range, Model Reducer automatically computes new reduced-order models.

Note Checking Select frequency range automatically clears Preserve DC Gain.

To enforce a DC match even when using frequency limits, recheck Preserve DC
Gain.
7 When you have one or more reduced models that you want to store and analyze

further, click . The new models appear in the Data Browser. If you have specified
multiple orders, each reduced model appears separately. Model names reflect the
reduced model order.

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

After creating reduced models in the Data Browser, you can continue changing the
reduction parameters and create reduced models with different orders for analysis
and comparison.

You can now perform further analysis with the reduced model. For example:

• Examine other responses of the reduced system, such as the step response or Nichols
plot. To do so, use the tools on the Plots tab. See “Visualize Reduced-Order Models in
the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67 for more information.
• Export reduced models to the MATLAB workspace for further analysis or control

design. On the Model Reducer tab, click Export.

Generate MATLAB Code for Balanced Truncation

To create a MATLAB script you can use for further model-reduction tasks at the command
line, click Create Reduced Model, and select Generate MATLAB Script.

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Model Reducer creates a script that uses the balred command to perform model
reduction with the parameters and options you have set on the Balanced Truncation
tab. The script opens in the MATLAB editor.

Approximate Model by Balanced Truncation at the Command

Line
At the command-line, use balred to compute a reduced-order approximation of a model.

To do so, first examine the contribution of the various states to the overall model
behavior. Choose the approximation order based on the number of states that make a
significant contribution to the overall model behavior.

For this example, load a high-order model. hplant is a 23rd-order SISO model.

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

load ltiexamples hplant

order(hplant)

ans = 23

Examine the relative amount of energy per state in hplant using a Hankel singular-value
(HSV) plot.

hsvplot(hplant)

Small Hankel singular values indicate that the associated states contribute little to the
behavior of the system. The plot shows that two states account for most of the energy in
the system. Therefore, try simplifying the model to just first or second order.

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6 Model Simplification

opts = balredOptions('StateElimMethod','Truncate');
hplant1 = balred(hplant,1,opts);
hplant2 = balred(hplant,2,opts);

The second argument to balred specifies the target approximation order, so that
hplant1 is a first-order approximation and hplant2 is a second-order approximation of
hplant. By default, balred discards the states with the smallest Hankel singular values,
and alters the remaining states to preserve the DC gain of the system. Setting the
StateElimMethod option to Truncate causes balred to discard low-energy states
without altering the remaining states.

When working with reduced-order models, it is important to verify that the approximation
does not introduce inaccuracies at frequencies that are important for your application.
Therefore, compare the frequency responses of the original and approximated systems.
For MIMO systems, use the sigmaplot command. For this SISO system, examine a Bode
plot.

bodeplot(hplant,hplant2,hplant1)
legend('Original','2nd order','1st order')

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

The second-order approximation hplant2 matches the original 23rd-order system very
well, especially at lower frequencies. The first-order system does not match as well.

In general, as you decrease the order of the approximated model, the frequency response
of the approximated model begins to differ from the original model. Choose an
approximation that is sufficiently accurate in the bands that are important to you. For
example, in a control system you might want good accuracy inside the control bandwidth.
Accuracy at frequencies far above the control bandwidth, where the gain rapidly rolls off,
might be less important.

You can also validate the approximation in the time domain. For instance, examine the
step responses of the original and reduced-order systems.

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6 Model Simplification

stepplot(hplant,hplant2,'r--',hplant1,'g--')
legend('Original','2nd order','1st order','Location','SouthEast')

This result confirms that the second-order approximation is a good match to the original
23rd-order system.

Compare Truncated and DC Matched Low-Order Model

Approximations
This example shows how to compute a low-order approximation in two ways and
compares the results. When you compute a low-order approximation by the balanced
truncation method, you can either:

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

• Discard the states that make the smallest contribution to system behavior, altering the
remaining states to preserve the DC gain of the system.
• Discard the low-energy states without altering the remaining states.

Which method you choose depends on what dynamics are most important to your
application. In general, preserving DC gain comes at the expense of accuracy in higher-
frequency dynamics. Conversely, state truncation can yield more accuracy in fast
transients, at the expense of low-frequency accuracy.

This example compares the state-elimination methods of the balred command,

Truncate and MatchDC. You can similarly control the state-elimination method in the
Model Reducer app, on the Balanced Truncation tab, using the Preserve DC Gain
check box, as shown.

Consider the following system.

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6 Model Simplification

Create a closed-loop model of this system from r to y.

G = zpk([0 -2],[-1 -3],1);

C = tf(2,[1 1e-2]);
T = feedback(G*C,1)

T =

2 s (s+2)
--------------------------------
(s+0.004277) (s+1.588) (s+4.418)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

T is a third-order system that has a pole-zero near-cancellation close to s = 0. Therefore,

it is a good candidate for order reduction by approximation.

Compute two second-order approximations to T, one that preserves the DC gain and one
that truncates the lowest-energy state without changing the other states. Use
balredOptions to specify the approximation methods, MatchDC and Truncate,
respectively.

matchopt = balredOptions('StateElimMethod','MatchDC');
truncopt = balredOptions('StateElimMethod','Truncate');
Tmatch = balred(T,2,matchopt);
Ttrunc = balred(T,2,truncopt);

Compare the frequency responses of the approximated models.

bodeplot(T,Tmatch,Ttrunc)
legend('Original','DC Match','Truncate')

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

The truncated model Ttrunc matches the original model well at high frequencies, but
differs considerably at low frequency. Conversely, Tmatch yields a good match at low
frequencies as expected, at the expense of high-frequency accuracy.

You can also see the differences between the two methods by examining the time-domain
response in different regimes. Compare the slow dynamics by looking at the step
response of all three models with a long time horizon.

stepplot(T,Tmatch,'r--',Ttrunc,1500)
legend('Original','DC Match','Truncate')

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6 Model Simplification

As expected, on long time scales the DC-matched approximation Tmatch has a very
similar response to the original model.

Compare the fast transients in the step response.

stepplot(T,Tmatch,'r',Ttrunc,'g--',0.5)
legend('Original','DC Match','Truncate')

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

On short time scales, the truncated approximation Ttrunc provides a better match to the
original model. Which approximation method you should use depends on which regime is
most important for your application.

Approximate Model with Unstable or Near-Unstable Pole

This example shows how to compute a reduced-order approximation of a system when the
system has unstable or near-unstable poles.

When computing a reduced-order approximation, the balred command (or the Model
Reducer app) does not eliminate unstable poles because doing so would fundamentally
change the system dynamics. Instead, the software decomposes the model into stable and
unstable parts and reduces the stable part of the model.

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6 Model Simplification

If your model has near-unstable poles, you might want to ensure that the reduced-order
approximation preserves these dynamics. This example shows how to use the Offset
option of balred to preserve poles that are close to the stable-unstable boundary. You
can achieve the same result in the Model Reducer app, on the Balanced Truncation
tab, under Options, using the Offset field, as shown:

Load a model with unstable and near-unstable poles.

load('reduce.mat','gasf35unst')

gasf35unst is a 25-state SISO model with two unstable poles (Re(s) > 0). Examine the
system poles to find the near-unstable poles.

pzplot(gasf35unst)
axis([-0.0015 0.0015 -0.0005 0.0005])

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

The pole-zero plot shows several poles (marked by x) that fall in the left half-plane, but
relatively close to the imaginary axis. These are the near-unstable poles. Two of these fall
within 0.0005 of instability. Three more fall within 0.001 of instability.

Examine a Hankel singular-value plot of the model.

hsvplot(gasf35unst)

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6 Model Simplification

The plot shows the two unstable modes, but you cannot easily determine the energy
contribution of the near-unstable poles. In your application, you might want to reduce the
model without discarding those poles nearest to instability, even if they are of relatively
low energy. Use the Offset option of balred to calculate a reduced-order system that
preserves the two stable poles that are closest to the imaginary axis. The Offset option
sets the boundary between poles that balred can discard, and poles that balred must
preserve (treat as unstable).

opts = balredOptions('Offset',0.0005);
gasf_arr = balred(gasf35unst,[10 15],opts);

Providing balred an array of target approximation orders [10 15] causes balred to
return an array of approximated models. The array gasf_arr contains two models, a

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

10th-order and a 15th-order approximation of gasf35unst. In both approximations,

balred does not discard the two unstable poles or the two nearly-unstable poles.

Compare the reduced-order approximations to the original model.

bodeplot(gasf35unst,gasf_arr,'r--')

The 15th order approximation is a good frequency-domain match to the original model.
However, the 10th-order approximation shows changes in high-frequency dynamics,

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6 Model Simplification

which might be too large to be acceptable. The 15th-order approximation is likely a better
choice.

Frequency-Limited Balanced Truncation

Focusing the energy-contribution calculation on a particular frequency region sometimes
yields a good approximation to the dynamics of interest at a lower order than a reduction
that takes all frequencies into account. For this example, reduce a high-order model with
a focus on the dynamics in a particular interval.

This example demonstrates frequency-limited balanced truncation at the command line,

using options for the balred command. You can also perform frequency-limited balanced
truncation in the Model Reducer app, on the Balanced Truncation tab, using the
Select frequency range check box, as shown.

Load a model and examine its frequency response.

load(fullfile(matlabroot,'examples','control','build.mat'),'G')
bodeplot(G)

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

G is a 48th-order model with several large peak regions around 5.2 rad/s, 13.5 rad/s, and
24.5 rad/s, and smaller peaks scattered across many frequencies. Examine the Hankel
singular-value plot to see the energy contributions of the model's 48 states.

hsvd(G)

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6 Model Simplification

The singular-value plot suggests that you can discard at least 20 states without significant
impact on the overall system response. Suppose that for your application you are only
interested in the dynamics near the second large peak, between 10 rad/s and 22 rad/s.
Try a few reduced-model orders based on the Hankel singular value plot. Compare their
frequency responses to the original model, especially in the region of that peak.

G18 = balred(G,18);
G10 = balred(G,10);

bodeplot(G,G18,G10,logspace(0.5,1.5,100));
legend('Original','Order 18','Order 10');

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 Balanced Truncation Model Reduction

The 18th-order model is a good match to the dynamics in the region of interest. In the
10th order model, however, there is some degradation of the match.

Focus the model reduction on the region of interest to obtain a good match with a lower-
order approximation. First, examine the state energy contributions in that frequency
region only. Use hsvdOptions to specify the frequency interval for hsvd.

hopt = hsvdOptions('FreqIntervals',[10,22]);
hsvd(G,hopt)

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6 Model Simplification

Comparing this plot to the previous Hankel singular-value plot shows that in this
frequency region, many fewer states contribute significantly to the dynamics than
contribute to the overall dynamics.

Try the same reduced-model orders again, this time choosing states to eliminate based
only on their contribution to the frequency interval. Use balredOptions to specify the
frequency interval for balred.
bopt = balredOptions('StateElimMethod','Truncate','FreqIntervals',[10,22]);
GLim18 = balred(G,18,bopt);
GLim10 = balred(G,10,bopt);

bodeplot(G,GLim18,GLim10,logspace(0.5,1.5,100));
legend('Original','Order 18','Order 10');

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 See Also

With the frequency-limited energy computation, a 10th-order approximation is as good in

the region of interest as the 18th-order approximation computed without frequency limits.

See Also
Apps
Model Reducer

Functions
balred | hsvplot

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6 Model Simplification

Related Examples
• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47
• “Model Reduction Basics” on page 6-2

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 Pole-Zero Simplification

Pole-Zero Simplification
Pole-zero simplification reduces the order of your model exactly by canceling pole-zero
pairs or eliminating states that have no effect on the overall model response. Pole-zero
pairs can be introduced, for example, when you construct closed-loop architectures.
Normal small errors associated with numerical computation can convert such canceling
pairs to near-canceling pairs. Removing these states preserves the model response
characteristics while simplifying analysis and control design. Types of pole-zero
simplification include:

• Structural elimination — Eliminate states that are structurally disconnected from the
inputs or outputs. Eliminating structurally disconnected states is a good first step in
model reduction because the process does not involve any numerical computation. It
also preserves the state structure of the remaining states. At the command line,
perform structural elimination with sminreal.
• Pole-zero cancellation or minimal realization — Eliminate canceling or near-canceling
pole-zero pairs from transfer functions. Eliminate unobservable or uncontrollable
states from state-space models. At the command line, perform this kind of
simplification with minreal.

In the Model Reducer app, the Pole-Zero Simplification method automatically

eliminates structurally disconnected states and also performs pole-zero cancellation or
minimal realization.

Pole-Zero Simplification in the Model Reducer App

Model Reducer provides an interactive tool for performing model reduction and
examining and comparing the responses of the original and reduced-order models. To
reduce a model by pole-zero simplification in Model Reducer:

1 Open the app and import a model to reduce. For instance, suppose that there is a
model named build in the MATLAB workspace. The following command opens
Model Reducer and imports the LTI model build.

modelReducer(build)
2
In the Data Browser, select the model to reduce. Click Pole-Zero
Simplification.

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6 Model Simplification

In the Pole-Zero Simplification tab, Model Reducer displays a plot of the

frequency response of the original model and a reduced version of the model. The
app also displays a pole-zero map of both models.

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 Pole-Zero Simplification

The pole-zero map marks pole locations with x and zero locations with o.

Note The frequency response is a Bode plot for SISO models, and a singular-value
plot for MIMO models.
3 Optionally, change the tolerance with which Model Reducer identifies canceling
pole-zero pairs. Model Reducer cancels pole-zero pairs that fall within the tolerance
specified by the Simplification of pole-zero pairs value. In this case, no pole-zero

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6 Model Simplification

pairs are close enough together for Model Reducer to cancel them at the default
tolerance of 1e-05. To cancel pairs that are a little further apart, move the slider to
the right or enter a larger value in the text box.

The blue x and o marks on the pole-zero map show the near-canceling pole-zero pairs
in the original model that are eliminated from the simplified model. Poles and zeros
remaining in the simplified model are marked with red x and o.
4 Try different simplification tolerances while observing the frequency response of the
original and simplified model. Remove as many poles and zeros as you can while
preserving the system behavior in the frequency region that is important for your

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 Pole-Zero Simplification

application. Optionally, examine absolute or relative error between the original and
simplified model. Select the error-plot type using the buttons on the Pole-Zero
Simplification tab.

For more information about using the analysis plots, see “Visualize Reduced-Order
Models in the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67.
5 When you have a simplified model that you want to store and analyze further, click

. The new model appears in the Data Browser with a name that reflects the
reduced model order.

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6 Model Simplification

After creating a reduced model in the Data Browser, you can continue changing the
simplification parameters and create reduced models with different orders for
analysis and comparison.

You can now perform further analysis with the reduced model. For example:

• Examine other responses of the reduced system, such as the step response or Nichols
plot. To do so, use the tools on the Plots tab. See “Visualize Reduced-Order Models in
the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67 for more information.
• Export reduced models to the MATLAB workspace for further analysis or control

design. On the Model Reducer tab, click Export.

Generate MATLAB Code for Pole-Zero Simplification

To create a MATLAB script you can use for further model-reduction tasks at the command
line, click Create Reduced Model, and select Generate MATLAB Script.

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 Pole-Zero Simplification

Model Reducer creates a script that uses the minreal command to perform model
reduction with the parameters you have set on the Pole-Zero Simplification tab. The
script opens in the MATLAB editor.

Pole-Zero Cancelation at the Command Line

To reduce the order of a model by pole-zero cancelation at the command line, use
minreal.

Create a model of the following system, where C is a PI controller, and G has a zero at
rad/s. Such a low-frequency zero can arise from derivative action somewhere in
the plant dynamics. For example, the plant may include a component that computes speed
from position measurements.

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6 Model Simplification

G = zpk(3e-8,[-1,-3],1);
C = pid(1,0.3);
T = feedback(G*C,1)

T =

(s+0.3) (s-3e-08)
----------------------
s (s+4.218) (s+0.7824)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

In the closed-loop model T, the integrator from C very nearly cancels the low-
frequency zero of G.

Force a cancelation of the integrator with the zero near the origin.

Tred = minreal(T,1e-7)

Tred =

(s+0.3)
--------------------
(s+4.218) (s+0.7824)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

By default, minreal reduces transfer function order by canceling exact pole-zero pairs or
near pole-zero pairs within sqrt(eps). Specifying 1e-7 as the second input causes
minreal to eliminate pole-zero pairs within rad/s of each other.

The reduced model Tred includes all the dynamics of the original closed-loop model T,
except for the near-canceling zero-pole pair.

Compare the frequency responses of the original and reduced systems.

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 Pole-Zero Simplification

bode(T,Tred,'r--')
legend('T','Tred')

Because the canceled pole and zero do not match exactly, some extreme low-frequency
dynamics evident in the original model are missing from Tred. In many applications, you
can neglect such extreme low-frequency dynamics. When you increase the matching
tolerance of minreal, make sure that you do not eliminate dynamic features that are
relevant to your application.

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6 Model Simplification

See Also
Apps
Model Reducer

Functions
minreal | sminreal

Related Examples
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57
• “Model Reduction Basics” on page 6-2

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 Mode-Selection Model Reduction

Mode-Selection Model Reduction

Model selection eliminates poles that fall outside a specific frequency range of interest.
This method is useful when you want to focus your analysis on a particular subset of
system dynamics. For instance, if you are working with a control system with bandwidth
limited by actuator dynamics, you might discard higher-frequency dynamics in the plant.
Eliminating dynamics outside the frequency range of interest reduces the numerical
complexity of calculations with the model. There are two ways to compute a reduced-
order model by mode selection:

• At the command line, using the freqsep command.

• In the Model Reducer, using the Mode Selection method.

For more general information about model reduction, see “Model Reduction Basics” on
page 6-2.

Mode Selection in the Model Reducer App

Model Reducer provides an interactive tool for performing model reduction and
examining and comparing the responses of the original and reduced-order models. To
approximate a model by mode selection in Model Reducer:

1 Open the app and import an LTI model to reduce. For instance, suppose that there is
a model named Gms in the MATLAB workspace. The following command opens Model
Reducer and imports the model.

modelReducer(Gms)
2
In the Data Browser, select the model to reduce. Click Mode Selection.

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In the Mode Selection tab, Model Reducer displays a plot of the frequency
response of the original model and a reduced version of the model. The app also
displays a pole-zero map of both models.

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 Mode-Selection Model Reduction

The pole-zero map marks pole locations with x and zero locations with o.

Note The frequency response is a Bode plot for SISO models, and a singular-value
plot for MIMO models.

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6 Model Simplification

3 Model Reducer eliminates poles that lie outside the shaded region. Change the
shaded region to capture only the dynamics you want to preserve in the reduced
model. There are two ways to do so.

• On either the response plot or the pole-zero map, drag the boundaries of the
shaded region or the shaded region itself.
• On the Mode Selection tab, enter lower and upper cutoff frequencies.

When you change the shaded regions or cutoff frequencies, Model Reducer
automatically computes a new reduced-order model. All poles retained in the reduced

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 Mode-Selection Model Reduction

model fall within the shaded region on the pole-zero map. The reduced model might
contain zeros that fall outside the shaded region.
4 Optionally, examine absolute or relative error between the original and simplified
model. Select the error-plot type using the buttons on the Mode Selection tab.

For more information about using the analysis plots, see “Visualize Reduced-Order
Models in the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67.
5 When you have one or more reduced models that you want to store and analyze

further, click . The new model appears in the Data Browser.

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After creating a reduced model in the Data Browser, you can continue adjusting the
mode-selection region to create reduced models with different orders for analysis and
comparison.

You can now perform further analysis with the reduced model. For example:

• Examine other responses of the reduced system, such as the step response or Nichols
plot. To do so, use the tools on the Plots tab. See “Visualize Reduced-Order Models in
the Model Reducer App” on page 6-67 for more information.
• Export reduced models to the MATLAB workspace for further analysis or control

design. On the Model Reducer tab, click Export.

Generate MATLAB Code for Mode Selection

To create a MATLAB script you can use for further model-reduction tasks at the command
line, click Create Reduced Model, and select Generate MATLAB Script.

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 Mode-Selection Model Reduction

Model Reducer creates a script that uses the freqsep command to perform model
reduction with the parameters you have set on the Mode Selection tab. The script opens
in the MATLAB editor.

Mode Selection at the Command Line

To reduce the order of a model by mode selection at the command line, use freqsep.
This command separates a dynamic system model into slow and fast components around a
specified frequency.

For this example, load the model Gms and examine its frequency response.

load modeselect Gms

bodeplot(Gms)

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Gms has two sets of resonances, one at relatively low frequency and the other at relatively
high frequency. Suppose that you want to tune a controller for Gms, but the actuator in
your system is limited to a bandwidth of about 3 rad/s, in between the two groups of
resonances. To simplify calculation and tuning using Gms, you can use mode selection to
eliminate the high-frequency dynamics.
[Gms_s,Gms_f] = freqsep(Gms,30);

freqsep decomposes Gms into slow and fast components such that Gms = Gms_s +
Gms_f. All modes (poles) with natural frequency less than 30 are in Gms_s, and the
higher-frequency poles are in Gms_f.
bodeplot(Gms,Gms_s,Gms_f)
legend('original','slow','fast')

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 Mode-Selection Model Reduction

The slow component, Gms_s, contains only the lower-frequency resonances and matches
the DC gain of the original model. Examine the orders of both models.
order(Gms)

ans = 18

order(Gms_s)

ans = 10

When the high-frequency dynamics are unimportant for your application, you can use the
10th-order Gms_s instead of the original 18th-order model. If neglecting low-frequency
dynamics is appropriate for your application, you can use Gms_f. To select modes that fall
between a low-frequency and a high-frequency cutoff, use additional calls to freqsep.

6-65
6 Model Simplification

See Also
Model Reducer | freqsep

Related Examples
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47
• “Model Reduction Basics” on page 6-2

6-66
 Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App

Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer

App
The plotting tools in the Model Reducer app let you examine and compare time-domain
and frequency-domain responses of the original model and the reduced models you create
in the app. Use these tools to help verify that the reduced-order model you choose to work
with preserves the system behaviors that are important for your application.

For more general information about model reduction, see “Model Reduction Basics” on
page 6-2.

Error Plots
By default, for any model reduction method, Model Reducer shows a frequency-response
plot of both the original and reduced models. This plot is a Bode plot for SISO models,
and a singular-value plot for MIMO models.

To more closely examine the differences between an original model and a reduced model,
you can use absolute error or relative error plots. On any model reduction tab, click
Absolute error plot or Relative error plot to view these plots.

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6 Model Simplification

• Absolute error plot — Shows the singular values of G-Gr, where G is the original
model and Gr is the current reduced model.
• Relative error plot — Shows the singular values of (G-Gr)/G. This plot is useful
when the model has very high or very low gain in the region that is important to your
application. In such regions, absolute error can be misleading.

For SISO models, the singular-value plot is the magnitude of the frequency response.

Response Plots

After you click to add one or more reduced models to the Data Browser, compare
additional responses of the original and reduced models using the Plots tab.

Create New Response Plot

In the Data Browser, select one or more models to plot. (Ctrl-click to select multiple
models.) Then, on the Plots tab, click the type of plot you want to create.

Model Reducer creates the plot.

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 Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App

Add Model to Existing Plot

In the Data Browser, select the model to add. Then, on the Plots tab, click the icon
corresponding to the plot you want to update. Plots you have created appear on the left
side of the plot gallery.

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6 Model Simplification

Model Reducer updates the plot with the new model.

Tip To expand the gallery view, click .

Plot Characteristics
On any plot in Model Reducer:

• To see response information and data values, click a line on the plot.

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 Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App

• To view system characteristics, right-click anywhere on the plot, as described in

“Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots” on page 8-10.

6-71
6 Model Simplification

Plot Tools
Mouse over any plot to access plot tools at the upper right corner of the plot.

6-72
 Visualize Reduced-Order Models in the Model Reducer App

•
and — Zoom in and zoom out. Click to activate, and drag the cursor over the
region to zoom. The zoom icon turns dark when zoom is active. Right-click while zoom
is active to access additional zoom options.Click the icon again to deactivate.

•
— Pan. Click to activate, and drag the cursor across the plot area to pan. The pan
icon turns dark when pan is active. Right-click while pan is active to access additional
pan options. Click the icon again to deactivate.
•
— Legend. By default, the plot legend is active. To toggle the legend off and on,
click this icon. To move the legend, drag it to a new location on the plot.

To change the way plots are tiled or sorted, use the options on the View tab.

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6 Model Simplification

See Also
Model Reducer

Related Examples
• “Balanced Truncation Model Reduction” on page 6-17
• “Mode-Selection Model Reduction” on page 6-57
• “Pole-Zero Simplification” on page 6-47

6-74
Linear Analysis

75
 7

Time Domain Analysis

• “Plotting System Responses” on page 7-2

• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20
• “Time-Domain Response Data and Plots” on page 7-21
• “Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots” on page 7-24
• “Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics” on page 7-29
• “Time-Domain Responses of Discrete-Time Model” on page 7-31
• “Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model” on page 7-34
• “Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models” on page 7-36
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40
• “Response from Initial Conditions” on page 7-45
• “Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink” on page 7-48
• “Analysis of Systems with Time Delays” on page 7-53
7 Time Domain Analysis

Plotting System Responses

This example shows how to plot the time and frequency responses of SISO and MIMO
linear systems.

Time Responses

For illustration purposes, create the following third-order transfer function:

sys = tf([8 18 32],[1 6 14 24])

sys =

8 s^2 + 18 s + 32
-----------------------
s^3 + 6 s^2 + 14 s + 24

Continuous-time transfer function.

You can plot the step and impulse responses of this system using the step and impulse
commands:

subplot(2,1,1)
step(sys)
subplot(2,1,2)
impulse(sys)

7-2
 Plotting System Responses

You can also simulate the response to an arbitrary signal, for example, a sine wave, using
the lsim command. The input signal appears in gray and the system's response in blue.

clf
t = 0:0.01:4;
u = sin(10*t);
lsim(sys,u,t) % u,t define the input signal

7-3
7 Time Domain Analysis

You can use the plotting commands with continuous or discrete TF, SS, or ZPK models.
For state-space models, you can also plot the unforced response from some given initial
state, for example:

A = [-0.8 3.6 -2.1;-3 -1.2 4.8;3 -4.3 -1.1];

B = [0; -1.1; -0.2];
C = [1.2 0 0.6];
D = -0.6;
G = ss(A,B,C,D);
x0 = [-1;0;2]; % initial state
initial(G,x0)
grid

7-4
 Plotting System Responses

Frequency Responses

Frequency-domain analysis is key to understanding stability and performance properties

of control systems. Bode plots, Nyquist plots, and Nichols chart are three standard ways
to plot and analyze the frequency response of a linear system. You can create these plots
using the bode, nichols, and nyquist commands. For example:

sys = tf([8 18 32],[1 6 14 24])

sys =

8 s^2 + 18 s + 32
-----------------------

7-5
7 Time Domain Analysis

s^3 + 6 s^2 + 14 s + 24

Continuous-time transfer function.

bode(sys)
grid

nyquist(sys)
grid

7-6
 Plotting System Responses

nichols(sys)
grid

7-7
7 Time Domain Analysis

Pole/Zero Maps and Root Locus

The poles and zeros of a system contain valuable information about its dynamics, stability,
and limits of performance. For example, consider the feedback loop in Figure 1 where

7-8
 Plotting System Responses

Figure 1: SISO Feedback Loop.

For the gain value k = 0.7, you can plot the closed-loop poles and zeros using pzmap:

s = tf('s');
G = -(2*s+1)/(s^2+3*s+2);
k = 0.7;
T = feedback(G*k,1);
pzmap(T)
grid, axis([-2 0 -1 1])

7-9
7 Time Domain Analysis

The closed-loop poles (marked by blue x's) lie in the left half-plane so the feedback loop is
stable for this choice of gain k. You can read the damping ratio of the closed-loop poles
from this chart (see labels on the radial lines). Here the damping ratio is about 0.7,
suggesting a well-damped closed-loop response as confirmed by:

clf
step(T)

7-10
 Plotting System Responses

To further understand how the loop gain k affects closed-loop stability, you can plot the
locus of the closed-loop poles as a function of k:

rlocus(G)
grid

7-11
7 Time Domain Analysis

Clicking where the locus intersects the y axis reveals that the closed-loop poles become
unstable for k = 1.51. So the loop gain should remain smaller than 1.5 for closed-loop
stability.

7-12
 Plotting System Responses

Response Characteristics

Right-clicking on response plots gives access to a variety of options and annotations. In

particular, the Characteristics menu lets you display standard metrics such as rise time
and settling time for step responses, or peak gain and stability margins for frequency
response plots.

Using the example from the previous section, plot the closed-loop step response:

step(T)

7-13
7 Time Domain Analysis

Now, right-click on the plot to display the Peak Response and Settling Time
Characteristics, and click on the blue dots to read the corresponding overshoot and
settling time values:

7-14
 Plotting System Responses

Analyzing MIMO Systems

All commands mentioned so far fully support multi-input multi-output (MIMO) systems. In
the MIMO case, these commands produce arrays of plots. For example, the step response
of the two-input, two-output system

sys = rss(3,2,2);
sys.A = [-0.5 -0.3 -0.2 ; 0 -1.3 -1.7; 0.4 1.7 -1.3];

is a 2-by-2 array of plots where each column shows the step response of a particular input
channel:

step(sys)

7-15
7 Time Domain Analysis

If desired, you can group all four responses on a single plot by right-clicking on the plot
and selecting the I/O Grouping -> All submenu. The resulting plot is shown below.

7-16
 Plotting System Responses

The following additional plots are useful for analyzing MIMO systems:

• Singular value plot (sigma), which shows the principal gains of the frequency
response
• Pole/zero map for each I/O pair (iopzplot)

For example, plot the peak gain of sys as a function of frequency:

sigma(sys)
grid

7-17
7 Time Domain Analysis

Comparing Systems

You can plot multiple systems at once using any of the response plot commands. You can
assign a specific color, marker, or line style to each system for easy comparison. Using the
feedback example above, plot the closed-loop step response for three values of the loop
gain k in three different colors:

k1 = 0.4;
T1 = feedback(G*k1,1);
k2 = 1;
T2 = feedback(G*k2,1);
step(T,'b',T1,'r',T2,'g')
legend('k = 0.7','k = 0.4','k = 1')

7-18
Plotting System Responses

7-19
7 Time Domain Analysis

Time-Domain Responses
When you perform time-domain analysis of a dynamic system model, you may want one or
more of the following:

• A plot of the system response as a function of time.

• Numerical values of the system response in a data array.
• Numerical values of characteristics of the system response such as peak response or
settling time.

Control System Toolbox time-domain analysis commands can obtain these results for any
kind of dynamic system model (for example, continuous or discrete, SISO or MIMO, or
arrays of models) except for frequency response data models.

To obtain numerical data, use:

• step,impulse,initial,lsim — System response data at a vector of time points.

• stepinfo,lsiminfo — Numerical values of system response characteristics such as
settling time and overshoot.

To obtain response plots, use:

• step,impulse,initial,lsim — Plot system response data, visualize response

characteristics on plots, compare responses of multiple systems on a single plot.
• stepplot,impulseplot,initialplot,lsimplot — Create system response plots
with more plot-customization options. For details about plot customization, see “Plot
Customization”.
• Linear System Analyzer — App for plotting many types of system responses
simultaneously, including both time-domain and frequency-domain responses

See Also

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Response Data and Plots” on page 7-21
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

7-20
 Time-Domain Response Data and Plots

Time-Domain Response Data and Plots

This example shows how to obtain step and impulse response data, as well as step and
impulse response plots, from a dynamic system model.

Create a transfer function model and plot its response to a step input at = 0.

H = tf([8 18 32],[1 6 14 24]);

step(H);

When call step without output arguments, it plots the step response on the screen.
Unless you specify a time range to plot, step automatically chooses a time range that
illustrates the system dynamics.

7-21
7 Time Domain Analysis

Calculate the step response data from = 0 (application of the step input) to = 8 s.
[y,t] = step(H,8);

When you call step with output arguments, the command returns the step response data
y. The vector t contains corresponding time values.

Plot the response of H to an impulse input applied at = 0. Plot the response with a grid.
opts = timeoptions;
opts.Grid = 'on';
impulseplot(H,opts)

Use the timeoptions command to define options sets for customizing time-domain plots
with commands like impulseplot and stepplot.

7-22
 See Also

Calculate 200 points of impulse response data from = 1 (one second after application of
the impulse input) to = 3s.

[y,t] = impulse(H,linspace(1,3,200));

As for step, you can omit the time vector to allow impulse to automatically select a time
range.

See Also
impulse | impulseplot | step | stepplot | timeoptions

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots” on page 7-24
• “Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models” on page 7-36
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-23
7 Time Domain Analysis

Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots

This example shows how to display system characteristics such as settling time and
overshoot on step response plots.

You can use similar procedures to display system characteristics on impulse response
plots or initial value response plots, such as peak response or settling time.

Create a transfer function model and plot its response to a step input at t = 0.
H = tf([8 18 32],[1 6 14 24]);
stepplot(H)

Display the peak response on the plot.

Right-click anywhere in the figure and select Characteristics > Peak Response from
the menu.

7-24
 Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots

A marker appears on the plot indicating the peak response. Horizontal and vertical dotted
lines indicate the time and amplitude of that response.

7-25
7 Time Domain Analysis

Click the marker to view the value of the peak response and the overshoot in a datatip.

7-26
 See Also

You can use a similar procedure to select other characteristics such as settling time and
rise time from the Characteristics menu and view the values.

See Also
impulse | lsiminfo | step | stepinfo

Related Examples
• “Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics” on page 7-29
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

7-27
7 Time Domain Analysis

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-28
 Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics

Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics

This example shows how to obtain numeric values of step response characteristics such
as rise time, settling time, and overshoot using stepinfo. You can use similar techniques
with lsiminfo to obtain characteristics of the system response to an arbitrary input or
initial conditions.

Create a dynamic system model and get numeric values of the system’s step response
characteristics.

H = tf([8 18 32],[1 6 14 24]);

data = stepinfo(H)

data = struct with fields:

RiseTime: 0.2087
SettlingTime: 3.4972
SettlingMin: 1.1956
SettlingMax: 1.6871
Overshoot: 26.5302
Undershoot: 0
Peak: 1.6871
PeakTime: 0.5987

The output is a structure that contains values for several step response characteristics. To
access these values or refer to them in other calculations, use dot notation. For example,
data.Overshoot is the overshoot value.

Calculate the time it takes the step response of H to settle within 0.5% of its final value.

data = stepinfo(H,'SettlingTimeThreshold',0.005);
t05 = data.SettlingTime

t05 = 4.8896

By default, stepinfo defines the settling time as the time it takes for the output to settle
within 0.02 (2%) of its final value. Specifying a more stringent
'SettlingTimeThreshold' of 0.005 results in a longer settling time.

For more information about the options and the characteristics, see the stepinfo
reference page.

7-29
7 Time Domain Analysis

See Also
lsiminfo | stepinfo

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots” on page 7-24
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-30
 Time-Domain Responses of Discrete-Time Model

Time-Domain Responses of Discrete-Time Model

This example shows how to obtain a step-response plot and step-response data for a
discrete-time dynamic system model. Obtaining time-domain responses of discrete-time
models is the same as for continuous-time models, except that the time sample points are
limited by the sample time Ts of the model.

You can use the techniques of this example with commands such as impulse, initial,
impulseplot, and initialpot to obtain time-domain responses of discrete-time
models.

Create a discrete-time transfer function model and plot its response to a step input at =
0.

H = tf([-0.06,0.4],[1,-1.6,0.78],0.1);
step(H)

7-31
7 Time Domain Analysis

For discrete-time models, step plots the response at multiples of the sample time,
assuming a hold between samples.

Compute the step response of H between 0.5 and 2.5 seconds.

[y,t] = step(H,0.5:0.1:2.5);

When you specify a time vector for the response of a discrete-time model, the time step
must match the sample time Ts of the discrete-time model. The vector t contains the time
points between 0.5 and 2.5 seconds, at multiples of the sample time of H, 0.1 s. The vector
y contains the corresponding step response values.

7-32
 See Also

See Also
impulse | impulseplot | initial | initialplot | step | stepplot

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model” on page 7-34
• “Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models” on page 7-36
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-33
7 Time Domain Analysis

Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model

This example shows how to obtain impulse response data and plots for a multi-input,
multi-output (MIMO) model using impulse. You can use the same techniques to obtain
other types of time-domain responses of MIMO models.

Create a MIMO model and plot its response to a t = 0 impulse at all inputs.

H = rss(2,2,2);
H.InputName = 'Control';
H.OutputName = 'Temperature';
impulse(H)

7-34
 See Also

impulse plots the response of each output to an impulse applied at each input. (Because
rss generates a random state-space model, you might see different responses from those
pictured.) The first column of plots shows the response of each output to an impulse
applied at the first input, Control(1). The second column shows the response of each
output to an impulse applied at the second input, Control(2).

Calculate the impulse responses of all channels of H, and examine the size of the output.

[y,t] = impulse(H);
size(y)

ans = 1×3

207 2 2

The first dimension of the data array y is the number of samples in the time vector t. The
impulse command determines this number automatically if you do not supply a time
vector. The remaining dimensions of y are the numbers of outputs and inputs in H. Thus,
y(:,i,j) is the response at the i th output of H to an impulse applied at the j th input.

See Also
impulse | impulseplot | initial | initialplot | step | stepplot

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models” on page 7-36
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-35
7 Time Domain Analysis

Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models

This example shows how to compare the step responses of multiple models on a single
plot using step. This example compares the step response of an uncontrolled plant to the
closed-loop step response of the plant with two different PI controllers. You can use
similar techniques with other response commands, such as impulse or initial, to
obtain plots of responses of multiple models.

For this example, obtain two models whose time responses you want to compare, and plot
them on a single step plot. For instance, you can compare a third-order plant G, and the
closed-loop response of G with a controller C1 having integral action.

G = zpk([],[-5 -5 -10],100);

C1 = pid(0,4.4);
CL1 = feedback(G*C1,1);

step(G,CL1);

7-36
 Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models

When you provide multiple models to step as input arguments, the command displays the
responses of both models on the same plot. If you do not specify a time range to plot,
step attempts to choose a time range that illustrates the dynamics of all the models.

Compare the step response of the closed-loop model with another controller. Specify plot
colors and styles for each response.

C2 = pid(2.9,7.1);
CL2 = feedback(G*C2,1);

step(G,'b--',CL1,'g-',CL2,'r-')

7-37
7 Time Domain Analysis

You can specify custom plot color and style for each response in the plot. For example,
'g-' specifies a solid green line for response CL2. For additional plot customization
options, use stepplot.

See Also
Linear System Analyzer | impulse | impulseplot | initial | initialplot | step |
stepplot

7-38
 See Also

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Responses of MIMO Model” on page 7-34
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-39
7 Time Domain Analysis

Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis

This example shows how to compare multiple types of responses side by side, including
both time-domain and frequency-domain responses, using the interactive Linear System
Analyzer app.

Obtain models whose responses you want to compare.

For example, compare a third-order plant G, and the closed-loop responses of G with two
different controllers, C1 and C2.

G = zpk([],[-5 -5 -10],100);
C1 = pid(0,4.4);
T1 = feedback(G*C1,1);
C2 = pid(2.9,7.1);
T2 = feedback(G*C2,1);

Open the Linear System Analyzer tool to examine the responses of the plant and the
closed-loop systems.

linearSystemAnalyzer(G,T1,T2)

7-40
 Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis

By default, the Linear System Analyzer launches with a plot of the step response of the
three systems. Click to add a legend to the plot.

Add plots of the impulse responses to the Linear System Analyzer display.

In the Linear System Analyzer, select Edit > Plot Configurations to open the Plot
Configurations dialog box.

7-41
7 Time Domain Analysis

Select the two-plot configuration. In the Response Type area, select Bode Magnitude for
the second plot type.

Click OK to add the Bode plots to the Linear System Analyzer display.

Display the peak values of the Bode responses on the plot.

Right-click anywhere in the Bode Magnitude plot and select Characteristics > Peak
Response from the menu.

7-42
 Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis

Markers appear on the plot indicating the peak response values. Horizontal and vertical
dotted lines indicate the frequency and amplitude of those responses. Click on a marker
to view the value of the peak response in a datatip.

You can use a similar procedure to select other characteristics such as settling time and
rise time from the Characteristics menu and view the values.

You can also change the type of plot displayed in the Linear System Analyzer. For
example, to change the first plot type to a plot of the impulse response, right-click
anywhere in the plot. Select Plot Types > Impulse

7-43
7 Time Domain Analysis

The displayed plot changes to show the impulse of the three systems.

See Also
Linear System Analyzer | impulse | impulseplot | initial | initialplot | step |
stepplot

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Responses of Multiple Models” on page 7-36

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-44
 Response from Initial Conditions

Response from Initial Conditions

This example shows how to compute and plot the response of a state-space (ss) model to
specified initial state values using initial.

Load a state-space model.

load ltiexamples sys_dc

sys_dc.InputName = 'Volts';
sys_dc.OutputName = 'w';
sys_dc.StateName = {'Current','w'};
sys_dc

sys_dc =

A =
Current w
Current -4 -0.03
w 0.75 -10

B =
Volts
Current 2
w 0

C =
Current w
w 0 1

D =
Volts
w 0

Continuous-time state-space model.

This example uses the SISO, 2-state model sys_dc. This model represents a DC motor.
The input is an applied voltage, and the output is the angular rate of the motor ω. The
states of the model are the induced current (x1), and ω (x2). The model display in the
command window shows the labeled input, output, and states.

Plot the undriven evolution of the motor's angular rate from an initial state in which the
induced current is 1.0 amp and the initial rotation rate is 5.0 rad/s.

7-45
7 Time Domain Analysis

x0 = [1.0 5.0];
initial(sys_dc,x0)

initial plots the time evolution from the specified initial condition on the screen.
Unless you specify a time range to plot, initial automatically chooses a time range that
illustrates the system dynamics.

Calculate the time evolution of the output and the states of sys_dc from =0
(application of the step input) to = 1 s.

t = 0:0.01:1;
[y,t,x] = initial(sys_dc,x0,t);

7-46
 See Also

The vector y contains the output at each time step in t. The array x contains the state
values at each time step. Therefore, in this example x is a 2-by-101 array. Each row of x
contains the values of the two states of sys_dc at the corresponding time step.

See Also
impulse | initial | initialplot | step

Related Examples
• “Time-Domain Response Data and Plots” on page 7-21
• “Numeric Values of Time-Domain System Characteristics” on page 7-29

More About
• “Time-Domain Responses” on page 7-20

7-47
7 Time Domain Analysis

Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink

Use the LTI System block to import linear system model objects into Simulink. You can
simulate linear systems represented as LTI model objects, and incorporate such systems
as elements of Simulink models of more complex systems.

In the block parameters, set the LTI system variable parameter to the LTI model to
import. For state-space models, set the Initial states parameter to a vector to specify
non-zero initial states.

Simulate LTI Model in Simulink

The LTISystemBlockSimulation model shows how to use an LTI System block to
simulate the response of a SISO transfer function to a step input.

To specify a model for the LTI System block, set the LTI system variable block
parameter to either:

• The variable name of an LTI model in the MATLAB® workspace or model workspace,
such as sys.
• A MATLAB expression that evaluates to an LTI model, such as tf(1,[1 1]).

For example, you can specify a state-space (ss), zero-pole-gain (zpk), or transfer function
(tf) model. You can simulate SISO models or MIMO models, and continuous-time or
discrete-time models.

In LTISystemBlockSimulation model, the LTI system variable parameter is a

MATLAB expression, tf(1,[1 2 5]), which creates a continuous-time SISO transfer
function. If the specified system is a state-space (ss) model, then you can specify initial
state values by setting the Initial states parameter.

Simulate the model, and examine the result in the scope.

7-48
Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink

7-49
7 Time Domain Analysis

This example simulates the system response to a step input at t = 2 s. Use the LTI System
block to import an LTI model object anywhere in your Simulink model to simulate the
linear system response to any input.

Import MIMO LTI Model into Simulink

This model shows how to use an LTI System block to represent a MIMO linear system in
Simulink®.

The LTI System block has one input and one output, even when you specify a MIMO
model for the block. In that case, the block input and output become vector signals. For
instance, the model LTISystemBlockMIMO uses an LTI system block to represent a
MIMO plant in a control system.

In this model, the LTI System specified in the block is Gm, a 2-output, 2-input transfer
function model stored in the model workspace. A Mux block combines the two controller
outputs into a vector signal for the LTI System block input. Similarly, a Demux block
separates the vector output of the LTI System block into two scalar signals.

Simulate the model, and examine the result in the scope.

7-50
Import LTI Model Objects into Simulink

7-51
7 Time Domain Analysis

This example simulates a closed-loop system response to a t = 50 s step at the first input
and a t = 150 s step at the second input. You can use the LTI system block anywhere you
want to insert an LTI system into a Simulink model.

See Also
LTI System

7-52
 Analysis of Systems with Time Delays

Analysis of Systems with Time Delays

You can use analysis commands such as step, bode, or margin to analyze systems with
time delays. The software makes no approximations when performing such analysis.

For example, consider the following control loop, where the plant is modeled as first-order
plus dead time:

You can model the closed-loop system from r to y with the following commands:

s = tf('s');
P = 5*exp(-3.4*s)/(s+1);
C = 0.1 * (1 + 1/(5*s));
T = feedback(P*C,1);

T is a state-space model with an internal delay. For more information about models with
internal delays, see “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays” on page 2-45.

Plot the step response of T:

stepplot(T)

7-53
7 Time Domain Analysis

For more complicated interconnections, you can name the input and output signals of
each block and use connect to automatically take care of the wiring. Suppose, for
example, that you want to add feedforward to the control loop of the previous model.

7-54
 Analysis of Systems with Time Delays

You can derive the corresponding closed-loop model Tff by

F = 0.3/(s+4);
P.InputName = 'u';
P.OutputName = 'y';
C.InputName = 'e';
C.OutputName = 'uc';
F.InputName = 'r';
F.OutputName = 'uf';
Sum1 = sumblk('e','r','y','+-'); % e = r-y
Sum2 = sumblk('u','uf','uc','++'); % u = uf+uc
Tff = connect(P,C,F,Sum1,Sum2,'r','y');

and compare its response with the feedback only design.

stepplot(T,Tff)
legend('No feedforward','Feedforward')

7-55
7 Time Domain Analysis

The state-space representation keeps track of the internal delays in both models.

Considerations to Keep in Mind when Analyzing Systems with

Internal Time Delays
The time and frequency responses of delay systems can look odd and suspicious to those
only familiar with delay-free LTI analysis. Time responses can behave chaotically, Bode
plots can exhibit gain oscillations, etc. These are not software or numerical quirks but
real features of such systems. Below are a few illustrations of these phenomena.

Gain ripple:

7-56
 Analysis of Systems with Time Delays

s = tf('s');
G = exp(-5*s)/(s+1);
T = feedback(G,.5);
bodemag(T)

Gain oscillations:

G = 1 + 0.5 * exp(-3*s);
bodemag(G)

7-57
7 Time Domain Analysis

Jagged step response:

G = exp(-s) * (0.8*s^2+s+2)/(s^2+s);
T = feedback(G,1);
stepplot(T)

7-58
 Analysis of Systems with Time Delays

Note the rearrivals (echoes) of the initial step function.

Chaotic response:

G = 1/(s+1) + exp(-4*s);
T = feedback(1,G);
stepplot(T,150)

7-59
7 Time Domain Analysis

You can use Control System Toolbox tools to model and analyze these and other strange-
appearing artifacts of internal delays.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Closing Feedback Loops with Time Delays” on page 2-45

7-60
 See Also

More About
• “Time Delays in Linear Systems” on page 2-40
• “Internal Delays” on page 2-73

7-61
 8

Frequency Domain Analysis

• “Frequency-Domain Responses” on page 8-2

• “Frequency Response of a SISO System” on page 8-4
• “Frequency Response of a MIMO System” on page 8-6
• “Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots” on page 8-10
• “Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model” on page 8-13
• “Pole and Zero Locations” on page 8-16
• “Assessing Gain and Phase Margins” on page 8-19
• “Analyzing Control Systems with Delays” on page 8-34
• “Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit” on page 8-52
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency-Domain Responses
When you perform frequency-domain analysis of a dynamic system model, you may want
one or more of the following:

• A plot of the system response as a function of frequency, or plots of pole and zero
locations.
• Numerical values of the system response in a data array.
• Numerical values of characteristics of the system response such as stability margins,
peak gains, or singular values.

Control System Toolbox frequency-domain analysis commands can obtain these results for
any kind of dynamic system model (for example, continuous or discrete, SISO or MIMO,
or arrays of models).

To obtain numerical data, use:

• bode,freqresp,nichols,nyquist — System response data at a vector of frequency

points.
• margin,getPeakGain,getGainCrossover,sigma — Numerical values of system
response characteristics such as gain margins, phase margins, and singular values.

To obtain response plots, use:

• bode,bodemag,nichols,nyquist — Plot system response data, visualize response

characteristics on plots, compare responses of multiple systems on a single plot.
• bodeplot,nicholsplot,nyquistplot,sigmaplot — Create system response plots
with more plot-customization options. For details about plot customization, see “Plot
Customization”.
• Linear System Analyzer — App for plotting many types of system responses
simultaneously, including both time-domain and frequency-domain responses

To obtain pole-zero maps, use:

• pzplot, iopzplot — Plot pole and zero locations in the complex plane.

If you have a generalized state-space (genss) model of a control system, you can extract
various transfer functions from it for analysis using frequency-domain and time-domain
analysis commands. Extract responses from such models using getIOTransfer,
getLoopTransfer, getSensitivity, and getCompSensitivity.

8-2
 See Also

See Also

Related Examples
• “Frequency Response of a SISO System” on page 8-4
• “Frequency Response of a MIMO System” on page 8-6
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

8-3
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency Response of a SISO System

This example shows how to plot the frequency response and obtain frequency response
data for a single-input, single-output (SISO) dynamic system model.

Create a transfer function model and plot its frequency response.

H = tf([10,21],[1,1.4,26]);
bode(H)

When you can bode without output arguments, it plots the frequency response on the
screen. Unless you specify a frequency range to plot, bode automatically chooses a
frequency range based on the system dynamics.

8-4
 See Also

Calculate the frequency response between 1 and 13 rad/s.

[mag,phase,w] = bode(H,{1,13});

When you call bode with output arguments, the command returns vectors mag and phase
containing the magnitude and phase of the frequency response. The cell array input
{1,13} tells bode to calculate the response at a grid of frequencies between 1 and 13
rad/s. bode returns the frequency points in the vector w.

See Also
bode | bodeoptions | bodeplot

Related Examples
• “Frequency Response of a MIMO System” on page 8-6
• “Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model” on page 8-
13

More About
• “Frequency-Domain Responses” on page 8-2

8-5
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency Response of a MIMO System

This example shows how to examine the frequency response of a multi-input, multi-output
(MIMO) system in two ways: by computing the frequency response, and by computing the
singular values.

Calculate the frequency response of a MIMO model and examine the size of the output.

H = rss(2,2,2);
H.InputName = 'Control';
H.OutputName = 'Temperature';
[mag,phase,w] = bode(H);
size(mag)

ans = 1×3

2 2 70

The first and second dimension of the data array mag are the number of outputs and
inputs of H. The third dimension is the number of points in the frequency vector w. (The
bode command determines this number automatically if you do not supply a frequency
vector.) Thus, mag(i,j,:) is the frequency response from the j th input of H to the i th
output, in absolute units. The phase data array phase takes the same form as mag.

Plot the frequency response of each input/output pair in H.

bode(H)

8-6
 Frequency Response of a MIMO System

bode plots the magnitude and the phase of the frequency response of each input/output
pair in H. (Because rss generates a random state-space model, you might see different
responses from those pictured.) The first column of plots shows the response from the
first input, Control(1), to each output. The second column shows the response from the
second input, Control(2), to each output.

Plot the singular values of H as a function of frequency.

sigma(H)

8-7
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

sigma plots the singular values of the MIMO system H as a function of frequency. The
maximum singular value at a particular frequency is the maximum gain of the system over
all linear combinations of inputs at that frequency. Singular values can provide a better
indication of the overall response, stability, and conditioning of a MIMO system than a
channel-by-channel Bode plot.

Calculate the singular values of H between 0.1 and 10 rad/s.

[sv,w] = sigma(H,{0.1,10});

When you call sigma with output arguments, the command returns the singular values in
the data array sv. The cell array input {0.1,10} tells sigma to calculate the singular
values at a grid of frequencies between 0.1 and 10 rad/s. sigma returns these frequencies
in the vector w. Each row of sv contains the singular values of H at the frequencies of w.

8-8
 See Also

See Also
bode | bodeplot | sigma | sigmaplot

Related Examples
• “Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model” on page 8-
13
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

8-9
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots

This example shows how to display system characteristics such as peak response on Bode
response plots.

You can use similar procedures to display system characteristics on other types of
response plots.

Create a transfer function model and plot its frequency response.

H = tf([10,21],[1,1.4,26]);
bodeplot(H)

Display the peak response on the plot.

Right-click anywhere in the figure and select Characteristics > Peak Response from
the menu.

8-10
 Frequency-Domain Characteristics on Response Plots

A marker appears on the plot indicating the peak response. Horizontal and vertical dotted
lines indicate the frequency and magnitude of that response. The other menu options add
other system characteristics to the plot.

8-11
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Click the marker to view the magnitude and frequency of the peak response in a datatip.

See Also

Related Examples
• “Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model” on page 8-
13
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40
• “Pole and Zero Locations” on page 8-16

8-12
 Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model

Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of

SISO Model
This example shows how to obtain numeric values of several frequency-domain
characteristics of a SISO dynamic system model, including the peak gain, dc gain, system
bandwidth, and the frequencies at which the system gain crosses a specified frequency.

Create a transfer function model and plot its frequency response.

H = tf([10,21],[1,1.4,26]);
bodeplot(H)

8-13
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Plotting the frequency response gives a rough idea of the frequency-domain

characteristics of the system. H includes a pronounced resonant peak, and rolls off at 20
dB/decade at high frequency. It is often desirable to obtain specific numeric values for
such characteristics.

Calculate the peak gain and the frequency of the resonance.

[gpeak,fpeak] = getPeakGain(H);
gpeak_dB = mag2db(gpeak)

gpeak_dB = 17.7579

getPeakGain returns both the peak location fpeak and the peak gain gpeak in absolute
units. Using mag2db to convert gpeak to decibels shows that the gain peaks at almost 18
dB.

Find the band within which the system gain exceeds 0 dB, or 1 in absolute units.

wc = getGainCrossover(H,1)

wc = 2×1

1.2582
12.1843

getGainCrossover returns a vector of frequencies at which the system response

crosses the specified gain. The resulting wc vector shows that the system gain exceeds 0
dB between about 1.3 and 12.2 rad/s.

Find the dc gain of H.

The Bode response plot shows that the gain of H tends toward a finite value as the
frequency approaches zero. The dcgain command finds this value in absolute units.

k = dcgain(H);

Find the frequency at which the response of H rolls off to –10 dB relative to its dc value.

fb = bandwidth(H,-10);

bandwidth returns the first frequency at which the system response drops below the dc
gain by the specified value in dB.

8-14
 See Also

See Also
bandwidth | getGainCrossover | getPeakGain

Related Examples
• “Pole and Zero Locations” on page 8-16

More About
• “Frequency-Domain Responses” on page 8-2

8-15
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Pole and Zero Locations

This example shows how to examine the pole and zero locations of dynamic systems both
graphically using pzplot and numerically using pole and zero.

Examining the pole and zero locations can be useful for tasks such as stability analysis or
identifying near-canceling pole-zero pairs for model simplification. This example
compares two closed-loop systems that have the same plant and different controllers.

Create dynamic system models representing the two closed-loop systems.

G = zpk([],[-5 -5 -10],100);
C1 = pid(2.9,7.1);
CL1 = feedback(G*C1,1);
C2 = pid(29,7.1);
CL2 = feedback(G*C2,1);

The controller C2 has a much higher proportional gain. Otherwise, the two closed-loop
systems CL1 and CL2 are the same.

Graphically examine the pole and zero locations of CL1 and CL2.

pzplot(CL1,CL2)
grid

8-16
 Pole and Zero Locations

pzplot plots pole and zero locations on the complex plane as x and o marks,
respectively. When you provide multiple models, pzplot plots the poles and zeros of each
model in a different color. Here, there poles and zeros of CL1 are blue, and those of CL2
are green.

The plot shows that all poles of CL1 are in the left half-plane, and therefore CL1 is stable.
From the radial grid markings on the plot, you can read that the damping of the
oscillating (complex) poles is approximately 0.45. The plot also shows that CL2 contains
poles in the right half-plane and is therefore unstable.

Compute numerical values of the pole and zero locations of CL2.

z = zero(CL2);
p = pole(CL2);

8-17
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

zero and pole return column vectors containing the zero and pole locations of the
system.

See Also
pole | pzplot | zero

Related Examples
• “Numeric Values of Frequency-Domain Characteristics of SISO Model” on page 8-13

More About
• “Frequency-Domain Responses” on page 8-2

8-18
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

This example shows how to examine the effect of stability margins on closed-loop
response characteristics of a control system.

Stability of a Feedback Loop

Stability generally means that all internal signals remain bounded. This is a standard
requirement for control systems to avoid loss of control and damage to equipment. For
linear feedback systems, stability can be assessed by looking at the poles of the closed-
loop transfer function. Consider for example the SISO feedback loop:

Figure 1: SISO Feedback Loop.

For a unit loop gain k, you can compute the closed-loop transfer function T using:
G = tf([.5 1.3],[1 1.2 1.6 0]);
T = feedback(G,1);

To obtain the poles of T, type

pole(T)

ans =

-0.2305 + 1.3062i
-0.2305 - 1.3062i
-0.7389 + 0.0000i

The feedback loop for k=1 is stable since all poles have negative real parts.

8-19
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

How Stable is Stable?

Checking the closed-loop poles gives us a binary assessment of stability. In practice, it is

more useful to know how robust (or fragile) stability is. One indication of robustness is
how much the loop gain can change before stability is lost. You can use the root locus plot
to estimate the range of k values for which the loop is stable:

rlocus(G)

Clicking on the point where the locus intersects the y axis reveals that this feedback loop
is stable for

8-20
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

This range shows that with k=1, the loop gain can increase 270% before you lose stability.

Gain and Phase Margins

Changes in the loop gain are only one aspect of robust stability. In general, imperfect
plant modeling means that both gain and phase are not known exactly. Because modeling
errors are most damaging near the gain crossover frequency (frequency where open-loop
gain is 0dB), it also matters how much phase variation can be tolerated at this frequency.

The phase margin measures how much phase variation is needed at the gain crossover
frequency to lose stability. Similarly, the gain margin measures what relative gain
variation is needed at the gain crossover frequency to lose stability. Together, these two
numbers give an estimate of the "safety margin" for closed-loop stability. The smaller the
stability margins, the more fragile stability is.

You can display the gain and phase margins on a Bode plot as follows. First create the
plot:

bode(G), grid

8-21
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Then, right-click on the plot and select the Characteristics -> Minimum Stability
Margins submenu. Finally, click on the blue dot markers. The resulting plot is shown
below:

8-22
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

This indicates a gain margin of about 9 dB and a phase margin of about 45 degrees. The
corresponding closed-loop step response exhibits about 20% overshoot and some
oscillations.

step(T), title('Closed-loop response for k=1')

8-23
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

If we increase the gain to k=2, the stability margins are reduced to

[Gm,Pm] = margin(2*G);
GmdB = 20*log10(Gm) % gain margin in dB
Pm % phase margin in degrees

GmdB =

2.7471

Pm =

8-24
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

8.6328

and the closed-loop response has poorly damped oscillations, a sign of near instability.

step(feedback(2*G,1)), title('Closed-loop response for k=2')

Systems with Multiple Gain or Phase Crossings

Some systems have multiple gain crossover or phase crossover frequencies, which leads
to multiple gain or phase margin values. For example, consider the feedback loop

8-25
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Figure 2: Feedback Loop with Multiple Phase Crossovers

The closed-loop response for k=1 is stable:

G = tf(20,[1 7]) * tf([1 3.2 7.2],[1 -1.2 0.8]) * tf([1 -8 400],[1 33 700]);
T = feedback(G,1);
step(T), title('Closed-loop response for k=1')

8-26
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

To assess how robustly stable this loop is, plot its Bode response:

bode(G), grid

8-27
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Then, right-click on the plot and select the Characteristics -> All Stability Margins
submenu to show all the crossover frequencies and associated stability margins. The
resulting plot is shown below.

8-28
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

Note that there are two 180 deg phase crossings with corresponding gain margins of
-9.35dB and +10.6dB. Negative gain margins indicate that stability is lost by decreasing
the gain, while positive gain margins indicate that stability is lost by increasing the gain.
This is confirmed by plotting the closed-loop step response for a plus/minus 6dB gain
variation about k=1:

k1 = 2; T1 = feedback(G*k1,1);
k2 = 1/2; T2 = feedback(G*k2,1);
step(T,'b',T1,'r',T2,'g',12),
legend('k = 1','k = 2','k = 0.5')

8-29
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

The plot shows increased oscillations for both smaller and larger gain values.

You can use the command allmargin to compute all stability margins. Note that gain
margins are expressed as gain ratios, not dB. Use mag2db to convert the values to dB.

m = allmargin(G)

GainMargins_dB = mag2db(m.GainMargin)

m =

struct with fields:

8-30
 Assessing Gain and Phase Margins

GainMargin: [0.3408 3.3920]

GMFrequency: [1.9421 16.4807]
PhaseMargin: 68.1178
PMFrequency: 7.0762
DelayMargin: 0.1680
DMFrequency: 7.0762
Stable: 1

GainMargins_dB =

-9.3510 10.6091

Interactive GUI

To gain additional insight into the connection between stability margins and closed-loop
responses, click on the link below to launch an interactive GUI for tuning the loop gain k
and seeing the effect on margins and closed-loop responses.

Open the Gain and Phase Margin GUI

margin_gui

8-31
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

See Also
margin | pole

8-32
 See Also

Related Examples
• “Pole and Zero Locations” on page 8-16

8-33
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

This example shows how to use Control System Toolbox™ to analyze and design control
systems with delays.

Control of Processes with Delays

Many processes involve dead times, also referred to as transport delays or time lags.
Controlling such processes is challenging because delays cause linear phase shifts that
limit the control bandwidth and affect closed-loop stability.

Using the state-space representation, you can create accurate open- or closed-loop
models of control systems with delays and analyze their stability and performance without
approximation. The state-space (SS) object automatically keeps track of "internal" delays
when combining models, see the "Specifying Time Delays" tutorial for more details.

Example: PI Control Loop with Dead Time

Consider the standard setpoint tracking loop:

where the process model P has a 2.6 second dead time and the compensator C is a PI
controller:

You can specify these two transfer functions as

s = tf('s');
P = exp(-2.6*s)*(s+3)/(s^2+0.3*s+1);
C = 0.06 * (1 + 1/s);

To analyze the closed-loop response, construct a model T of the closed-loop transfer from
ysp to y. Because there is a delay in this feedback loop, you must convert P and C to state
space and use the state-space representation for analysis:

8-34
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

T = feedback(P*C,1)

T =

A =
x1 x2 x3
x1 -0.36 -1.24 -0.18
x2 1 0 0
x3 0 1 0

B =
u1
x1 0.5
x2 0
x3 0

C =
x1 x2 x3
y1 0.12 0.48 0.36

D =
u1
y1 0

(values computed with all internal delays set to zero)

Internal delays (seconds): 2.6

Continuous-time state-space model.

The result is a third-order model with an internal delay of 2.6 seconds. Internally, the
state-space object T tracks how the delay is coupled with the remaining dynamics. This
structural information is not visible to users, and the display above only gives the A,B,C,D
values when the delay is set to zero.

Use the STEP command to plot the closed-loop step response from ysp to y:

step(T)

8-35
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

The closed-loop oscillations are due to a weak gain margin as seen from the open-loop
response P*C:

margin(P*C)

8-36
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

There is also a resonance in the closed-loop frequency response:

bode(T)
grid, title('Closed-loop frequency response')

8-37
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

To improve the design, you can try to notch out the resonance near 1 rad/s:

notch = tf([1 0.2 1],[1 .8 1]);

C = 0.05 * (1 + 1/s);
Tnotch = feedback(P*C*notch,1);

step(Tnotch), grid

8-38
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

Pade Approximation of Time Delays

Many control design algorithms cannot handle time delays directly. A common
workaround consists of replacing delays by their Pade approximations (all-pass filters).
Because this approximation is only valid at low frequencies, it is important to compare the
true and approximate responses to choose the right approximation order and check the
approximation validity.

Use the PADE command to compute Pade approximations of LTI models with delays. For
the PI control example above, you can compare the exact closed-loop response T with the
response obtained for a first-order Pade approximation of the delay:

8-39
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

T1 = pade(T,1);
step(T,'b',T1,'r',100)
grid, legend('Exact','First-Order Pade')

The approximation error is fairly large. To get a better approximation, try a second-order
Pade approximation of the delay:

T2 = pade(T,2);
step(T,'b',T2,'r',100)
grid, legend('Exact','Second-Order Pade')

8-40
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

The responses now match closely except for the non-minimum phase artifact introduced
by the Pade approximation.

Sensitivity Analysis

Delays are rarely known accurately, so it is often important to understand how sensitive a
control system is to the delay value. Such sensitivity analysis is easily performed using
LTI arrays and the InternalDelay property.

For example, to analyze the sensitivity of the notched PI control above, create 5 models
with delay values ranging from 2.0 to 3.0:
tau = linspace(2,3,5); % 5 delay values
Tsens = repsys(Tnotch,[1 1 5]); % 5 copies of Tnotch

8-41
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

for j=1:5
Tsens(:,:,j).InternalDelay = tau(j); % jth delay value -> jth model
end

Then use STEP to create an envelope plot:

step(Tsens)
grid, title('Closed-loop response for 5 delay values between 2.0 and 3.0')

This plot shows that uncertainty on the delay value has little effect on closed-loop
characteristics. Note that while you can change the values of internal delays, you cannot
change how many there are because this is part of the model structure. To eliminate some
internal delays, set their value to zero or use PADE with order zero:

8-42
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

Tnotch0 = Tnotch;
Tnotch0.InternalDelay = 0;
bode(Tnotch,'b',Tnotch0,'r',{1e-2,3})
grid, legend('Delay = 2.6','No delay','Location','SouthWest')

Discretization

You can use C2D to discretize continuous-time delay systems. Available methods include
zero-order hold (ZOH), first-order hold (FOH), and Tustin. For models with internal
delays, the ZOH discretization is not always "exact," i.e., the continuous and discretized
step responses may not match:

8-43
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Td = c2d(T,1);
step(T,'b',Td,'r')
grid, legend('Continuous','ZOH Discretization')

Warning: Discretization is only approximate due to internal delays. Use faster

sampling rate if discretization error is large.

To correct such discretization gaps, reduce the sampling period until the continuous and
discrete responses match closely:

Td = c2d(T,0.05);
step(T,'b',Td,'r')
grid, legend('Continuous','ZOH Discretization')

8-44
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

Warning: Discretization is only approximate due to internal delays. Use faster

sampling rate if discretization error is large.

Note that internal delays remain internal in the discretized model and do not inflate the
model order:

order(Td)
Td.InternalDelay

ans =

8-45
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

ans =

52

Some Unique Features of Delay Systems

The time and frequency responses of delay systems can look bizarre and suspicious to
those only familiar with delay-free LTI analysis. Time responses can behave chaotically,
Bode plots can exhibit gain oscillations, etc. These are not software quirks but real
features of such systems. Below are a few illustrations of these phenomena

Gain ripples:

G = exp(-5*s)/(s+1);
T = feedback(G,.5);
bodemag(T)

8-46
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

Gain oscillations:

G = 1 + 0.5 * exp(-3*s);
bodemag(G)

8-47
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Jagged step response (note the "echoes" of the initial step):

G = exp(-s) * (0.8*s^2+s+2)/(s^2+s);
T = feedback(G,1);
step(T)

8-48
 Analyzing Control Systems with Delays

Chaotic response:

G = 1/(s+1) + exp(-4*s);
T = feedback(1,G);

step(T)

8-49
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

See Also
margin | pade

Related Examples
• “Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit” on page 8-52

More About
• “Time Delays in Linear Systems” on page 2-40

8-50
 See Also

• “Time-Delay Approximation” on page 2-48

8-51
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit

This example shows how to analyze the time and frequency responses of common RLC
circuits as a function of their physical parameters using Control System Toolbox™
functions.

Bandpass RLC Network

The following figure shows the parallel form of a bandpass RLC circuit:

Figure 1: Bandpass RLC Network.

The transfer function from input to output voltage is:

8-52
 Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit

The product LC controls the bandpass frequency while RC controls how narrow the
passing band is. To build a bandpass filter tuned to the frequency 1 rad/s, set L=C=1 and
use R to tune the filter band.

Analyzing the Frequency Response of the Circuit

The Bode plot is a convenient tool for investigating the bandpass characteristics of the
RLC network. Use tf to specify the circuit's transfer function for the values

%|R=L=C=1|:
R = 1; L = 1; C = 1;
G = tf([1/(R*C) 0],[1 1/(R*C) 1/(L*C)])

G =

s
-----------
s^2 + s + 1

Continuous-time transfer function.

Next, use bode to plot the frequency response of the circuit:

bode(G), grid

8-53
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

As expected, the RLC filter has maximum gain at the frequency 1 rad/s. However, the
attenuation is only -10dB half a decade away from this frequency. To get a narrower
passing band, try increasing values of R as follows:

R1 = 5; G1 = tf([1/(R1*C) 0],[1 1/(R1*C) 1/(L*C)]);

R2 = 20; G2 = tf([1/(R2*C) 0],[1 1/(R2*C) 1/(L*C)]);
bode(G,'b',G1,'r',G2,'g'), grid
legend('R = 1','R = 5','R = 20')

8-54
 Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit

The resistor value R=20 gives a filter narrowly tuned around the target frequency of 1
rad/s.

Analyzing the Time Response of the Circuit

We can confirm the attenuation properties of the circuit G2 (R=20) by simulating how this
filter transforms sine waves with frequency 0.9, 1, and 1.1 rad/s:

t = 0:0.05:250;
opt = timeoptions;
opt.Title.FontWeight = 'Bold';
subplot(311), lsim(G2,sin(t),t,opt), title('w = 1')
subplot(312), lsim(G2,sin(0.9*t),t,opt), title('w = 0.9')
subplot(313), lsim(G2,sin(1.1*t),t,opt), title('w = 1.1')

8-55
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

The waves at 0.9 and 1.1 rad/s are considerably attenuated. The wave at 1 rad/s comes
out unchanged once the transients have died off. The long transient results from the
poorly damped poles of the filters, which unfortunately are required for a narrow passing
band:

damp(pole(G2))

Pole Damping Frequency Time Constant

(rad/TimeUnit) (TimeUnit)

-2.50e-02 + 1.00e+00i 2.50e-02 1.00e+00 4.00e+01

-2.50e-02 - 1.00e+00i 2.50e-02 1.00e+00 4.00e+01

8-56
 Analyzing the Response of an RLC Circuit

Interactive GUI

To analyze other standard circuit configurations such as low-pass and high-pass RLC
networks, click on the link below to launch an interactive GUI. In this GUI, you can
change the R,L,C parameters and see the effect on the time and frequency responses in
real time.

Open the RLC Circuit GUI

rlc_gui

8-57
8 Frequency Domain Analysis

See Also
bodeplot | lsim | stepplot

Related Examples
• “Joint Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis” on page 7-40

8-58
 9

Sensitivity Analysis

• “Model Array with Single Parameter Variation” on page 9-2

• “Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters” on page 9-6
• “Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model” on page 9-9
• “Sensitivity of Control System to Time Delays” on page 9-12
9 Sensitivity Analysis

Model Array with Single Parameter Variation

This example shows how to create a one-dimensional array of transfer functions using the
stack command. One parameter of the transfer function varies from model to model in
the array. You can use such an array to investigate the effect of parameter variation on
your model, such as for sensitivity analysis.

Create an array of transfer functions representing the following low-pass filter at three
values of the roll-off frequency, a.

Create transfer function models representing the filter with roll-off frequency at a = 3, 5,
and 7.

F1 = tf(3,[1 3]);
F2 = tf(5,[1 5]);
F3 = tf(7,[1 7]);

Use the stack command to build an array.

Farray = stack(1,F1,F2,F3);

The first argument to stack specifies the array dimension along which stack builds an
array. The remaining arguments specify the models to arrange along that dimension.
Thus, Farray is a 3-by-1 array of transfer functions.

Concatenating models with MATLAB® array concatenation commands, instead of with

stack, creates multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) models rather than model arrays. For
example:

G = [F1;F2;F3];

creates a one-input, three-output transfer function model, not a 3-by-1 array.

When working with a model array that represents parameter variations, You can associate
the corresponding parameter value with each entry in the array. Set the SamplingGrid
property to a data structure that contains the name of the parameter and the sampled
parameter values corresponding with each model in the array. This assignment helps you
keep track of which model corresponds to which parameter value.

9-2
 Model Array with Single Parameter Variation

Farray.SamplingGrid = struct('alpha',[3 5 7]);

Farray

Farray(:,:,1,1) [alpha=3] =

3
-----
s + 3

Farray(:,:,2,1) [alpha=5] =

5
-----
s + 5

Farray(:,:,3,1) [alpha=7] =

7
-----
s + 7

3x1 array of continuous-time transfer functions.

The parameter values in Farray.SamplingGrid are displayed along with the each transfer
function in the array.

Plot the frequency response of the array to examine the effect of parameter variation on
the filter behavior.

bodeplot(Farray)

9-3
9 Sensitivity Analysis

When you use analysis commands such as bodeplot on a model array, the resulting plot
shows the response of each model in the array. Therefore, you can see the range of
responses that results from the parameter variation.

See Also
stack

More About
• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100

9-4
 See Also

• “Select Models from Array” on page 2-103

9-5
9 Sensitivity Analysis

Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters

This example shows how to create a two-dimensional (2-D) array of transfer functions
using for loops. One parameter of the transfer function varies in each dimension of the
array.

You can use the technique of this example to create higher-dimensional arrays with
variations of more parameters. Such arrays are useful for studying the effects of multiple-
parameter variations on system response.

The second-order single-input, single-output (SISO) transfer function

depends on two parameters: the damping ratio, , and the natural frequency, . If both
and vary, you obtain multiple transfer functions of the form:

where and represent different measurements or sampled values of the variable

parameters. You can collect all of these transfer functions in a single variable to create a
two-dimensional model array.

Preallocate memory for the model array. Preallocating memory is an optional step that
can enhance computation efficiency. To preallocate, create a model array of the required
size and initialize its entries to zero.
H = tf(zeros(1,1,3,3));

In this example, there are three values for each parameter in the transfer function H.
Therefore, this command creates a 3-by-3 array of single-input, single-output (SISO) zero
transfer functions.

Create arrays containing the parameter values.

zeta = [0.66,0.71,0.75];
w = [1.0,1.2,1.5];

9-6
 Model Array with Variations in Two Parameters

Build the array by looping through all combinations of parameter values.

for i = 1:length(zeta)
for j = 1:length(w)
H(:,:,i,j) = tf(w(j)^2,[1 2*zeta(i)*w(j) w(j)^2]);
end
end

H is a 3-by-3 array of transfer functions. varies as you move from model to model along
a single column of H. The parameter varies as you move along a single row.

Plot the step response of H to see how the parameter variation affects the step response.
stepplot(H)

9-7
9 Sensitivity Analysis

You can set the SamplingGrid property of the model array to help keep track of which
set of parameter values corresponds to which entry in the array. To do so, create a grid of
parameter values that matches the dimensions of the array. Then, assign these values to
H.SamplingGrid with the parameter names.

[zetagrid,wgrid] = ndgrid(zeta,w);
H.SamplingGrid = struct('zeta',zetagrid,'w',wgrid);

When you display H, the parameter values in H.SamplingGrid are displayed along with
the each transfer function in the array.

See Also
ndgrid

More About
• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100
• “Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model” on page 9-9

9-8
 Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model

Study Parameter Variation by Sampling Tunable Model

This example shows how to sample a parametric model of a second-order filter across a
grid of parameter values using sampleBlock.

Consider the second-order filter represented by:

Sample this filter at varying values of the damping constant and the natural frequency
. Create a parametric model of the filter by using tunable elements for and .
wn = realp('wn',3);
zeta = realp('zeta',0.8);
F = tf(wn^2,[1 2*zeta*wn wn^2])

F =

Generalized continuous-time state-space model with 1 outputs, 1 inputs, 2 states, and

wn: Scalar parameter, 5 occurrences.
zeta: Scalar parameter, 1 occurrences.

Type "ss(F)" to see the current value, "get(F)" to see all properties, and "F.Blocks" t

F is a genss model with two tunable Control Design Blocks, the realp blocks wn and
zeta. The blocks wn and zeta have initial values of 3 and 0.8, respectively.

Sample F over a 2-by-3 grid of (wn, zeta) values.

wnvals = [3;5];
zetavals = [0.6 0.8 1.0];
Fsample = sampleBlock(F,'wn',wnvals,'zeta',zetavals);

Here, sampleBlock samples the model independently over the two values and three
values. Thus, Fsample is a 2-by-3 array of state-space models. Each entry in the array
is a state-space model that represents F evaluated at the corresponding (wn, zeta) pair.
For example, Fsample(:,:,2,3) has wn = 5 and zeta = 1.0.

Set the SamplingGrid property of the model array to help keep track of which set of
parameter values corresponds to which entry in the array. To do so, create a grid of

9-9
9 Sensitivity Analysis

parameter values that matches the dimensions of the array. Then, assign these values to
Fsample.SamplingGrid in a structure with the parameter names.

[wngrid,zetagrid] = ndgrid(wnvals,zetavals);
Fsample.SamplingGrid = struct('wn',wngrid,'zeta',zetagrid);

The ndgrid command produces the full 2-by-3 grid of (wn, zeta) combinations. When
you display Fsample in the command window, the parameter values in
Fsample.SamplingGrid are displayed along with the each transfer function in the
array. The parameter information is also available in response plots. For instance,
examine the step response of Fsample.

stepplot(Fsample)

9-10
 See Also

The step response plots show the variation in the natural frequency and damping
constant across the six models in the array. When you click on one of the responses in the
plot, the datatip includes the corresponding wn and zeta values as specified in
Fsample.SamplingGrid.

See Also
sampleBlock

More About
• “Models with Tunable Coefficients” on page 1-19

9-11
9 Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity of Control System to Time Delays

This example shows how to examine the sensitivity of a closed-loop control system to time
delays within the system.

Time delays are rarely known accurately, so it is often important to understand how
sensitive a control system is to the delay value. Such sensitivity analysis is easily
performed using LTI arrays and the InternalDelay property. For example, consider the
notched PI control system developed in "PI Control Loop with Dead Time" from the
example "Analyzing Control Systems with Delays." The following commands create an LTI
model of that closed-loop system, a third-order plant with an input delay, a PI controller
and a notch filter.

s = tf('s');
G = exp(-2.6*s)*(s+3)/(s^2+0.3*s+1);
C = 0.06 * (1 + 1/s);
T = feedback(ss(G*C),1);
notch = tf([1 0.2 1],[1 .8 1]);
C = 0.05 * (1 + 1/s);
Tnotch = feedback(ss(G*C*notch),1);

Examine the internal delay of the closed-loop system Tnotch.

Tnotch.InternalDelay

ans = 2.6000

The 2.6-second input delay of the plant G becomes an internal delay of 2.6 s in the closed-
loop system. To examine the sensitivity of the responses of Tnotch to variations in this
delay, create an array of copies of Tnotch. Then, vary the internal delay across the array.

Tsens = repsys(Tnotch,[1 1 5]);

tau = linspace(2,3,5);
for j = 1:5;
Tsens(:,:,j).InternalDelay = tau(j);
end

The array Tsens contains five models with internal delays that range from 2.0 to 3.0.

Examine the step responses of these models.

stepplot(Tsens)

9-12
 See Also

The plot shows that uncertainty on the delay value has a small effect on closed-loop
characteristics.

See Also

More About
• “Time Delays in Linear Systems” on page 2-40

9-13
 10

Passivity and Conic Sectors

• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2

• “About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices” on page 10-9
• “Passivity Indices” on page 10-19
• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24
• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

About Passivity and Passivity Indices

Passive control is often part of the safety requirements in applications such as process
control, tele-operation, human-machine interfaces, and system networks. A system is
passive if it cannot produce energy on its own, and can only dissipate the energy that is
stored in it initially. More generally, an I/O map is passive if, on average, increasing the
output y requires increasing the input u.

For example, a PID controller is passive because the control signal (the output) moves in
the same direction as the error signal (the input). But a PID controller with delay is not
passive, because the control signal can move in the opposite direction from the error, a
potential cause of instability.

Most physical systems are passive. The Passivity Theorem holds that the negative-
feedback interconnection of two strictly passive systems is passive and stable. As a result,
it can be desirable to enforce passivity of the controller for a passive system, or to
passivate the operator of a passive system, such as the driver of a car.

In practice, passivity can easily be destroyed by the phase lags introduced by sensors,
actuators, and communication delays. These problems have led to extension of the
Passivity Theorem that consider excesses or shortages of passivity, frequency-dependent
measures of passivity, and a mix of passivity and small-gain properties.

Passive Systems

A linear system is passive if all input/output trajectories satisfy:

where denotes the transpose of . For physical systems, the integral typically
represents the energy going into the system,. Thus passive systems are systems that only
consume or dissipate energy. As a result, passive systems are intrinsically stable.

In the frequency domain, passivity is equivalent to the "positive real" condition:

10-2
 About Passivity and Passivity Indices

For SISO systems, this is saying that at all frequencies, so the entire
Nyquist plot lies in the right-half plane.

nyquist(tf([1 3 5],[5 6 1]))

Nyquist plot of passive system

Passive systems have the following important properties for control purposes:

• The inverse of a passive system is passive.

• The parallel interconnection of passive systems is passive (see “Parallel
Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24).

10-3
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

• The feedback interconnection of passive systems is passive (see “Feedback

Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31).

When controlling a passive system with unknown or variable characteristics, it is

therefore desirable to use a passive feedback law to guarantee closed-loop stability. This
task can be rendered difficult given that delays and significant phase lag destroy passivity.

Directional Passivity Indices

For stability, knowing whether a system is passive or not does not tell the full story. It is
often desirable to know by how much it is passive or fails to be passive. In addition, a
shortage of passivity in the plant can be compensated by an excess of passivity in the
controller, and vice versa. It is therefore important to measure the excess or shortage of
passivity, and this is where passivity indices come into play.

There are different types of indices with different applications. One class of indices
measure the excess or shortage of passivity in a particular direction of the input/output
space. For example, the input passivity index is defined as the largest such that:

for all trajectories and . The system G is input strictly passive (ISP)
when , and has a shortage of passivity when . The input passivity index is also
called the input feedforward passivity (IFP) index because it corresponds to the minimum
static feedforward action needed to make the system passive.

In the frequency domain, the input passivity index is characterized by:

10-4
 About Passivity and Passivity Indices

where denotes the smallest eigenvalue. In the SISO case, is the abscissa of the
leftmost point on the Nyquist curve.

Similarly, the output passivity index is defined as the largest such that:

for all trajectories and . The system G is output strictly passive (OSP)
when , and has a shortage of passivity when . The output passivity index is
also called the output feedback passivity (OFP) index because it corresponds to the
minimum static feedback action needed to make the system passive.

In the frequency domain, the output passivity index of a minimum-phase system is

given by:

In the SISO case, is the abscissa of the leftmost point on the Nyquist curve of .

Combining these two notions leads to the I/O passivity index, which is the largest such
that:

10-5
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

A system with is very strictly passive. More generally, we can define the index in
the direction as the largest such that:

The input, output, and I/O passivity indices all correspond to special choices of and
are collectively referred to as directional passivity indices. You can use
getPassiveIndex to compute any of these indices for linear systems in either
parametric or FRD form. You can also use passiveplot to plot the input, output, or I/O
passivity indices as a function of frequency. This plot provides insight into which
frequency bands have weaker or stronger passivity.

There are many results quantifying how the input and output passivity indices propagate
through parallel, series, or feedback interconnections. There are also results quantifying
the excess of input or output passivity needed to compensate a given shortage of passivity
in a feedback loop. For details, see:

• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24

• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31

Relative Passivity Index

The positive real condition for passivity:

is equivalent to the small gain condition:

10-6
 About Passivity and Passivity Indices

We can therefore use the peak gain of as a measure of passivity.

Specifically, let

Then is passive if and only if , and indicates a shortage of passivity. Note

that is finite if and only if is minimum phase. We refer to as the relative
passivity index, or R-index. In the time domain, the R-index is the smallest such
that:

for all trajectories and . When is minimum phase, you can use
passiveplot to plot the principal gains of . This plot is
entirely analogous to the singular value plot (see sigma), and shows how the degree of
passivity changes with frequency and direction.

The following result is analogous to the Small Gain Theorem for feedback loops. It gives a
simple condition on R-indices for compensating a shortage of passivity in one system by
an excess of passivity in the other.

Small-R Theorem: Let and be two linear systems with passivity R-indices
and , respectively. If , then the negative feedback interconnection of
and is stable.

10-7
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

See Also
getPassiveIndex | isPassive | passiveplot

Related Examples
• “Passivity Indices” on page 10-19
• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24
• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31
• “About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices” on page 10-9

10-8
 About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

Conic Sectors

In its simplest form, a conic sector is the 2-D region delimited by two lines, and
.

The shaded region is characterized by the inequality . More

generally, any such sector can be parameterized as:

where is a 2x2 symmetric indefinite matrix ( has one positive and one negative
eigenvalue). We call the sector matrix. This concept generalizes to higher dimensions.
In an N-dimensional space, a conic sector is a set:

10-9
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

where is again a symmetric indefinite matrix.

Sector Bounds

Sector bounds are constraints on the behavior of a system. Gain constraints and passivity
constraints are special cases of sector bounds. If for all nonzero input trajectories ,
the output trajectory of a linear system satisfies:

then the output trajectories of lie in the conic sector with matrix . Selecting different
matrices imposes different conditions on the system's response. For example, consider
trajectories and the following values:

These values correspond to the sector bound:

This sector bound is equivalent to the passivity condition for :

In other words, passivity is a particular sector bound on the system defined by:

10-10
 About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

Frequency-Domain Condition

Because the time-domain condition must hold for all , deriving an equivalent
frequency-domain bound takes a little care and is not always possible. Let the following:

be (any) decomposition of the indefinite matrix into its positive and negative parts.

When is square and minimum phase (has no unstable zeros), the time-domain
condition:

is equivalent to the frequency-domain condition:

It is therefore enough to check the sector inequality for real frequencies. Using the
decomposition of , this is also equivalent to:

Note that is square when has as many negative eigenvalues as input channels in
. If this condition is not met, it is no longer enough (in general) to just look at real

frequencies. Note also that if is square, then it must be minimum phase for the
sector bound to hold.

This frequency-domain characterization is the basis for sectorplot. Specifically,

sectorplot plots the singular values of as a function of

frequency. The sector bound is satisfied if and only if the largest singular value stays
below 1. Moreover, the plot contains useful information about the frequency bands where
the sector bound is satisfied or violated, and the degree to which it is satisfied or violated.

10-11
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

For instance, examine the sector plot of a 2-output, 2-input system for a particular sector.

rng(4);
H = rss(3,4,2);
Q = [-5.12 2.16 -2.04 2.17
2.16 -1.22 -0.28 -1.11
-2.04 -0.28 -3.35 0.00
2.17 -1.11 0.00 0.18];
sectorplot(H,Q)

The plot shows that the largest singular value of exceeds 1

below about 0.5 rad/s and in a narrow band around 3 rad/s. Therefore, H does not satisfy
the sector bound represented by Q.

10-12
 About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

Relative Sector Index

We can extend the notion of relative passivity index to arbitrary sectors. Let be an
LTI system, and let:

be an orthogonal decomposition of into its positive and negative parts, as is readily

obtained from the Schur decomposition of . The relative sector index , or R-index, is
defined as the smallest such that for all output trajectories :

Because increasing makes more negative, the inequality is usually

satisfied for large enough. However, there are cases when it can never be satisfied, in
which case the R-index is . Clearly, the original sector bound is satisfied if and
only of .

To understand the geometrical interpretation of the R-index, consider the family of cones

with matrix . In 2D, the cone slant angle is related to by

(see diagram below). More generally, is proportional to . Thus, given a conic

sector with matrix , an R-index value means that we can reduce (narrow
the cone) by a factor before some output trajectory of leaves the conic sector.
Similarly, a value means that we must increase (widen the cone) by a factor
to include all output trajectories of . This clearly makes the R-index a relative
measure of how well the response of fits in a particular conic sector.

10-13
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

In the diagram,

and

When is square and minimum phase, the R-index can also be characterized in
the frequency domain as the smallest such that:

Using elementary algebra, this leads to:

10-14
 About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

In other words, the R-index is the peak gain of the (stable) transfer function

, and the singular values of can be seen as the

"principal" R-indices at each frequency. This also explains why plotting the R-index vs.
frequency looks like a singular value plot (see sectorplot). There is a complete analogy
between relative sector index and system gain. Note, however, that this analogy only

holds when is square and minimum phase.

Directional Sector Index

Similarly, we can extend the notion of directional passivity index to arbitrary sectors.
Given a conic sector with matrix , and a direction , the directional sector index is
the largest such that for all output trajectories :

The directional passivity index for a system corresponds to:

The directional sector index measures by how much we need to deform the sector in the
direction to make it fit tightly around the output trajectories of . The sector bound
is satisfied if and only if the directional index is positive.

Common Sectors

There are many ways to specify sector bounds. Next we review commonly encountered
expressions and give the corresponding system and sector matrix for the standard
form used by getSectorIndex and sectorplot:

For simplicity, these descriptions use the notation:

10-15
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

and omit the requirement.

Passivity

Passivity is a sector bound with:

Gain constraint

The gain constraint is a sector bound with:

Ratio of distances

Consider the "interior" constraint,

where are scalars and . This is a sector bound with:

The underlying conic sector is symmetric with respect to . Similarly, the "exterior"
constraint,

is a sector bound with:

10-16
 About Sector Bounds and Sector Indices

Double inequality

When dealing with static nonlinearities, it is common to consider conic sectors of the form

where is the nonlinearity output. While this relationship is not a sector bound
per se, it clearly implies:

along all I/O trajectories and for all . This condition in turn is equivalent to a sector
bound with:

Product form

Generalized sector bounds of the form:

correspond to:

As before, the static sector bound:

10-17
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

implies the integral sector bound above.

QSR dissipative

A system is QSR-dissipative if it satisfies:

This is a sector bound with:

See Also
getSectorCrossover | getSectorIndex | sectorplot

Related Examples
• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2

10-18
 Passivity Indices

Passivity Indices
This example shows how to compute various measures of passivity for linear time-
invariant systems.

Passive Systems

A linear system G(s) is passive when all I/O trajectories satisfy

where denotes the transpose of .

To measure "how passive" a system is, we use passivity indices.

•
The input passivity index is defined as the largest such that

The system G is "input strictly passive" (ISP) when . is also called the "input
feedforward passivity" (IFP) index and corresponds to the minimum feedforward action
needed to make the system passive.

•
The output passivity index is defined as the largest such that

10-19
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

The system G is "output strictly passive" (OSP) when . is also called the "output
feedback passivity" (OFP) index and corresponds to the minimum feedback action needed
to make the system passive.

•
The I/O passivity index is defined as the largest such that

The system is "very strictly passive" (VSP) if .

Circuit Example

Consider the following example. We take the current as the input and the voltage as
the output. Based on Kirchhoff's current and voltage law, we obtain the transfer function
for ,

Let , and .
R = 2; L = 1; C = 0.1;
s = tf('s');
G = (L*s+R)*(R*s+1/C)/(L*s^2 + 2*R*s+1/C);

Use isPassive to check whether is passive.

10-20
 Passivity Indices

PF = isPassive(G)

PF = logical
1

Since PF = true, is passive. Use getPassiveIndex to compute the passivity

indices of .
% Input passivity index
nu = getPassiveIndex(G,'in')

nu = 2

% Output passivity index

rho = getPassiveIndex(G,'out')

rho = 0.2857

% I/O passivity index

tau = getPassiveIndex(G,'io')

tau = 0.2642

Since , the system is very strictly passive.

Frequency-Domain Characterization

A linear system is passive if and only if it is "positive real":

The smallest eigenvalue of the left-hand-side is related to the input passivity index :

where denotes the smallest eigenvalue. Similarly, when is minimum-phase, the

output passivity index is given by:

10-21
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

Verify this for the circuit example. Plot the Nyquist plot of the circuit transfer function.

nyquist(G)

The entire Nyquist plot lies in the right-half plane so is positive real. The leftmost
point on the Nyquist curve is so the input passivity index is , the
same value we obtained earlier. Similarly, the leftmost point on the Nyquist curve for
gives the output passivity index value .

Relative Passivity Index

It can be shown that the "positive real" condition

10-22
 See Also

is equivalent to the small gain condition

The relative passivity index (R-index) is the peak gain over frequency of
when is minimum phase, and otherwise:

In the time domain, the R-index is the smallest such that

The system is passive if and only if , and the smaller is, the more passive
the system is. Use getPassiveIndex to compute the R-index for the circuit example.

R = getPassiveIndex(G)

R = 0.5556

The resulting value indicates that the circuit is a very passive system.

See Also
getPassiveIndex | isPassive

Related Examples
• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2
• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24
• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31

10-23
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems

This example illustrates the properties of a parallel interconnection of passive systems.

Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems

Consider an interconnection of two subsystems and in parallel. The

interconnected system maps the input to the output .

If both systems and are passive, then the interconnected system is guaranteed
to be passive. Take for example

Both systems are passive.

G1 = tf([0.1,1],[1,2]);
isPassive(G1)

ans = logical
1

G2 = tf([1,2,1],[1,3,10]);
isPassive(G2)

ans = logical
1

10-24
 Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems

We can therefore expect their parallel interconnection to be passive, as confirmed by

H = parallel(G1,G2);
isPassive(H)

ans = logical
1

Passivity Indices for Parallel Interconnection

There is a relationship between the passivity indices of and and the passivity
indices of the interconnected system . Let and denote the input passivity indices
for and , and let and denote the output passivity indices. If all these indices
are nonnegative, then the input passivity index and the output passivity index for the
parallel interconnection satisfy

In other words, we can infer some minimum level of input and output passivity for the
parallel connection from the input and output passivity indices of and . For
details, see the paper by Yu, H., "Passivity and dissipativity as design and analysis tools
for networked control systems," Chapter 2, PhD Thesis, University of Notre Dame, 2012.
Verify the lower bound for the input passivity index .
% Input passivity index for G1
nu1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'input');
% Input passivity index for G2
nu2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'input');
% Input passivity index for H
nu = getPassiveIndex(H,'input')

nu = 0.3777

% Lower bound
nu1+nu2

ans = 0.1474

10-25
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

Similarly, verify the lower bound for the output passivity index of .

% Output passivity index for G1

rho1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'output');
% Output passivity index for G2
rho2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'output');
% Output passivity index for H
rho = getPassiveIndex(H,'output')

rho = 0.6450

% Lower bound
rho1*rho2/(rho1+rho2)

ans = 0.2098

See Also
getPassiveIndex | isPassive

Related Examples
• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2
• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31

10-26
 Series Interconnection of Passive Systems

Series Interconnection of Passive Systems

This example illustrates the properties of a series interconnection of passive systems.

Series Interconnection of Passive Systems

Consider an interconnection of two subsystems and in series. The interconnected

system is given by the mapping from input to output .

In contrast with parallel and feedback interconnections, passivity of the subsystems

and does not guarantee passivity for the interconnected system . Take for example

Both systems are passive as confirmed by

G1 = tf([5 3 1],[1,2,1]);
isPassive(G1)

ans = logical
1

G2 = tf([1,1,5,.1],[1,2,3,4]);
isPassive(G2)

ans = logical
1

However the series interconnection of and is not passive:

10-27
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

H = G2*G1;
isPassive(H)

ans = logical
0

This is confirmed by verifying that the Nyquist plot of is not positive real.

nyquist(H)

10-28
 Series Interconnection of Passive Systems

Passivity Indices for Series Interconnection

While the series interconnection of passive systems is not passive in general, there is a
relationship between the passivity indices of and and the passivity indices of
. Let and denote the input passivity indices for and , and let
and denote the output passivity indices. If all these indices are positive, then the input
passivity index and the output passivity index for the series interconnection
satisfy

In other words, the shortage of passivity at the inputs or outputs of is no worse than
the right-hand-side expressions. For details, see the paper by Arcak, M. and Sontag, E.D.,
"Diagonal stability of a class of cyclic systems and its connection with the secant
criterion," Automatica, Vol 42, No. 9, 2006, pp. 1531-1537. Verify these lower bounds for
the example above.
% Output passivity index for G1
rho1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'output');
% Output passivity index for G2
rho2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'output');
% Input passivity index for H=G2*G1
nu = getPassiveIndex(H,'input')

nu = -1.2875

% Lower bound
-0.125/(rho1*rho2)

ans = -2.4119

Similarly, verify the lower bound for the output passivity index of .
% Input passivity index for G1
nu1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'input');
% Input passivity index for G2
nu2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'input');
% Output passivity index for H=G2*G1
rho = getPassiveIndex(H,'output')

10-29
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

rho = -0.6966

% Lower bound
-0.125/(nu1*nu2)

ans = -5.9420

See Also
getPassiveIndex | isPassive

Related Examples
• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2
• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24
• “Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-31

10-30
 Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems

Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems

This example illustrates the properties of a feedback interconnection of passive systems.

Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems

Consider an interconnection of two subsystems and in feedback. The

interconnected system maps the input to the output .

If both systems and are passive, then the interconnected system is guaranteed
to be passive. Take for example

Both systems are passive as confirmed by

G1 = tf([1,1,1],[1,1,4]);
isPassive(G1)

ans = logical
1

G2 = tf([1,2],[1,5]);
isPassive(G2)

ans = logical
1

10-31
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

The interconnected system is therefore passive.

H = feedback(G1,G2);
isPassive(H)

ans = logical
1

This is confirmed by verifying that the Nyquist plot of is positive real.

nyquist(H)

10-32
 Feedback Interconnection of Passive Systems

Passivity Indices for Feedback Interconnection

There is a relationship between the passivity indices of and and the passivity
indices of the interconnected system . Let and denote the input passivity indices
for and , and let and denote the output passivity indices. If all these indices
are positive, then the input passivity index and the output passivity index for the
feedback interconnection satisfy

In other words, we can infer some minimum level of input and output passivity for the
closed-loop system from the input and output passivity indices of and . For
details, see the paper by Zhu, F. and Xia, M and Antsaklis, P.J., "Passivity analysis and
passivation of feedback systems using passivity indices," American Control Conference ,
2014, pp. 1833-1838. Verify the lower bound for the input passivity index .
% Input passivity index for G1
nu1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'input');
% Output passivity index for G2
rho2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'output');
% Input passivity index for H
nu = getPassiveIndex(H,'input')

nu = 0.1293

% Lower bound
nu1*rho2/(nu1+rho2)

ans = 2.4923e-06

Similarly, verify the lower bound for the output passivity index of .
% Output passivity index for G1
rho1 = getPassiveIndex(G1,'output');
% Input passivity index for G2
nu2 = getPassiveIndex(G2,'input');
% Output passivity index for H
rho = getPassiveIndex(H,'output')

10-33
10 Passivity and Conic Sectors

rho = 0.4485

% Lower bound
rho1+nu2

ans = 0.4000

See Also
getPassiveIndex | isPassive

Related Examples
• “About Passivity and Passivity Indices” on page 10-2
• “Parallel Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-24
• “Series Interconnection of Passive Systems” on page 10-27
• “Passive Control with Communication Delays” on page 17-282

10-34
Control Design

35
 11

PID Controller Design

• “PID Controller Design at the Command Line” on page 11-2

• “Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers” on page 11-9
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)” on page 11-15
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)” on page 11-21
• “PID Controller Types for Tuning” on page 11-31
11 PID Controller Design

PID Controller Design at the Command Line

This example shows how to design a PID controller for the plant given by:

As a first pass, create a model of the plant and design a simple PI controller for it.

sys = zpk([],[-1 -1 -1],1);

[C_pi,info] = pidtune(sys,'PI')

C_pi =

1
Kp + Ki * ---
s

with Kp = 1.14, Ki = 0.454

Continuous-time PI controller in parallel form.

info =

struct with fields:

Stable: 1
CrossoverFrequency: 0.5205
PhaseMargin: 60.0000

C_pi is a pid controller object that represents a PI controller. The fields of info show
that the tuning algorithm chooses an open-loop crossover frequency of about 0.52 rad/s.

Examine the closed-loop step response (reference tracking) of the controlled system.

T_pi = feedback(C_pi*sys, 1);

step(T_pi)

11-2
 PID Controller Design at the Command Line

To improve the response time, you can set a higher target crossover frequency than the
result that pidtune automatically selects, 0.52. Increase the crossover frequency to 1.0.

[C_pi_fast,info] = pidtune(sys,'PI',1.0)

C_pi_fast =

1
Kp + Ki * ---
s

with Kp = 2.83, Ki = 0.0495

11-3
11 PID Controller Design

Continuous-time PI controller in parallel form.

info =

struct with fields:

Stable: 1
CrossoverFrequency: 1
PhaseMargin: 43.9973

The new controller achieves the higher crossover frequency, but at the cost of a reduced
phase margin.

Compare the closed-loop step response with the two controllers.

T_pi_fast = feedback(C_pi_fast*sys,1);
step(T_pi,T_pi_fast)
axis([0 30 0 1.4])
legend('PI','PI,fast')

11-4
 PID Controller Design at the Command Line

This reduction in performance results because the PI controller does not have enough
degrees of freedom to achieve a good phase margin at a crossover frequency of 1.0 rad/s.
Adding a derivative action improves the response.

Design a PIDF controller for Gc with the target crossover frequency of 1.0 rad/s.

[C_pidf_fast,info] = pidtune(sys,'PIDF',1.0)

C_pidf_fast =

1 s
Kp + Ki * --- + Kd * --------
s Tf*s+1

11-5
11 PID Controller Design

with Kp = 2.72, Ki = 0.985, Kd = 1.72, Tf = 0.00875

Continuous-time PIDF controller in parallel form.

info =

struct with fields:

Stable: 1
CrossoverFrequency: 1
PhaseMargin: 60.0000

The fields of info show that the derivative action in the controller allows the tuning
algorithm to design a more aggressive controller that achieves the target crossover
frequency with a good phase margin.

Compare the closed-loop step response and disturbance rejection for the fast PI and PIDF
controllers.

T_pidf_fast = feedback(C_pidf_fast*sys,1);
step(T_pi_fast, T_pidf_fast);
axis([0 30 0 1.4]);
legend('PI,fast','PIDF,fast');

11-6
 PID Controller Design at the Command Line

You can compare the input (load) disturbance rejection of the controlled system with the
fast PI and PIDF controllers. To do so, plot the response of the closed-loop transfer
function from the plant input to the plant output.

S_pi_fast = feedback(sys,C_pi_fast);
S_pidf_fast = feedback(sys,C_pidf_fast);
step(S_pi_fast,S_pidf_fast);
axis([0 50 0 0.4]);
legend('PI,fast','PIDF,fast');

11-7
11 PID Controller Design

This plot shows that the PIDF controller also provides faster disturbance rejection.

See Also
pid | pidtune

More About
• “Choosing a PID Controller Design Tool”
• “Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers” on page 11-9
• “PID Controller Design for Fast Reference Tracking”

11-8
 Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers

Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers

This example shows how to design a cascade control loop with two PI controllers using
the pidtune command.

Introduction to Cascade Control

Cascade control is mainly used to achieve fast rejection of disturbance before it

propagates to the other parts of the plant. The simplest cascade control system involves
two control loops (inner and outer) as shown in the block diagram below.

Controller C1 in the outer loop is the primary controller that regulates the primary
controlled variable y1 by setting the set-point of the inner loop. Controller C2 in the inner
loop is the secondary controller that rejects disturbance d2 locally before it propagates to
P1. For a cascade control system to function properly, the inner loop must respond much
faster than the outer loop.

In this example, you will design a single loop control system with a PI controller and a
cascade control system with two PI controllers. The responses of the two control systems
are compared for both reference tracking and disturbance rejection.

Plant

In this example, the inner loop plant P2 is

The outer loop plant P1 is

11-9
11 PID Controller Design

P2 = zpk([],-2,3);
P1 = zpk([],[-1 -1 -1],10);

Designing a Single Loop Control System with a PI Controller

Use pidtune command to design a PI controller in standard form for the whole plant
model P = P1 * P2.

The desired open loop bandwidth is 0.2 rad/s, which roughly corresponds to the response
time of 10 seconds.

% The plant model is P = P1*P2

P = P1*P2;
% Use a PID or PIDSTD object to define the desired controller structure
C = pidstd(1,1);
% Tune PI controller for target bandwidth is 0.2 rad/s
C = pidtune(P,C,0.2);
C

C =

1 1
Kp * (1 + ---- * ---)
Ti s

with Kp = 0.0119, Ti = 0.849

Continuous-time PI controller in standard form

11-10
 Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers

Designing a Cascade Control System with Two PI Controllers

The best practice is to design the inner loop controller C2 first and then design the outer
loop controller C1 with the inner loop closed. In this example, the inner loop bandwidth is
selected as 2 rad/s, which is ten times higher than the desired outer loop bandwidth. In
order to have an effective cascade control system, it is essential that the inner loop
responds much faster than the outer loop.

Tune inner-loop controller C2 with open-loop bandwidth at 2 rad/s.

C2 = pidtune(P2,pidstd(1,1),2);
C2

C2 =

1 1
Kp * (1 + ---- * ---)
Ti s

with Kp = 0.244, Ti = 0.134

Continuous-time PI controller in standard form

Tune outer-loop controller C1 with the same bandwidth as the single loop system.

% Inner loop system when the control loop is closed first

clsys = feedback(P2*C2,1);
% Plant seen by the outer loop controller C1 is clsys*P1
C1 = pidtune(clsys*P1,pidstd(1,1),0.2);
C1

C1 =

1 1
Kp * (1 + ---- * ---)
Ti s

with Kp = 0.015, Ti = 0.716

Continuous-time PI controller in standard form

Performance Comparison

First, plot the step reference tracking responses for both control systems.

11-11
11 PID Controller Design

% single loop system for reference tracking

sys1 = feedback(P*C,1);
sys1.Name = 'Single Loop';
% cascade system for reference tracking
sys2 = feedback(clsys*P1*C1,1);
sys2.Name = 'Cascade';
% plot step response
figure;
step(sys1,'r',sys2,'b')
legend('show','location','southeast')
title('Reference Tracking')

Secondly, plot the step disturbance rejection responses of d2 for both control systems.

11-12
 Designing Cascade Control System with PI Controllers

% single loop system for rejecting d2

sysd1 = feedback(P1,P2*C);
sysd1.Name = 'Single Loop';
% cascade system for rejecting d2
sysd2 = P1/(1+P2*C2+P2*P1*C1*C2);
sysd2.Name = 'Cascade';
% plot step response
figure;
step(sysd1,'r',sysd2,'b')
legend('show')
title('Disturbance Rejection')

11-13
11 PID Controller Design

From the two response plots you can conclude that the cascade control system performs
much better in rejecting disturbance d2 while the set-point tracking performances are
almost identical.

See Also
pidstd | pidtune

More About
• “Choosing a PID Controller Design Tool”
• “PID Controller Design at the Command Line” on page 11-2
• “Tune PID Controller to Favor Reference Tracking or Disturbance Rejection
(Command Line)”

11-14
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)

Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)

This example shows how to design a two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) PID controller at the
command line. The example also compares the 2-DOF controller performance to the
performance achieved with a 1-DOF PID controller.

2-DOF PID controllers include setpoint weighting on the proportional and derivative
terms. Compared to a 1-DOF PID controller, a 2-DOF PID controller can achieve better
disturbance rejection without significant increase of overshoot in setpoint tracking. A
typical control architecture using a 2-DOF PID controller is shown in the following
diagram.

For this example, design a 2-DOF controller for the plant given by:

Suppose that your target bandwidth for the system is 1.5 rad/s.

wc = 1.5;
G = tf(1,[1 0.5 0.1]);
C2 = pidtune(G,'PID2',wc)

C2 =

1
u = Kp (b*r-y) + Ki --- (r-y) + Kd*s (c*r-y)
s

11-15
11 PID Controller Design

with Kp = 1.26, Ki = 0.255, Kd = 1.38, b = 0.665, c = 0

Continuous-time 2-DOF PID controller in parallel form.

Using the type 'PID2' causes pidtune to generate a 2-DOF controller, represented as a
pid2 object. The display confirms this result. pidtune tunes all controller coefficients,
including the setpoint weights b and c, to balance performance and robustness.

To compute the closed-loop response, note that a 2-DOF PID controller is a 2-input, 1-
output dynamic system. You can resolve the controller into two channels, one for the
reference signal and one for the feedback signal, as shown in the diagram. (See
“Continuous-Time 2-DOF PID Controller Representations” on page 2-16 for more
information.)

Decompose the controller into the components Cr and Cy, and use them to compute the
closed-loop response from r to y.

C2tf = tf(C2);
Cr = C2tf(1);
Cy = C2tf(2);
T2 = Cr*feedback(G,Cy,+1);

To examine the disturbance-rejection performance, compute the transfer function from d

to y.

S2 = feedback(G,Cy,+1);

11-16
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)

For comparison, design a 1-DOF PID controller with the same bandwidth and compute the
corresponding transfer functions. Then compare the step responses.

C1 = pidtune(G,'PID',wc);
T1 = feedback(G*C1,1);
S1 = feedback(G,C1);

subplot(2,1,1)
stepplot(T1,T2)
title('Reference Tracking')
subplot(2,1,2)
stepplot(S1,S2)
title('Disturbance Rejection')
legend('1-DOF','2-DOF')

11-17
11 PID Controller Design

The plots show that adding the second degree of freedom eliminates the overshoot in the
reference-tracking response without any cost to disturbance rejection. You can improve
disturbance rejection too using the DesignFocus option. This option causes pidtune to
favor disturbance rejection over setpoint tracking.

opt = pidtuneOptions('DesignFocus','disturbance-rejection');
C2dr = pidtune(G,'PID2',wc,opt)

C2dr =

1
u = Kp (b*r-y) + Ki --- (r-y) + Kd*s (c*r-y)
s

with Kp = 1.72, Ki = 0.593, Kd = 1.25, b = 0, c = 0

Continuous-time 2-DOF PID controller in parallel form.

With the default balanced design focus, pidtune selects a b value between 0 and 1. For
this plant, when you change design focus to favor disturbance rejection, pidtune sets b
= 0 and c = 0. Thus, pidtune automatically generates an I-PD controller to optimize for
disturbance rejection. (Explicitly specifying an I-PD controller without setting the design
focus yields a similar controller.)

Compare the closed-loop responses using all three controllers.

C2dr_tf = tf(C2dr);
Cdr_r = C2dr_tf(1);
Cdr_y = C2dr_tf(2);
T2dr = Cdr_r*feedback(G,Cdr_y,+1);
S2dr = feedback(G,Cdr_y,+1);

subplot(2,1,1)
stepplot(T1,T2,T2dr)
title('Reference Tracking')
subplot(2,1,2)
stepplot(S1,S2,S2dr);
title('Disturbance Rejection')
legend('1-DOF','2-DOF','2-DOF rejection focus')

11-18
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)

The plots show that the disturbance rejection is further improved compared to the
balanced 2-DOF controller. This improvement comes with some sacrifice of reference-
tracking performance, which is slightly slower. However, the reference-tracking response
still has no overshoot.

Thus, using 2-DOF control can improve disturbance rejection without sacrificing as much
reference tracking performance as 1-DOF control. These effects on system performance
depend strongly on the properties of your plant. For some plants and some control

11-19
11 PID Controller Design

bandwidths, using 2-DOF control or changing the design focus has less or no impact on
the tuned result.

See Also
pid2 | pidtune

More About
• “Designing PID Controllers with PID Tuner”
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)” on page 11-21
• “Analyze Design in PID Tuner”

11-20
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

This example shows how to design a two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) PID controller using
PID Tuner. The example also compares the 2-DOF controller performance to the
performance achieved with a 1-DOF PID controller.

In this example, you represent the plant as an LTI model on page 1-13. For information
about using PID Tuner to tune a PID Controller (2DOF) block in a Simulink model, see
“Design Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” (Simulink Control Design).

2-DOF PID controllers include setpoint weighting on the proportional and derivative
terms. Compared to a 1-DOF PID controller, a 2-DOF PID controller can achieve better
disturbance rejection without significant increase of overshoot in setpoint tracking. A
typical control architecture using a 2-DOF PID controller is shown in the following
diagram.

For this example, first design a 1-DOF controller for the plant given by:

1
G ( s) = .
2
s + 0 .5 s + 0 .1

G = tf(1,[1 0.5 0.1]);

pidTuner(G,'PID')

11-21
11 PID Controller Design

Suppose for this example that your application requires a faster response than the PID
Tuner initial design. In the text box next to the Response Time slider, enter 2.

11-22
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

The resulting response is fast, but has a considerable amount of overshoot. Design a 2-
DOF controller to improve the overshoot. First, set the 1-DOF controller as the baseline
controller for comparison. Click the Export arrow and select Save as Baseline.

11-23
11 PID Controller Design

Design the 2-DOF controller. In the Type menu, select PID2.

11-24
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

PID Tuner generates a 2-DOF controller with the same target response time. The
controller parameters displayed at the bottom right show that PID Tuner tunes all

11-25
11 PID Controller Design

controller coefficients, including the setpoint weights b and c, to balance performance

and robustness. Compare the 2-DOF controller performance (solid line) with the
performance of the 1-DOF controller that you stored as the baseline (dotted line).

Adding the second degree of freedom eliminates the overshoot in the reference tracking
response. Next, add a step response plot to compare the disturbance rejection
performance of the two controllers. Select Add Plot > Input Disturbance Rejection.

11-26
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

PID Tuner tiles the disturbance-rejection plot side by side with the reference-tracking
plot.

11-27
11 PID Controller Design

The disturbance-rejection performance is identical with both controllers. Thus, using a 2-

DOF controller eliminates reference-tracking overshoot without any cost to disturbance
rejection.

You can improve disturbance rejection too by changing the PID Tuner design focus. First,
click the Export arrow and select Save as Baseline again to set the 2-DOF
controller as the baseline for comparison.

Change the PID Tuner design focus to favor reference tracking without changing the

response time or the transient-behavior coefficient. To do so, click Options, and in

the Focus menu, select Input disturbance rejection.

11-28
 Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)

PID Tuner automatically retunes the controller coefficients with a focus on disturbance-
rejection performance.

11-29
11 PID Controller Design

With the default balanced design focus, PID Tuner selects a b value between 0 and 1. For
this plant, when you change design focus to favor disturbance rejection, PID Tuner sets
b = 0 and c = 0. Thus, PID Tuner automatically generates an I-PD controller to optimize
for disturbance rejection. (Explicitly specifying an I-PD controller without setting the
design focus yields a similar controller.)

The response plots show that with the change in design focus, the disturbance rejection is
further improved compared to the balanced 2-DOF controller. This improvement comes
with some sacrifice of reference-tracking performance, which is slightly slower. However,
the reference-tracking response still has no overshoot.

Thus, using 2-DOF control can improve disturbance rejection without sacrificing as much
reference tracking performance as 1-DOF control. These effects on system performance
depend strongly on the properties of your plant and the speed of your controller. For some
plants and some control bandwidths, using 2-DOF control or changing the design focus
has less or no impact on the tuned result.

See Also
pidTuner

More About
• “Designing PID Controllers with PID Tuner”
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)” on page 11-15
• “Analyze Design in PID Tuner”

11-30
 PID Controller Types for Tuning

PID Controller Types for Tuning

PID Tuner and the pidtune command can tune many PID and 2-DOF PID controller
types. The term controller type refers to which terms are present in the controller action.
For example, a PI controller has only a proportional and an integral term, while a PIDF
controller contains proportional, integrator, and filtered derivative terms. This topic
summarizes the types of PID controllers available for tuning with PID Tuner and
pidtune.

Specifying PID Controller Type

To select the controller type, use one of these methods:

• For command-line tuning, provide the type argument to the pidtune command. For
example, C = pidtune(G,'PI') tunes a PI controller for plant G.
• For tuning in PID Tuner:

• Provide the type argument to the pidTuner command when you open PID Tuner.
For example, pidTuner(G,'PIDF2') opens PID Tuner with an initial design that
is a 2-DOF PID controller with a filter on the derivative term.
• Provide the baseline-controller Cbase argument to the pidTuner command when
you open PID Tuner. PID Tuner designs a controller of the same type as Cbase.
For example, suppose C0 is a pid controller object that has proportional and
derivative action only (PD controller). Then, pidTuner(G,C0) opens PID Tuner
with an initial design that is a PD controller.
• In PID Tuner, use the Type menu to change controller types.

11-31
11 PID Controller Design

11-32
 PID Controller Types for Tuning

1-DOF Controllers
The following table summarizes the available 1-DOF PID controller types and provides
representative controller formulas for parallel form. The standard-form and discrete-time
formulas are analogous.

Type Controller Actions Continuous-Time Discrete-Time

Controller Formula Controller Formula
(parallel form) (parallel form,
ForwardEuler
integration method)
P Proportional only Kp Kp
I Integral only Ki Ts
Ki
s z -1
PI Proportional and integral Ki Ts
Kp + K p + Ki
s z -1
PD Proportional and derivative K p + Kd s z-1
K p + Kd
Ts

PDF Proportional and derivative K ds 1

with first-order filter on Kp + K p + Kd
Tf s + 1 Ts
derivative term Tf +
z -1
PID Proportional, integral, and Ki Ts z -1
derivative Kp + + Kd s K p + Ki + Kd
s z -1 Ts

PIDF Proportional, integral, and Ki Kd s Ts 1

derivative with first-order Kp + + K p + Ki + Kd
s Tf s + 1 z -1 Ts
filter on derivative term Tf +
z -1

2-DOF Controllers
PID Tuner can automatically design 2-DOF PID controller types with free setpoint
weights. The following table summarizes the 2-DOF controller types in PID Tuner. The
standard-form and discrete-time formulas are analogous. For more information about 2-

11-33
11 PID Controller Design

DOF PID controllers generally, see “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-

16.

Type Controller Actions Continuous-Time Discrete-Time

Controller Formula Controller Formula
(parallel form) (parallel form,
ForwardEuler
integration method)
PI2 2-DOF proportional and Ki T
integral u = K p ( br - y ) + ( r - y) u = K p ( br - y ) + Ki s ( r - y)
s z -1
PD2 2-DOF proportional and u = K p ( br - y ) + K d s ( cr - y) z -1
derivative u = K p ( br - y ) + K d ( cr - y)
Ts

PDF2 2-DOF proportional and s 1

derivative with first-order u = K p ( br - y ) + K d ( cr= -Kyp)( br - y ) + K d
u ( cr
Tf s + 1 T
filter on derivative term Tf + s
z -1
PID2 2-DOF proportional, Ki T
integral, and derivative u = K p ( br - y ) + ( r - y) +uK=dKs (pcr( br- y-)y ) + Ki s ( r - y) +
s z -1

PIDF2 2-DOF proportional, Ki s T

integral, and derivative u = K p ( br - y ) + y )i s ( r - y) +
( r - y) +uK=dK p ( br -( ycr) +- K
s Tf s + 1 z -1
with first-order filter on
derivative term

2-DOF Controllers with Fixed Setpoint Weights

With PID control, step changes in the reference signal can cause spikes in the control
signal contributed by the proportional and derivative terms. By fixing the setpoint weights
of a 2-DOF controller, you can mitigate the influence on the control signal exerted by
changes in the reference signal. For example, consider the relationship between the
inputs r (setpoint) and y (feedback) and the output u (control signal) of a continuous-time
2-DOF PID controller.

Ki
u = K p ( br - y ) + ( r - y) + K d s ( cr - y)
s

11-34
 See Also

If you set b = 0 and c = 0, then changes in the setpoint r do not feed through directly to
either the proportional or the derivative terms in u. The b = 0, c = 0 controller is called
an I-PD type controller. I-PD controllers are also useful for improving disturbance
rejection.

Use PID Tuner to design the fixed-setpoint-weight controller types summarized in the
following table. The standard-form and discrete-time formulas are analogous.

Type Controller Actions Continuous-Time Discrete-Time

Controller Formula Controller Formula
(parallel form) (parallel form,
ForwardEuler
integration
method)
I-PD 2-DOF PID with b = Ki T
0, c = 0 u = -K p y + - K p y + K i s ( r - y) - K
( r - y ) -uK=d sy
s z -1

I-PDF 2-DOF PIDF with b = Ki s T

0, c = 0 u = -K p y + ( r - y ) -uK=d - K p y + yK i s ( r - y) - K
s Tf s + 1 z -1

ID-P 2-DOF PID with b = Ki T

0, c = 1 u = -K p y + ( r - y ) +uK=ds-(Kr p-yy+) K i s ( r - y) + K
s z -1

IDF-P 2-DOF PIDF with b = Ki s T

0, c = 1 u = -K p y + ( r - y ) +uK=d - K p y + (Kr -i y)s ( r - y) + K
s Tf s + 1 z -1

PI-D 2-DOF PID with b = Ki T

1, c = 0 u = K p (r - y) + ( r - uy)=-KKpd(syr - y ) + Ki s ( r - y)
s z-1

PI-DF 2-DOF PIDF with b = Ki s T

1, c = 0 u = K p (r - y) + ( r - uy)=-KKpd( r - y ) + yKi s ( r - y)
s Tf s + 1 z-1

See Also
pidTuner | pidtune

11-35
11 PID Controller Design

More About
• “Designing PID Controllers with PID Tuner”
• “Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers” on page 2-13
• “Two-Degree-of-Freedom PID Controllers” on page 2-16
• “PID Controller Design at the Command Line” on page 11-2
• “PID Controller Design for Fast Reference Tracking”
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (Command Line)” on page 11-15
• “Tune 2-DOF PID Controller (PID Tuner)” on page 11-21

11-36
 12

Classical Control Design

• “Choosing a Control Design Approach” on page 12-2

• “Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4
• “Design Requirements” on page 12-9
• “Feedback Control Architectures” on page 12-21
• “Design Multiloop Control System” on page 12-24
• “Multimodel Control Design” on page 12-35
• “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49
• “Root Locus Design” on page 12-64
• “Nichols Plot Design” on page 12-80
• “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93
• “Design Compensator Using Automated Tuning Methods” on page 12-100
• “Analyze Designs Using Response Plots” on page 12-117
• “Compare Performance of Multiple Designs” on page 12-127
• “Design Hard-Disk Read/Write Head Controller” on page 12-133
• “Design Compensator for Plant Model with Time Delays” on page 12-147
• “Design Compensator for Systems Represented by Frequency Response Data”
on page 12-155
• “Design Internal Model Controller for Chemical Reactor Plant” on page 12-161
• “Design LQG Tracker Using Control System Designer” on page 12-176
• “Export Design to MATLAB Workspace” on page 12-188
• “Generate Simulink Model for Control Architecture” on page 12-191
12 Classical Control Design

Choosing a Control Design Approach

Control System Toolbox provides several approaches to tuning control systems. Use the
following table to determine which approach best supports what you want to do.

PID Tuning Classical Control Multiloop,

Design Multiobjective
Tuning
Architecture PID loops with unit Control systems Any architecture,
feedback (1-DOF and having SISO including any
2-DOF) controllers in number of SISO or
common single-loop MIMO feedback
or multiloop loops
configurations (see
“Feedback Control
Architectures” on
page 12-21)
Control Design Automatically tune • Graphically tune Automatically tune
Approach PID gains to balance poles and zeros controller
performance and on design plots, parameters to meet
robustness such as Bode, design requirements
root locus, and you specify, such as
Nichols setpoint tracking,
• Automatically stability margins,
tune disturbance
compensators rejection, and loop
using response shaping (see “Tuning
optimization Goals”)
(Simulink Design
Optimization™),
LQG synthesis, or
IMC tuning
Analysis of Control Time and frequency Any combination of Any combination of
System responses for system responses system responses
Performance reference tracking
and disturbance
rejection

12-2
 See Also

PID Tuning Classical Control Multiloop,

Design Multiobjective
Tuning
Interface • Graphical tuning Graphical tuning • Graphical tuning
using PID Tuner using Control using Control
(see “Designing System Designer System Tuner
PID Controllers • Programmatic
with PID Tuner”) tuning using
• Programmatic systune (see
tuning using “Programmatic
pidtune (see Tuning”)
“PID Controller
Design at the
Command Line”
on page 11-2)

See Also

More About
• “PID Controller Tuning”
• “Classical Control Design”
• “Tuning with Control System Tuner”
• “Programmatic Tuning”

12-3
12 Classical Control Design

Control System Designer Tuning Methods

Using Control System Designer, you can tune compensators using various graphical
and automated tuning methods.

Graphical Tuning Methods

Use graphical tuning methods to interactively add, modify, and remove controller poles,
zeros, and gains.

Tuning Method Description Useful For

Bode Editor Tune your compensator to achieve Adjusting open-loop bandwidth
a specific open-loop frequency and designing to gain and phase
response (loop shaping). margin specifications.
Closed-Loop Tune your prefilter to improve Improving reference tracking,
Bode Editor closed-loop system response. input disturbance rejection, and
noise rejection.
Root Locus Tune your compensator to produce Designing to time-domain design
Editor closed-loop pole locations that specifications, such as maximum
satisfy your design specifications. overshoot and settling time.
Nichols Editor Tune your compensator to achieve Adjusting open-loop bandwidth
a specific open-loop response (loop and designing to gain and phase
shaping), combining gain and margin specifications.
phase information on a Nichols
plot.

When using graphical tuning, you can modify the compensator either directly from the
editor plots or using the compensator editor. A common design approach is to roughly
tune your compensator using the editor plots, and then use the compensator editor to
fine-tune the compensator parameters. For more information, see “Edit Compensator
Dynamics” on page 12-93

The graphical tuning methods are not mutually exclusive. For example, you can tune your
compensator using both the Bode editor and root locus editor simultaneously. This option
is useful when designing to both time-domain and frequency-domain specifications.

For examples of graphical tuning, see the following:

12-4
 Control System Designer Tuning Methods

• “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49

• “Root Locus Design” on page 12-64
• “Nichols Plot Design” on page 12-80

Automated Tuning Methods

Use automated tuning methods to automatically tune compensators based on your design
specifications.

Tuning Method Description Requirements and Limitations

PID Tuning Automatically tune PID gains to Classical PID tuning formulas
balance performance and require a stable or integrating
robustness or tune controllers effective plant.
using classical PID tuning
formulas.
Optimization Optimize compensator parameters Requires Simulink Design
Based Tuning using design requirements Optimization software.
specified in graphical tuning and
analysis plots. Tunes the parameters of a
previously defined controller
structure.
LQG Synthesis Design a full-order stabilizing Maximum controller order
feedback controller as a linear- depends on the effective plant
quadratic-Gaussian (LQG) tracker. dynamics.
Loop Shaping Find a full-order stabilizing Requires Robust Control Toolbox
feedback controller with a software.
specified open-loop bandwidth or
shape. Maximum controller order
depends on the effective plant
dynamics.

12-5
12 Classical Control Design

Tuning Method Description Requirements and Limitations

Internal Model Obtain a full-order stabilizing Assumes that your control system
Control (IMC) feedback controller using the IMC uses an IMC architecture that
Tuning design method. contains a predictive model of
your plant dynamics.

Maximum controller order

depends on the effective plant
dynamics.

A common design approach is to generate an initial compensator using PID tuning, LQG
synthesis, loop shaping, or IMC tuning. You can then improve the compensator
performance using either optimization-based tuning or graphical tuning.

For more information on automated tuning methods, see “Design Compensator Using
Automated Tuning Methods” on page 12-100.

Effective Plant for Tuning

An effective plant is the system controlled by a compensator that contains all elements of
the open loop in your model other than the compensator you are tuning. The following
diagrams show examples of effective plants:

Knowing the properties of the effective plant seen by your compensator can help you
understand which tuning methods work for your system. For example, some automated
Ÿ
tuning methods apply only to compensators whose open loops ( L = C P ) have stable

12-6
 Control System Designer Tuning Methods

Ÿ
effective plants ( P ). Also, for tuning methods such as IMC and loop shaping, the
maximum controller order depends on the dynamics of the effective plant.

Select a Tuning Method

To select a tuning method, in Control System Designer, click Tuning Methods.

12-7
12 Classical Control Design

See Also
Control System Designer

Related Examples
• “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49
• “Root Locus Design” on page 12-64
• “Nichols Plot Design” on page 12-80
• “Design Compensator Using Automated Tuning Methods” on page 12-100

12-8
 Design Requirements

Design Requirements
This topic describes time-domain and frequency-domain design requirements available in
Control System Designer. Each requirement defines an exclusion region, indicated by a
yellow shaded area. To satisfy a requirement, a response plot must remain outside of the
associated exclusion region.

12-9
12 Classical Control Design

If you have Simulink Design Optimization software installed, you can use response
optimization techniques to find a compensator that meets your specified design
requirements. For examples of optimization-based control design using design
requirements, see “Optimize LTI System to Meet Frequency-Domain Requirements”
(Simulink Design Optimization) and “Design Optimization-Based PID Controller for
Linearized Simulink Model (GUI)” (Simulink Design Optimization).

For other Control System Designer tuning methods, you can use the specified design
requirements as visual guidelines during the tuning process.

Add Design Requirements

You can add design requirements either directly to existing plots or, when using
optimization-based tuning, from the Response Optimization dialog box.

Add Requirements to Existing Plots

You can add design requirements directly to existing:

• Bode, root locus, and Nichols editor plots.

• Analysis plots:

• Root locus plots and pole/zero maps

• Bode diagrams
• Nichols plots
• Step and impulse responses

To add a design requirement to a plot, in Control System Designer, right-click the plot,
and select Design Requirements > New.

12-10
 Design Requirements

In the New Design Requirement dialog box, in the Design requirement type drop-down
list, select the type of requirement to add. You can select any valid requirement for the
associated plot type.

In the Design requirement parameters section, configure the requirement properties.

Parameters are dependent on the type of requirement you select.

To create the specified requirement and add it to the plot, click OK.

Add Requirements from Response Optimization Dialog Box

When using optimization-based tuning, you can add design requirements from the
Response Optimization dialog box.

To do so, on the Design Requirements tab, click Add new design requirement.

12-11
12 Classical Control Design

In the New Design Requirement dialog box, select a Design requirement type from the
drop-down list.

In the Requirement for response drop-down list, specify the response to which to apply
the design requirement. You can select any response in Data Browser.

In the Design requirement parameters section, configure the requirement properties.

Parameters are dependent on the type of requirement you select.

To create the specified design requirement, click OK. In the Response Optimization dialog
box, on the Design Requirements tab, the new requirement is added to the table.

The app also adds the design requirement to a corresponding editor or analysis plot. The
plot type used depends on the selected design requirement type.

If the requirement is for a Bode, root locus, or Nichols plot and:

• A corresponding editor plot is open, the requirement is added to that plot.

• Only a corresponding analysis plot is open, the requirement is added to that plot.
• No corresponding plot is open, the requirement is added to a new Editor plot.

Otherwise, if the requirement is for a different plot type, the requirement is added to an
appropriate analysis plot. For example, a Step requirement bound is added to a new
step analysis plot.

12-12
 Design Requirements

Edit Design Requirements

To edit an existing requirement, in Control System Designer, right-click the
corresponding plot, and select Design Requirements > Edit.

In the Edit Design Requirement dialog box, in the Design requirement drop-down list,
select a design requirement to edit. You can select any existing design requirement from
the current plot.

In the Design requirement parameters section, specify the requirement properties.

Parameters are dependent on the type of requirement you select. When you change a
parameter, the app automatically updates the requirement display in the associated plot.

You can also interactively adjust design requirements by dragging the edges or vertices of
the shaded exclusion region in the associated plot.

12-13
12 Classical Control Design

Root Locus and Pole-Zero Plot Requirements

Settling Time

Specifying a settling time for a continuous-time system adds a vertical boundary line to
the root locus or pole-zero plot. This line represents pole locations associated with the
specified settling time. This boundary is exact for a second-order system with no zeros.
For higher order systems, the boundary is an approximation based on second-order
dominant systems.

To satisfy this requirement, your system poles must be to the left of the boundary line.

For a discrete-time system, the design requirement boundary is a curved line centered on
the origin. In this case, your system poles must be within the boundary line to satisfy the
requirement.

Percent Overshoot

Specifying percent overshoot for a continuous-time system adds two rays to the plot that
start at the origin. These rays are the locus of poles associated with the specified
overshoot value. In the discrete-time case, the design requirement adds two curves
originating at (1,0) and meeting on the real axis in the left-hand plane.

12-14
 Design Requirements

Note The percent overshoot (p.o.) design requirement can be expressed in terms of the
damping ratio, ζ:

Ê pz ˆ
p.o. = 100 exp Á - ˜
Á 1- z 2 ˜
Ë ¯

Damping Ratio

Specifying a damping ratio for a continuous-time system adds two rays to the plot that
start at the origin. These rays are the locus of poles associated with the specified
overshoot value. This boundary is exact for a second-order system and, for higher order
systems, is an approximation based on second-order dominant systems.

To meet this requirement, your system poles must be to the left of the boundary lines.

For discrete-time systems, the design requirement adds two curves originating at (1,0)
and meeting on the real axis in the left-hand plane. In this case, your system poles must
be within the boundary curves.

Natural Frequency

Specifying a natural frequency bound adds a semicircle to the plot that is centered
around the origin. The radius of the semicircle equals the natural frequency.

If you specify a natural frequency lower bound, the system poles must remain outside this
semicircle. If you specify a natural frequency upper bound, the system poles must remain
within this semicircle.

Region Constraint

To specify a region constraint, define two or more vertices of a piece-wise linear boundary
line. For each vertex, specify Real and Imaginary components. This requirement adds a
shaded exclusion region on one side of the boundary line. To switch the exclusion region
to the opposite side of the boundary, in the response plot, right-click the requirement, and
select Flip.

To satisfy this requirement, your system poles must be outside of the exclusion region.

12-15
12 Classical Control Design

Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Bode Diagram Requirements

Upper Gain Limit

You can specify upper gain limits for both open-loop and closed-loop Bode responses.

A gain limit consists of one or more line segments. For the start and end points of each
segment, specify a frequency, Freq, and magnitude, Mag. You can also specify the slope
of the line segment in dB/decade. When you change the slope, the magnitude for the end
point updates.

If you are using optimization-based tuning, you can assign a tuning Weight to each
segment to indicate their relative importance.

In the Type drop-down list you can select whether to constrain the magnitude to be above
or below the specified boundary.

Lower Gain Limit

You can specify lower gain limits in the same way as upper gain limits.

Gain and Phase Margin

You can specify a lower bound for the gain margin, the phase margin, or both. The
specified bounds appear in text on the Bode magnitude plot.

Note Gain and phase margin requirements are only applicable to open-loop Bode
diagrams.

12-16
 Design Requirements

Open-Loop Nichols Plot Requirements

Phase Margin

Specify a minimum phase margin as a positive value. Graphically, Control System

Designer displays this requirement as a region of exclusion along the 0 dB open-loop
gain axis.

Gain Margin

Specify a minimum gain margin value. Graphically, Control System Designer displays
this requirement as a region of exclusion along the -180 degree open-loop phase axis.

Closed-Loop Peak Gain

Specify a minimum closed-loop peak gain value. The specified dB value can be positive or
negative. The design requirement follows the curves of the Nichols plot grid. As a best
practice, have the grid on when using a closed-loop peak gain requirement.

Gain-Phase Design Requirement

To specify a gain-phase design requirement, define two or more vertices of a piece-wise

linear boundary line. For each vertex, specify Open-Loop phase and Open-Loop gain
values. This requirement adds a shaded exclusion region on one side of the boundary line.
To switch the exclusion region to the opposite side of the boundary, in the Nichols plot,
right-click the requirement, and select Flip.

Display Location

When editing a phase margin, gain margin, or closed-loop peak gain requirement, you can
specify the display location as -180 ± k360 degrees, where k is an integer value.

12-17
12 Classical Control Design

If you enter an invalid location, the closest valid location is selected. While displayed
graphically at only one location, these requirements apply regardless of actual phase; that
is, they are applied for all values of k.

Step and Impulse Response Requirements

Upper Time Response Bound

You can specify upper time response bounds for both step and impulse responses.

A time-response bound consists of one or more line segments. For the start and end
points of each segment, specify a Time and Amplitude value. You can also specify the
slope of the line segment. When you change the slope, the amplitude for the end point
updates.

12-18
 Design Requirements

If you are using optimization-based tuning, you can assign a tuning Weight to each
segment to indicate its relative importance.

In the Type drop-down list, you can select whether to constrain the response to be above
or below the specified boundary.

Lower Time Response Bound

You can specify lower time response bounds for both step and impulse responses in the
same way as upper gain limits.

Step Response Bound

For a step response plot, you can also specify a step response bound design requirement.

To define a step response bound requirement, specify the following step response
parameters:

• Final value — Final steady-state value

• Rise time — Time required to reach the specified percentage, % Rise, of the Final
value
• Settling time — Time at which the response enters and stays within the settling
percentage, % Settling, of the Final value
• % Overshoot — Maximum percentage overshoot above the Final value
• % Undershoot — Maximum percentage undershoot below the Initial value

In Control System Designer, step response plots always use an Initial value and a
Step time of 0

12-19
12 Classical Control Design

See Also

More About
• “Optimize LTI System to Meet Frequency-Domain Requirements” (Simulink Design
Optimization)
• “Design Optimization-Based PID Controller for Linearized Simulink Model (GUI)”
(Simulink Design Optimization)

12-20
 Feedback Control Architectures

Feedback Control Architectures

When you open Control System Designer from MATLAB, you can select one of six
possible control architecture configurations.

Configura Block Diagram Features

tion
1 • Single feedback loop
• Compensator (C) and plant (G) in forward path
• Sensor dynamics (H) in feedback path
• Prefilter F

2 • Single feedback loop

• Compensator (C) and sensor dynamics (H) in
feedback path
• Prefilter F

3 • Compensator (C) and plant (G) in forward path

• Feedforward prefilter F for input disturbance
attenuation
• Sensor dynamics (H) in feedback path

12-21
12 Classical Control Design

Configura Block Diagram Features

tion
4 • Nested multiloop architecture
• Outer loop with compensator (C1) in forward path
• Inner loop with compensator (C2) in feedback
path
• Sensor dynamics (H) in feedback path

5 • Standard Internal Model Control (IMC)

architecture
• Compensator (C) in forward path
• Plant G1 and plant predictive model G2
• Disturbance model Gd
• Prefilter F

6 • Cascaded multiloop architecture with the inner

loop in the forward path of the outer loop.
• Compensator (C1, C2) in the forward path and
sensor dynamics (H1, H2) in the feedback path
(both loops)
• Prefilter F

If your control application does not match one of the supported control architectures, you
can use block diagram algebra to convert your system to match an architecture. For an
example of such an application, see “Design Multiloop Control System” on page 12-24.

Note If you are unable to match your application to one of the supported control
architectures, consider using the Control System Tuner app to design your control
system.

12-22
 See Also

See Also
Control System Designer | sisoinit

More About
• “Design Multiloop Control System” on page 12-24

12-23
12 Classical Control Design

Design Multiloop Control System

In many applications, a single-loop control system is not feasible due to your plant design
or design requirements. If you have a design with an inner and outer loop, you can use
Control System Designer to design compensators for both loops.

The typical workflow is to tune the compensator for the inner loop first, by isolating the
inner loop from the rest of the control system. Once the inner loop is satisfactorily tuned,
tune the outer loop to achieve your desired closed-loop response.

System Model

For this example develop a position control system for a DC motor. A single-loop angular
velocity controller is designed in “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49. To design an
angular position controller, add an outer loop that contains an integrator.

Define a state-space plant model, as described in “SISO Example: The DC Motor”.

% Define the motor parameters

R = 2.0
L = 0.5
Km = .015
Kb = .015
Kf = 0.2
J = 0.02
% Create the state-space model
A = [-R/L -Kb/L; Km/J -Kf/J]

12-24
 Design Multiloop Control System

B = [1/L; 0];
C = [0 1];
D = [0];
sys_dc = ss(A,B,C,D);

Design Objectives

The design objective is to minimize the closed-loop step response settling time, while
maintaining an inner-loop phase margin of at least 65 degrees with maximum bandwidth:

• Minimal closed-loop step response settling time.

• Inner-loop phase margin of at least 65 degrees.
• Maximum inner-loop bandwidth.

Match System To Control Architecture

Control System Designer has six possible control architectures from which you can
choose. For more information on these architectures, see “Feedback Control
Architectures” on page 12-21.

For this example use Configuration 4, which has an inner and outer control loop.

Currently, the control system structure does not match Configuration 4. However, using
block diagram algebra, you can modify the system model by adding:

• An integrator to the motor output to get the angular displacement.

• A differentiator to the inner-loop feedback path.

12-25
12 Classical Control Design

At the MATLAB command line, add the integrator to the motor plant model.

plant = sys_dc*tf(1,[1,0]);

Create an initial model of the inner-loop compensator that contains the feedback
differentiator.

Cdiff = tf('s');

Define Control Architecture

Open Control System Designer.

controlSystemDesigner

In Control System Designer, on the Control System tab, click Edit Architecture.

In the Edit Architecture dialog box, under Select Control Architecture, click the fourth
architecture.

12-26
 Design Multiloop Control System

Import the plant and controller models from the MATLAB workspace.

In the Blocks tab, for:

• Controller C2, specify a Value of Cdiff.

• Plant G, specify a Value of plant.

Click OK.

The app updates the control architecture and imports the specified models for the motor
plant and the inner-loop controller.

In Control System Designer, the following plots open:

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12 Classical Control Design

• Bode Editor for LoopTransfer_C1 — Open-loop Bode Editor for the outer loop
• Root Locus Editor for LoopTransfer_C1 — Open-loop Root Locus Editor for the
outer loop
• Bode Editor for LoopTransfer_C2 — Open-loop Bode Editor for the inner loop
• Root Locus Editor for LoopTransfer_C2 — Open-loop root Locus Editor for the
inner loop
• IOTransfer_r2y: step — Overall closed-loop step response from input r to output y

For this example, close the Bode Editor for LoopTransfer_C1 and Root Locus Editor
for LoopTransfer_C2 plots.

Since the inner loop is tuned first, configure the plots to view just the inner-loop Bode
editor plot. On the View tab, click Single, and click Bode Editor for LoopTransfer_C2.

Isolate Inner Loop

To isolate the inner loop from the rest of the control system architecture, add a loop
opening to the open-loop response of the inner loop. In the Data Browser, right-click
LoopTransfer_C2, and select Open Selection.

To add a loop opening at the output of outer-loop compensator, C1, in the Open-Loop
Transfer Function dialog box, click Add loop opening location to list. Then, select
uC1.

12-28
 Design Multiloop Control System

Click OK.

The app adds a loop opening at the selected location. This opening removes the effect of
the outer control loop on the open-loop transfer function of the inner loop.

The Bode Editor response plot updates to reflect the new open-loop transfer function.

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12 Classical Control Design

Tune Inner Loop

To increase the bandwidth of the inner loop, increase the gain of compensator C2.

In the Bode Editor plot, drag the magnitude response upward until the phase margin is
65 degrees. This corresponds to a compensator gain of 107. Increasing the gain further
reduces the phase margin below 65 degrees.

12-30
 Design Multiloop Control System

Alternatively, you can adjust the gain value using the compensator editor. For more
information, see “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93.

Tune Outer Loop

With the inner loop tuned, you can now tune the outer loop to reduce the closed-loop
settling time.

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12 Classical Control Design

In Control System Designer, on the View tab, select Left/Right. Arrange the plots to
display the Root Locus for LoopTransfer_C1 and IOTransfer_r2y_step plots
simultaneously.

To view the current settling time, right-click in the step response plot and select
Characteristics > Settling Time.

The current closed-loop settling time is greater than 500 seconds.

In the Root Locus Editor, increase the gain of compensator C1. As the gain increases,
the complex pole pair moves toward a slower time constant and the real pole moves

12-32
 See Also

toward a faster time constant. A gain of 600 produces a good compromise between rise
time and settling time.

With a closed-loop settling time below 0.8 seconds and an inner-loop phase margin of 65
degrees, the design satisfies the design requirements.

See Also
Control System Designer

12-33
12 Classical Control Design

More About
• “Feedback Control Architectures” on page 12-21

12-34
 Multimodel Control Design

Multimodel Control Design

Typically, the dynamics of a system are not known exactly and may vary. For example,
system dynamics can vary because of:

• Parameter value variations caused by manufacturing tolerances — For example, the

resistance value of a resistor is typically within a range about the nominal value, 5 Ω
+/– 5%.
• Operating conditions — For example, aircraft dynamics change based on altitude and
speed.

Any controller you design for such a system must satisfy the design requirements for all
potential system dynamics.

Control Design Overview

To design a controller for a system with varying dynamics:

1 Sample the variations.

2 Create an LTI model for each sample.
3 Create an array of sampled LTI models.
4 Design a controller for a nominal representative model from the array.
5 Analyze the controller design for all models in the array.
6 If the controller design does not satisfy the requirements for all the models, specify a
different nominal model and redesign the controller.

Model Arrays
In Control System Designer, you can specify multiple models for any plant or sensor in
the current control architecture using an array of LTI models (see “Model Arrays” on
page 2-100). If you specify model arrays for more than one plant or sensor, the lengths of
the arrays must match.

Create Model Arrays

To create arrays for multimodel control design, you can:

• Create multiple LTI models using the tf, ss, zpk, or frd commands.

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12 Classical Control Design

% Specify model parameters.

m = 3;
b = 0.5;
k = 8:1:10;
T = 0.1:.05:.2;
% Create an array of LTI models.
for ct = 1:length(k);
G(:,:,ct) = tf(1,[m,b,k(ct)]);
end
• Create an array of LTI models using the stack command.
% Create individual LTI models.
G1 = tf(1, [1 1 8]);
G2 = tf(1, [1 1 9]);
G3 = tf(1, [1 1 10]);
% Combine models in an array.
G = stack(1,G1,G2,G3);
• Perform batch linearizations at multiple operating points. Then export the computed
LTI models to create an array of LTI models. See the example “Reference Tracking of a
DC Motor with Parameter Variations” (Simulink Control Design). (Requires Simulink
Control Design software)
• Sample an uncertain state-space (uss) model using usample.
• Compute a uss model from a Simulink model. Then use usubs or usample to create
an array of LTI models. See “Obtain Uncertain State-Space Model from Simulink
Model” (Robust Control Toolbox). (Requires Robust Control Toolbox software)
• Specify a core Simulink block to linearize to a uss or ufrd model. See “Specify
Uncertain Linearization for Core or Custom Simulink Blocks” (Robust Control
Toolbox). (Requires Simulink Control Design and Robust Control Toolbox software)

Import Model Arrays to Control System Designer

To import models as arrays, you can pass them as input arguments when opening Control
System Designer from the MATLAB command line. For more information, see Control
System Designer.

You can also import model arrays into Control System Designer when configuring the
control architecture. In the Edit Architecture dialog box:

• In the Value text box, specify the name of an LTI model from the MATLAB workspace.
• To import block data from the MATLAB workspace or from a MAT-file in your current

working directory, click .

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 Multimodel Control Design

Nominal Model
What Is a Nominal Model?

The nominal model is a representative model in the array of LTI models that you use to
design the controller in Control System Designer. Use the editor and analysis plots to
visualize and analyze the effect of the controller on the remaining plants in the array.

You can select any model in the array as your nominal model. For example, you can
choose a model that:

• Represents the expected nominal operating point of your system.

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12 Classical Control Design

• Is an average of the models in the array.

• Represents a worst-case plant.
• Lies closest to the stability point.

Tip You can plot and analyze the open-loop dynamics of the system on a Bode plot to
determine which model to choose as nominal.

Specify Nominal Model

To select a nominal model from the array of LTI models, in Control System Designer,
click Multimodel Configuration. Then, in the Multimodel Configuration dialog box,
select a Nominal model index. The default index is 1.

For each plant or sensor that is defined as a model array, the app selects the model at the
specified index as the nominal model. Otherwise, the app uses scalar expansion to apply
the single LTI model for all model indices.

For example, for the following control architecture:

if G and H are both three-element arrays and the nominal model index is 2, the software
uses the second element in both the arrays to compute the nominal model:

Nominal Model
r y
2

The nominal response from r to y is:

12-38
 Multimodel Control Design

CG2
T=
1 + CG2 H2

The app also computes and plots the responses showing the effect of C on the remaining
pairs of plant and sensor models — G1H1 and G3H3.

If only G is an array of LTI models, and the specified nominal model is 2, then the control
architecture for nominal response is:

Nominal Model
r y
2

In this case, the nominal response from r to y is:

CG2
T=
1 + CG2 H

The app also computes and plots the responses showing the effect of C on the remaining
pairs of plant and sensor model — G1H and G3H.

Frequency Grid
The frequency response of a system is computed at a series of frequency values, called a
frequency grid. By default, Control System Designer computes a logarithmically equally
spaced grid based on the dynamic range of each model in the array.

Specify a custom frequency grid when:

• The automatic grid has more points than you require. To improve computational
efficiency, specify a less dense grid spacing.
• The automatic grid is not sufficiently dense within a particular frequency range. For
example, if the response does not capture the resonant peak dynamics of an
underdamped system, specify a more dense grid around the corner frequency.

12-39
12 Classical Control Design

• You are only interested in the response within specific frequency ranges. To improve
computational efficiency, specify a grid that covers only the frequency ranges of
interest.

For more information on specifying logarithmically spaced vectors, see logspace.

Note Modifying the frequency grid does not affect the frequency response computation
for the nominal model. The app always uses the Auto select option to compute the
nominal model frequency response.

Design Controller for Multiple Plant Models

This example shows how to design a compensator for a set of plant models using Control
System Designer.

1 Create Array of Plant Models

Create an array of LTI plant models using the stack command.

% Create an array of LTI models to model plant (G) variations.

G1 = tf(1,[1 1 8]);
G2 = tf(1,[1 1 9]);
G3 = tf(1,[1 1 10]);
G = stack(1,G1,G2,G3);
2 Create Array of Sensor Models

Similarly, create an array of sensor models.

H1 = tf(1,[1/0.1,1]);
H2 = tf(1,[1/0.15,1]);
H3 = tf(1,[1/0.2,1]);
H = stack(1,H1,H2,H3);
3 Open Control System Designer

Open Control System Designer, and import the plant and sensor model arrays.

controlSystemDesigner(G,1,H)

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 Multimodel Control Design

The app opens and imports the plant and sensor model arrays.
4 Configure Analysis Plot

To view the closed-loop step response in a larger plot, in Control System Designer,
on the View tab, click Single. Then, click IOTransfer_r2y: step.

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12 Classical Control Design

By default the step response shows only the nominal response. To display the
individual responses for the other model indices, right-click the plot area, and select
Multimodel Configuration > Individual Responses.

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 Multimodel Control Design

Note To view an envelope of all model responses, right-click the plot area, and select
Multimodel Configuration > Bounds

The plot updates to display the responses for the other models.

5 Select Nominal Model

On the Control System tab, click Multimodel Configuration.

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12 Classical Control Design

In the Multimodel Configuration dialog box, specify a Nominal Model Index of 2.

Click Close.

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 Multimodel Control Design

The selected nominal model corresponds to the average system response.

6 Design Compensator

To design a compensator using the nominal model, you can use any of the supported
“Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4.

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12 Classical Control Design

For this example, use the Compensator Editor to manually specify the compensator
dynamics. Add an integrator to the compensator and set the compensator gain to
0.4. For more information, see “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93.

7 Analyze Results

The tuned controller produces a step response with minimal overshoot for the
nominal models and a worst-case overshoot less than 10%.

12-46
 See Also

See Also
Control System Designer

Related Examples
• “Model Arrays” on page 2-100

12-47
12 Classical Control Design

• “Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4

12-48
 Bode Diagram Design

Bode Diagram Design

Bode diagram design is an interactive graphical method of modifying a compensator to
achieve a specific open-loop response (loop shaping). To interactively shape the open-loop
response using Control System Designer , use the Bode Editor. In the editor, you can
adjust the open-loop bandwidth and design to gain and phase margin specifications.

To adjust the loop shape, you can add poles and zeros to your compensator and adjust
their values directly in the Bode Editor, or you can use the Compensator Editor. For
more information, see “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93.

For information on all of the tuning methods available in Control System Designer, see
“Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4.

Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Bode Diagram

Graphical Tuning
This example shows how to design a compensator for a DC motor using Bode diagram
graphical tuning techniques.

Plant Model and Requirements

The transfer function of the DC motor plant, as described in “SISO Example: The DC
Motor”, is:

1.5
G=
2
s + 14 s + 40 .02

For this example, the design requirements are:

• Rise time of less than 0.5 seconds

• Steady-state error of less than 5%
• Overshoot of less than 10%
• Gain margin greater than 20 dB
• Phase margin greater than 40 degrees

12-49
12 Classical Control Design

Open Control System Designer

At the MATLAB command line, create a transfer function model of the plant, and open
Control System Designer in the Bode Editor configuration.
G = tf(1.5,[1 14 40.02]);
controlSystemDesigner('bode',G);

The app opens and imports G as the plant model for the default control architecture,
Configuration 1.

In the app, the following response plots open:

• Open-loop Bode Editor for the LoopTransfer_C response. This response is the
open-loop transfer function GC, where C is the compensator and G is the plant.
• Step Response for the IOTransfer_r2y response. This response is the input-output
transfer function for the overall closed-loop system.

Tip To open the open-loop Bode Editor when Control System Designer is already
open, on the Control System tab, in the Tuning Methods drop-down list, select Bode
Editor. In the Select Response to Edit dialog box, select an existing response to plot, or
create a New Open-Loop Response.

To view the open-loop frequency response and closed-loop step response simultaneously,
on the Views tab, click Left/Right.

The app displays the Bode Editor and Step Response plots side-by-side.

12-50
 Bode Diagram Design

Adjust Bandwidth

Since the design requires a rise time less than 0.5 seconds, set the open-loop DC
crossover frequency to about 3 rad/s. To a first-order approximation, this crossover
frequency corresponds to a time constant of 0.33 seconds.

To make the crossover easier to see, turn on the plot grid. Right-click the Bode Editor
plot area, and select Grid. The app adds a grid to the Bode response plots.

To adjust the crossover frequency increase the compensator gain. In the Bode Editor
plot, in the Magnitude response plot, drag the response upward. Doing so increases the
gain of the compensator.

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12 Classical Control Design

As you drag the magnitude plot, the app computes the compensator gain and updates the
response plots.

Drag the magnitude response upward until the crossover frequency is about 3 rad/s.

12-52
 Bode Diagram Design

View Step Response Characteristics

To add the rise time to the Step Response plot, right-click the plot area, and select
Characteristics > Rise Time.

To view the rise time, move the cursor over the rise time indicator.

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12 Classical Control Design

The rise time is around 0.23 seconds, which satisfies the design requirements.

Similarly, to add the peak response to the Step Response plot, right-click the plot area,
and select Characteristics > Peak Response.

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 Bode Diagram Design

The peak overshoot is around 3.5%.

Add Integrator To Compensator

To meet the 5% steady-state error requirement, eliminate steady-state error from the
closed-loop step response by adding an integrator to your compensator. In the Bode
Editor right-click in the plot area, and select Add Pole/Zero > Integrator.

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12 Classical Control Design

Adding an integrator produces zero steady-state error. However, changing the

compensator dynamics also changes the crossover frequency, increasing the rise time. To
reduce the rise time, increase the crossover frequency to around 3 rad/s.

Adjust Compensator Gain

To return the crossover frequency to around 3 rad/s, increase the compensator gain
further. Right-click the Bode Editor plot area, and select Edit Compensator.

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, in the Compensator section, specify a gain of 99,
and press Enter.

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 Bode Diagram Design

The response plots update automatically.

The rise time is around 0.4 seconds, which satisfies the design requirements. However,
the peak overshoot is around 32%. A compensator consisting of a gain and an integrator
is not sufficient to meet the design requirements. Therefore, the compensator requires
additional dynamics.

Add Lead Network to Compensator

In the Bode Editor, review the gain margin and phase margin for the current
compensator design. The design requires a gain margin greater than 20 dB and phase

12-57
12 Classical Control Design

margin greater than 40 degrees. The current design does not meet either of these
requirements.

To increase the stability margins, add a lead network to the compensator.

In the Bode Editor, right-click and select Add Pole/Zero > Lead.

To specify the location of the lead network pole, click on the magnitude response. The app
adds a real pole (red X) and real zero (red O) to the compensator and to the Bode Editor
plot.

In the Bode Editor, drag the pole and zero to change their locations. As you drag them,
the app updates the pole/zero values and updates the response plots.

To decrease the magnitude of a pole or zero, drag it towards the left. Since the pole and
zero are on the negative real axis, dragging them to the left moves them closer to the
origin in the complex plane.

12-58
 Bode Diagram Design

Tip As you drag a pole or zero, the app displays the new value in the status bar, on the
right side.

As an initial estimate, drag the zero to a location around -7 and the pole to a location
around -11.

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12 Classical Control Design

The phase margin meets the design requirements; however, the gain margin is still too
low.

Edit Lead Network Pole and Zero

To improve the controller performance, tune the lead network parameters.

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, in the Dynamics section, click the Lead row.

12-60
 Bode Diagram Design

In the Edit Selected Dynamics section, in the Real Zero text box, specify a location of
-4.3, and press Enter. This value is near the slowest (left-most) pole of the DC motor
plant.

In the Real Pole text box, specify a value of -28, and press Enter.

When you modify a lead network parameters, the Compensator and response plots
update automatically.

In the app, in the Bode Editor, the gain margin of 20.5 just meets the design
requirement.

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12 Classical Control Design

To add robustness to the system, in the Compensator Editor dialog box, decrease the
compensator gain to 84.5, and press Enter. The gain margin increases to 21.8, and the
response plots update.

In Control System Designer, in the response plots, compare the system performance to
the design requirements. The system performance characteristics are:

• Rise time is 0.445 seconds.

• Steady-state error is zero.

12-62
 See Also

• Overshoot is 3.39%.
• Gain margin is 21.8 dB.
• Phase margin is 65.6 degrees.

The system response meets all of the design requirements.

See Also
Control System Designer | bodeplot

More About
• “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93
• “Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4
• “Root Locus Design” on page 12-64
• “Nichols Plot Design” on page 12-80

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12 Classical Control Design

Root Locus Design

Root locus design is a common control system design technique in which you edit the
compensator gain, poles, and zeros in the root locus diagram.

As the open-loop gain, k, of a control system varies over a continuous range of values, the
root locus diagram shows the trajectories of the closed-loop poles of the feedback system.
For example, in the following tracking system:

P(s) is the plant, H(s) is the sensor dynamics, and k is an adjustable scalar gain The
closed-loop poles are the roots of

q ( s) = 1 + kP ( s) H ( s )

The root locus technique consists of plotting the closed-loop pole trajectories in the
complex plane as k varies. You can use this plot to identify the gain value associated with
a desired set of closed-loop poles.

Tune Electrohydraulic Servomechanism Using Root Locus

Graphical Tuning
This example shows how to design a compensator for an electrohydraulic
servomechanism using root locus graphical tuning techniques.

Plant Model

A simple version of an electrohydraulic servomechanism model consists of

• A push-pull amplifier (a pair of electromagnets)

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 Root Locus Design

• A sliding spool in a vessel of high-pressure hydraulic fluid

• Valve openings in the vessel to allow for fluid to flow
• A central chamber with a piston-driven ram to deliver force to a load
• A symmetrical fluid return vessel

The force on the spool is proportional to the current in the electromagnet coil. As the
spool moves, the valve opens, allowing the high-pressure hydraulic fluid to flow through
the chamber. The moving fluid forces the piston to move in the opposite direction of the
spool. For more information on this model, including the derivation of a linearized model,
see [1].

You can use the input voltage to the electromagnet to control the ram position. When
measurements of the ram position are available, you can use feedback for the ram
position control, as shown in the following, where Gservo represents the
servomechanism:

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12 Classical Control Design

Design Requirements

For this example, tune the compensator, C(s) to meet the following closed-loop step
response requirements:

• The 2% settling time is less than 0.05 seconds.

• The maximum overshoot is less than 5%.

Open Control System Designer

At the MATLAB command line, load a linearized model of the servomechanism, and open
Control System Designer in the root locus editor configuration.

load ltiexamples Gservo

controlSystemDesigner('rlocus',Gservo);

The app opens and imports Gservo as the plant model for the default control
architecture, Configuration 1.

In Control System Designer, a Root Locus Editor plot and input-output Step
Response open.

To view the open-loop frequency response and closed-loop step response simultaneously,
on the Views tab, click Left/Right.

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 Root Locus Design

The app displays Bode Editor and Step Response plots side-by-side.

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12 Classical Control Design

In the closed-loop step response plot, the rise time is around two seconds, which does not
satisfy the design requirements.

To make the root locus diagram easier to read, zoom in. In the Root Locus Editor, right-
click the plot area and select Properties.

In the Property Editor dialog box, on the Limits tab, specify Real Axis and Imaginary
Axis limits from -500 to 500.

12-68
 Root Locus Design

Click Close.

Increase Compensator Gain

To create a faster response, increase the compensator gain. In the Root Locus Editor,
right-click the plot area and select Edit Compensator.

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, specify a gain of 20.

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12 Classical Control Design

In the Root Locus Editor plot, the closed-loop pole locations move to reflect the new
gain value. Also, the Step Response plot updates.

12-70
 Root Locus Design

The closed-loop response does not satisfy the settling time requirement and exhibits
unwanted ringing.

Increasing the gain makes the system underdamped and further increases lead to
instability. Therefore, to meet the design requirements, you must specify additional
compensator dynamics. For more information on adding and editing compensator
dynamics, see “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93.

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12 Classical Control Design

Add Poles to Compensator

To add a complex pole pair to the compensator, in the Root Locus Editor, right-click the
plot area and select Add Pole/Zero > Complex Pole. Click the plot area where you want
to add one of the complex poles.

The app adds the complex pole pair to the root locus plot as red X’s, and updates the step
response plot.

In the Root Locus Editor, drag the new poles to locations near –140 ± 260i. As you drag
one pole, the other pole updates automatically.

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 Root Locus Design

Tip As you drag a pole or zero, the app displays the new value in the status bar, on the
right side.

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12 Classical Control Design

Add Zeros to Compensator

To add a complex zero pair to your compensator, in the Compensator Editor dialog box,
right-click the Dynamics table, and select Add Pole/Zero > Complex Zero

12-74
 Root Locus Design

The app adds a pair of complex zeros at –1 ± i to your compensator

In the Dynamics table, click the Complex Zero row. Then in the Edit Selected
Dynamics section, specify a Real Part of -170 and an Imaginary Part of 430.

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12 Classical Control Design

The compensator and response plots automatically update to reflect the new zero
locations.

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 Root Locus Design

In the Step Response plot, the settling time is around 0.1 seconds, which does not
satisfy the design requirements.

Adjust Pole and Zero Locations

The compensator design process can involve some trial and error. Adjust the compensator
gain, pole locations, and zero locations until you meet the design criteria.

One possible compensator design that satisfies the design requirements is:

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12 Classical Control Design

• Compensator gain of 10
• Complex poles at –110 ± 140i
• Complex zeros at –70 ± 270i

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, configure your compensator using these values. In
the Step Response plot, the settling time is around 0.05 seconds.

To verify the exact settling time, right-click the Step Response plot area and select
Characteristics > Settling Time. A settling time indicator appears on the response plot.

12-78
 See Also

To view the settling time, move the cursor over the settling time indicator.

The settling time is about 0.043 seconds, which satisfies the design requirements.

References
[1] Clark, R. N. Control System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1996.

See Also
Control System Designer | rlocusplot

More About
• “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93
• “Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4
• “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49
• “Nichols Plot Design” on page 12-80

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12 Classical Control Design

Nichols Plot Design

Nichols plot design is an interactive graphical method of modifying a compensator to
achieve a specific open-loop response (loop shaping). Unlike “Bode Diagram Design” on
page 12-49, Nichols plot design uses Nichols plots to view the open-loop frequency
response. Nichols plots combine gain and phase information into a single plot, which is
useful when you are designing to gain and phase margin specifications. You can also use
the Nichols plot grid lines to estimate the closed-loop response (see ngrid). For more
information on Nichols plots, see nicholsplot.

Tune Compensator For DC Motor Using Nichols Plot Graphical

Design
This example shows how to design a compensator for a DC motor using Nichols plot
graphical tuning techniques.

Plant Model and Requirements

The transfer function of the DC motor plant, as described in “SISO Example: The DC
Motor”, is:

1.5
G=
2
s + 14 s + 40 .02

For this example, the design requirements are:

• Rise time of less than 0.5 seconds

• Steady-state error of less than 5%
• Overshoot of less than 10%
• Gain margin greater than 20 dB
• Phase margin greater than 40 degrees

Open Control System Designer

At the MATLAB command line, create a transfer function model of the plant, and open
Control System Designer in the Nichols Editor configuration.

G = tf(1.5,[1 14 40.02]);
controlSystemDesigner('nichols',G);

12-80
 Nichols Plot Design

The app opens and imports G as the plant model for the default control architecture,
Configuration 1.

In the app, the following response plots open:

• Open-loop Nichols Editor for the LoopTransfer_C response. This response is the
open-loop transfer function GC, where C is the compensator and G is the plant.
• Step Response for the IOTransfer_r2y response. This response is the input-output
transfer function for the overall closed-loop system.

Tip To open the open-loop Nichols Editor when Control System Designer is already
open, on the Control System tab, in the Tuning Methods drop-down list, select Nichols
Editor. In the Select Response to Edit dialog box, select an existing response to plot, or
create a New Open-Loop Response.

To view the open-loop frequency response and closed-loop step response simultaneously,
on the Views tab, click Left/Right.

The app displays the Nichols Editor and Step Response plots side-by-side.

Adjust Bandwidth

Since the design requires a rise time less than 0.5 seconds, set the open-loop DC
crossover frequency to about 3 rad/s. To a first-order approximation, this crossover
frequency corresponds to a time constant of 0.33 seconds.

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To adjust the crossover frequency increase the compensator gain. In the Nichols Editor,
drag the response upward. Doing so increases the gain of the compensator.

As you drag the Nichols plot, the app computes the compensator gain and updates the
response plots.

Drag the Nichols plot upward until the crossover frequency is about 3 rad/s.

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View Step Response Characteristics

To add the rise time to the Step Response plot, right-click the plot area, and select
Characteristics > Rise Time.

To view the rise time, move the cursor over the rise time indicator.

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The rise time is around 0.23 seconds, which satisfies the design requirements.

Similarly, to add the peak response to the Step Response plot, right-click the plot area,
and select Characteristics > Peak Response.

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The peak overshoot is around 3.5%.

Add Integrator To Compensator

To meet the 5% steady-state error requirement, eliminate steady-state error from the
closed-loop step response by adding an integrator to your compensator. In the Nichols
Editor right-click in the plot area, and select Add Pole/Zero > Integrator.

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Adding an integrator produces zero steady-state error. However, changing the

compensator dynamics also changes the crossover frequency, increasing the rise time. To
reduce the rise time, increase the crossover frequency to around 3 rad/s.

Adjust Compensator Gain

To return the crossover frequency to around 3 rad/s, increase the compensator gain
further. Right-click the Nichols Editor plot area, and select Edit Compensator.

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, in the Compensator section, specify a gain of 99,
and press Enter.

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The response plots update automatically.

The rise time is around 0.4 seconds, which satisfies the design requirements. However,
the peak overshoot is around 32%. A compensator consisting of a gain and an integrator
is not sufficient to meet the design requirements. Therefore, the compensator requires
additional dynamics.

Add Lead Network to Compensator

In the Nichols Editor, review the gain margin and phase margin for the current
compensator design. The design requires a gain margin greater than 20 dB and phase

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margin greater than 40 degrees. The current design does not meet either of these
requirements.

To increase the stability margins, add a lead network to the compensator.

In the Nichols Editor, right-click and select Add Pole/Zero > Lead.

To specify the location of the lead network pole, click on the magnitude response. The app
adds a real pole (red X) and real zero (red O) to the compensator and to the Nichols
Editor plot.

In the Nichols Editor, drag the pole and zero to change their locations. As you drag
them, the app updates the pole/zero values and updates the response plots.

To decrease the magnitude of a pole or zero, drag it towards the left. Since the pole and
zero are on the negative real axis, dragging them to the left moves them closer to the
origin in the complex plane.

Tip As you drag a pole or zero, the app displays the new value in the status bar, on the
right side.

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As an initial estimate, drag the zero to a location around -7 and the pole to a location
around -11.

The phase margin meets the design requirements; however, the gain margin is still too
low.

Edit Lead Network Pole and Zero

To improve the controller performance, tune the lead network parameters.

In the Compensator Editor dialog box, in the Dynamics section, click the Lead row.

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In the Edit Selected Dynamics section, in the Real Zero text box, specify a location of
-4.3, and press Enter. This value is near the slowest (left-most) pole of the DC motor
plant.

In the Real Pole text box, specify a value of -28, and press Enter.

When you modify a lead network parameters, the Compensator and response plots
update automatically.

In the app, in the Nichols Editor, the gain margin of 20.5 just meets the design
requirement.

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To add robustness to the system, in the Compensator Editor dialog box, decrease the
compensator gain to 84.5, and press Enter. The gain margin increases to 21.8, and the
response plots update.

In Control System Designer, in the response plots, compare the system performance to
the design requirements. The system performance characteristics are:

• Rise time is 0.445 seconds.

• Steady-state error is zero.

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• Overshoot is 3.39%.
• Gain margin is 21.8 dB.
• Phase margin is 65.6 degrees.

The system response meets all of the design requirements.

See Also
Control System Designer | nicholsplot

More About
• “Edit Compensator Dynamics” on page 12-93
• “Control System Designer Tuning Methods” on page 12-4
• “Bode Diagram Design” on page 12-49
• “Root Locus Design” on page 12-64

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Edit Compensator Dynamics

Using Control System Designer, you can manually edit compensator dynamics to
achieve your design goals. In particular, you can adjust the compensator gain, and you
can add the following compensator dynamics:

• Real and complex poles, including integrators

• Real and complex zeros, including differentiators
• Lead and lag networks
• Notch filters

You can add dynamics and modify compensator parameters using the Compensator Editor
or using the graphical Bode Editor, Root Locus Editor, or Nichols Editor plots.

Compensator Editor
To open the Compensator Editor dialog box, in Control System Designer, in an editor
plot area, right-click and select Edit Compensator. Alternatively, in the Data Browser,
in the Controllers section, right-click the compensator you want to edit and click Open
Selection.

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The Compensator Editor displays the transfer function for the currently selected
compensator. You can select a different compensator to edit using the drop-down list. By
default, the compensator transfer function displays in the time constant format. You can
select a different format by changing the corresponding Control System Designer
preference.

In Control System Designer, on the Control System tab, click Preferences. In the
Control System Designer Preferences dialog box, on the Options tab, select a
Compensator Format.

To add poles and zeros to your compensator, in the Compensator Editor, right-click in the
Dynamics table and, under Add Pole/Zero, select the type of pole/zero you want to add.

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The app adds a pole or zero of the selected type with default parameters.

To edit a pole or zero, in the Dynamics table, click on the pole/zero type you want to edit.
Then, in the Edit Selected Dynamics section, in the text boxes, specify the pole and zero
locations.

To delete poles and zeros, in the Dynamics table, click on the pole/zero type you want to
delete. Then, right-click and select Delete Pole/Zero.

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Graphical Compensator Editing

You can also add and adjust poles and zeros directly from Bode Editor, Root Locus Editor,
or Nichols Editor plots. Use this method to roughly place poles and zeros in the correct
area before fine-tuning their locations using the Compensator Editor.

To add poles and zeros directly from an editor plot, right-click the plot area and, under
Add Pole/Zero, select the type of pole/zero you want to add. In the editor plot, the app
displays the editable compensator poles and zeros as red X’s and O’s respectively.

In the editor plots, you can drag poles and zeros to adjust their locations. As you drag a
pole or zero, the app displays the new value in the status bar, on the right side.

To delete a pole or zero, right-click the plot area and select Delete Pole/Zero. Then, in
the editor plot, click the pole or zero you want to delete.

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Poles and Zeros

You can add the following poles and zeros to your compensator:

• Real pole/zero — Specify the pole/zero location on the real axis

• Complex poles/zeros — Specify complex conjugate pairs by:

• Setting the real and imaginary parts directly.

• Setting the natural frequency, ωn, and damping ratio, ξ.
• Integrator — Add a pole at the origin to eliminate steady-state error for step inputs
and DC inputs.
• Differentiator — Add a zero at the origin.

Lead and Lag Networks

You can add lead networks, lag networks, and combination lead-lag networks to your
compensator.

Network Description Use This To

Type
Lead One pole and one zero on the • Increase stability margins
negative real axis, with the • Increase system bandwidth
zero having a lower natural
frequency • Reduce rise time
Lag One pole and one zero on the • Reduce high-frequency gain
negative real axis, with the • Increase phase margin
pole having a lower natural
frequency • Improve steady-state accuracy
Lead-Lag A combination of a lead Combine the effects of lead and lag
network and a lag network networks

To add a lead-lag network, add separate lead and lag networks.

To configure a lead or lag network for your compensator, use one of the following options:

• Specify the pole and zero locations. Placing the pole and zero further apart increases
the amount of phase angle change.

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• Specify the maximum amount of phase angle change and the frequency at which this
change occurs. The app automatically computes the pole and zero locations.

When graphically changing pole and zero locations for a lead or lag compensator, in the
editor plot, you can drag the pole and zeros independently.

Notch Filters
If you know that your system has disturbances at a particular frequency, you can add a
notch filter to attenuate the gain of the system at that frequency. The notch filter transfer
function is:

s2 + 2x1wn s + wn2
s2 + 2x2wn s + wn2

where

• ωn is the natural frequency of the notch.

• The ratio ξ2/ξ1 sets the depth of the notch.

To configure a notch filter for your compensator, in the Compensator Editor dialog box,
you can specify the:

• Natural Frequency — Attenuated frequency

• Notch Depth and Notch Width