CHAPTER TWO: TYPES OF IDIOMS

I. Definition of Idiom

1. The Creation of Idiom

A study of language in general asks whether there are any special
features that every language holds. C.F. Hockett explains, “There are
certain matters which are relevant both in understanding how a language
works at a given time and also in connection with linguistic change. One
clear example of this is idiom-formation.” 14 Every language retains
idioms with the specialized features in linguistic forms. Idiom is
functional and is one of the manifold figurative speeches in linguistics. It
is commonly being used by the people of a particular region or country
for informal and formal, spoken and written purposes. And yet, while
trying to define the idiom, it is still remains to be complicated and tough
to debate upon a precise scope or limitation of it even today.

It is interesting to know how the creation of idiom has taken place.

According to Hockett, “the mere occurrence of a nonce-form for the first
time does not in itself constitute the creation of a new idiom. An
additional ingredient is required: something more or less unusual either
about the structure of the newly-produced nonce-form, or about the
attendant circumstances, or both, which the form memorable. As we go
about the business of living, we constantly meet circumstances which are
not exactly like anything in our previous experience. When we react via

14
Hockett, C. F., A Course in Modern Linguistics, oxford & IBH, Indian Edn., l970,
Delhi, p. 303
12
speech to such partially new circumstances, we may produce a phrase or
an utterance which is understandable only because those who hear it are
also confronted by the new circumstances. Alternatively, an individual
may react to conventional circumstances with a bit of speech which is
somewhat unconventional — once again being understood because of
context. Given any such novelty, either of expression or of circumstances
or of both, the event bestows special meaning on the linguistic form
which is used, or the latter becomes idiomatic.”15

The current information from the internet also adds to that, “This
collocation — words commonly used in a group — changes the definition
of each of the words that exists. As an expression, the word-group
becomes a team, so to speak. That is, the collocated words develop a
socialized meaning as a whole and an idiom is born.”16 Similar to that,
John Saeed defines “… an idiom as words collocated together which
become fossilized, and fixed over time.” 17 According to the detailed
introduction of the Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms (the rest: ODEI),
“Historically, pure idioms form the end-point of a process by which
word-combinations first establish themselves through constant re-use,
then undergo figurative extension and finally petrify or congeal.”18

All the above views put emphasis on the passing of TIME. Let us have
some examples of phrasal idioms in English for easy understanding, “in

15
Ibid., p. 304
16
The on-line Encyclopedia Wikipedia also shows some ideas on the definition of
idiom ; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/idiom
17
Saeed, John I., Semantics, 2nd Ed., Oxford, 2003, Blackwell, p.60
18
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xii
13
the name of law”. How did it turn into an idiom? At the beginning did it
have any particular meaning? Its meaning could have been very simple at
least in a sentence at first. But with the passing of TIME, people might
have put emphasis on the meaning by the authority of general use and
often used it in connection with their favorite issues. Accordingly, it
would have turned into a common phrase belonging to the category of an
idiom. Let us see two more examples, “little strokes fell great oaks,”
belonging to ‘saying’ in the present classification, and “those were the
days!” belonging to ‘sentence idiom’. How were these two expressions
turned into an idiom? There does not seem to be anything unusual about
the form of the utterance. These two above expressions perhaps did not
convey anything special in the past, but later on it certainly assumed
unique connotations. Along with frequent use, different circumstances can
also be a factor in making idiom-formation. For the rest, as guessed
normally, might have passed the process as the first instance to be fixed as
an idiom.

Hockett says, “in every living language, new idioms are constantly being
created, some destined to occur only once or twice and then to be
forgotten, others due to survive for a long time. … But any actual new
coinage may constitute a change, no matter how small, in the grammatical
systems of the language, and in the course of time the cumulative effect of
many such small changes can be great. Thus it is that idiom formation is
also an important matter in historical linguistics.”19 Therefore, in order to
become an idiom, there has to be close historical, geographical and
cultural forces associated with it.

19
Hockett, C. F., ibid., p. 303
14
 People living in different cultural regions with dissimilar history may not
completely understand particular expressions like idioms. Let us now talk
of using idioms in ‘SPACE’. Let us ask: how did the Westerners, holding
the Christian belief, understand the Buddha’s teaching or the Zen
Buddhism of the Orient, long time before the Buddhism was transmitted
there? In that sense we have to possess the common or similar
geographical and cultural base with the person in a talk so that people
may conceptually not misunderstand their talk. Those common
geographical or spatial factors can play great role in people’s
communication and conversation.

Apart from time and space, in the creation of an idiom, there seems to be
another factor and that is of human-class relating to social and cultural
division. For example, there are words like online, offline, window, enter-
key, space-bar, IP address and so on. Today’s young generation indulges
largely into computer world such as computer games, internet chat,
emailing, making homepage or own space and so on. They are using and
coining new words. So the older generation or anyone who is not much
interested in that field, finds the computer world new and strange.
Therefore they hardly understand the words used for computer or internet.
This kind of miscommunication may occur due to the cultural factor or
differences in habit, tendency or daily routine. Besides, the social classes
may also divide people. According to the level of knowledge, power,
money or beauty, people naturally and frequently communicate with each
other within their close categories in the society. In general, one links a
social class to a set of linguistic formations. In the ancient times,
partitions between social classes were more obvious than in the modern

15
 times. But even today some kind of social gap is still visible, although
mass-media like television, newspaper, and internet is available in the
society.
Along with these two kinds of geographical and socio-cultural
background, we at last got some idea that the creation of idiom is totally
dependent on the common use by people and its effect in the society. It is
well related to the trend in verbal communication, or all written works of
writers. It does need time to be set up in mind of people as well.

2. The Definition of Idiom

Though to explore this issue is quite close to the fist subchapter that is
The Creation of Idiom, it would be worthwhile to obtain knowledge on
the specialty of idiom. Idiom is generally known by the common
specialized form which is different from the literal meaning in a sentence.
However, an etymological analysis is preferable to begin with the
definition of idioms. Thus ‘idio-’ and ‘-ma’ are two parts of the word
‘idiom’. The former20 denotes one’s own, separate, or distinct; the latter21
forming a noun is a substantive suffix indicating the result of verbal
action. The term IDIOM, therefore, denotes ‘peculiarity’, especially
‘peculiarity in language’. It was originally derived from Greek ‘idiōmat-’
and ‘idiōma’ and then Latin word ‘idioma’. At last it was derived directly
or from the French word ‘idiome’ in late 16th century.

20
Ernest Klein, A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language,
Vol. I. a-k; Elsevier Pub.; 1966, London, p. 767
21
Ibid., Vol. II. l-z, p. 918
16
 Roodbergen defines “idioms as a technical term for any complex
formation, word, phrase or sentence whose meaning cannot be explained
on the basis of its constituents.”22 The introduction in ODEI sheds light
on this issue, “The best known approach to the definition of idiomaticity,
and one which linguists as well as dictionary-makers have helped to
popularize, fastens on the difficulty of interpreting idioms in terms of the
meanings of their constituent words. Definitions such as the following are
representative of this approach:
… Groups of words with set meaning that cannot be calculated by adding
up the separate meanings of the parts.
… Peculiarity of phraseology having meaning not deducible from those of
the separate words …”23

In addition, Radha Madhab states “idioms-formation in a spoken

language indicates a lively way of expressing the specific ideas under
specific environs. And these idiomatic expressions, be they semantically
excellent or structurally peculiar ones with inordinate audio-effect on the
hearers, constitute the idiomatic character of a given expression.”24 In the
parallel manner, Ramachandrudu comments, “an idiom is defined as a
form of expression, construction, phrase etc., peculiar to a language, a
peculiarity of phraseology approved by usage and often having a meaning
other than its grammatical or logical one.” 25 Although the theories

22
Roodbergrn (1974), Patañjali’s Vyākaraṇa-Mahābhāṣya Bahuvrīhi-dvandvnika,
Intro. X1-iii fn. 181; this is referred in Idioms in Kāśikā, p. 427 fn. 1.
23
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xii
24
Dash, R.M., Idioms in Kāśikā, Pratibha Prakashan: 1st Ed., 1996, Delhi, p. 427
25
Ramachandrudu, P., Sanskrit Idioms, Phrases and Suffixational Subtleties,
Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, 2002, Tirupati, p. xxv
17
observed above are slightly different, the central part is much close to
each other.

According to Jon Wright, One of the reasons idiomatic language is

difficult to translate is because it is the area of language closest to
culture.26 The recent on-line Encyclopedia, Wikipedia also throws light
on the definition of idiom, “an idiom is generally a colloquial metaphor
— a term which requires some foundational knowledge, information, or
experience, to use only within a culture where parties must have common
reference. Idioms are therefore not considered a part of the language, but
rather a part of the culture. As cultures are typically localized, idioms
are often not useful outside of that local context. However some idioms
can be more universally used than others, and they can be easily
translated, metaphorical meaning can be more easily deduced.”27 This
widened view could be the conclusion in the present sub-chapter. Though
fixing of definition of idiom is not so easy; to stop our exploration of
discovering new fields hereafter is not proper. Therefore the argument on
the concept of idiom-definition is currently being done without boundary
or limit as an interesting issue “on-line”.

Let us again observe the above different definitions from a common

English dictionary, comparing the modern definition to that of Pāli for the
better understanding of their relevance. For this study I borrow the

26
Jon Wright, Idioms Organiser-organised by metaphor, topic and key word, Global
ELT, 2002, Boston, p. 10
27
http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/idiom
18
 methodology of the Webster’s dictionary28 so that idiomatic expressions
can be arranged, and idiomatic value of Pāli can be pointed out. The
following Five significant definitions more or less cover all kinds of
different views on the definition of idioms.

1. The language or dialect of a people, region, class etc.

2. The usual way in which the words of a language are joined together to
express thought.
3. An accepted phrase, construction or expression contrary to the usual
patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal.
4. The style of expression that is characteristic of an individual; such as the
idiom of Carlye.
5. A characteristic style as in art or music.

Along with Ramachandrudu’s view and two kinds of illustrations in the

detailed introduction of ODEI, Roodbergen’s statement at the beginning
agrees with the category no. 3. However, the definition of Radha Madhab,
the author of Idioms in Kāśikā, an Indian Sanskrit scholar, seems to
include all the five categories as well as the latest definition found in the
on-line Encyclopedia Wikipedia. The view of the on-line Encyclopedia
Wikipedia seems to have the most extended concept. It suggests more
potential to interpret idioms in any language in general. It is due to this

28
Webster’s New World Dictionary: by Macmillan & Co Ltd. 1962, London; the
Webster’s Dictionary is certainly worthy for this work out of diverse dictionaries that I
have come across. There are so many English dictionaries available in the market in
reference to the meaning of idioms. They are mostly identical though they are more or
less different according to their characteristics or standards such as Oxford English
Dictionary, Cambridge English Dictionary, Collins Cobuild English Dictionary etc.
19
understanding, the idioms are not only considered as a part of a language,
but rather a part of a culture.

Let us first observe the category no. 1 and 4 to find their relevance to
Pāli. In the Buddha’s journey to impart Dhamma, he came across people,
as commented above, from different dialects, regions and of various
personalities literate or illiterate. In every language or dialect the Buddha
saw many peculiar cases with their favorite patterns in set formations and
in idiomatic expressions. To develop the intellect of these people, the
Buddha had to use many dialects and many literary devices. The Buddhist
canon today became a great linguistic and cultural treasure to trace things
related to the dialects29 of a people, region, class and so on. In relation to
Pāli, it can safely be posited that it was actually the Buddha’s stylistic
words itself. By means of his wisdom and logical or systematic
classification, the Pāli canon had been decorated with many layers of
thoughts and ideas. The idiomatic expressions are, therefore, very closely
related to the Buddha’s moral, philosophical and psychological teachings.

30
For example, the word ‘saṃyojana’ meant only ‘union’ or
‘conjunction’ in the then existing society. After it was adopted it by the
Buddha, its meaning changed into a psychological and moral connotation
meaning ‘fetter’ or ‘bond’. It started being reinterpreted as something that
binds a person to the wheel of transmigration (saṃsāra). See the term

29
Vit Bubenik, The Structure and Development of Middle Indo-Aryan Dialects, 1st
Ed., Motilal Banarsidass, 1996, Delhi, p. 3; “there is no reason to doubt that long
before the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra there could have been a dialect in
Magadha.”
30
D. I. 156; DA. I. 312; A. I. 231, 233; M. I. 9; S. I. 23, etc.; there are 10 fetters tying
beings to the wheel of existence. For details see chapter 4.
20
‘sotāpanna’31 meaning ‘one who has entered into the stream’. Here the
‘sota’ does not simply mean stream but the stream denoting the Noble
Eightfold Path32, is much related to morals or ethics. It is the first stage in
the realization of Nibbāna. K.M. Gupta especially stated on this, “For Pāli,
the subject involved is highly psychological and partly philosophical
being abstract, due to which the issue of meaning is very subtle though
the master used the then existing vocabulary with redefined meanings to
explain the doctrine which had sprung from the mind of the Buddha
himself, which can be called the Buddha’s idiolect rooted in idiosyncrasy
of himself.” 33 We can, therefore, observe that Pāli is comparatively
applicable to two characteristics such as no. 1 and no. 4 out of the five.

The Southern Buddhism, sometimes called Theravāda Buddhism, is

based upon Pāli canon and developed mostly in the South Asia. Many
things are displayed in Pāli canon, which performs their specific cultural
role in a variety of fields like music, art, literature, play and so on. For
example, in the Sāmmaññaphala sutta (D2) we come across musical
instruments such as kettledrums, tabors, horns, cymbals and tom-toms.34
Pāli thus contains the category no. 5 as well.

31
D. I. 156; sota + ā + √pada (to go)
32
D. II. 216, 353; III. 102, 128, 284, 286; S. V. 421; M. III. 71; sammā diṭṭhi (right
understanding), sammā saṅkappa (right thought), sammā vācā (right speech), sammā
kammanta (right action), sammā ājīva (right livelihood), sammā vāyāma (right effort),
sammā sati (right mindfulness), sammā samādhi (right concentration).
33
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 205
34
D. I. 79, “seyyathā pi puriso addhāna-magga-paṭipanno so suṇeyya bheri-saddam
pi mutiṅga-saddam pi saṅkha-paṇava-deṇḍima-saddam pi” (suppose a person
travelling along a highway would hear the sounds of kettledrums, tabors, horns,
cymbals and tom-toms)
21
 Before going for an example for the second definition mentioned earlier
(the usual way in which the words of a language are joined together to
express thought), some disputable matters on its definition need to be
stated. If looked into a little more carefully, one then finds something
strange to accept it as a definition of idiom. Though on the face of it, this
definition seems workable and also with a wide scope. And yet it becomes
very complicated to put some expressions in this category. The second
definition assigns any statement expressing some thought in speaking and
writing as Idiomatic. It needs, therefore, more additional explanation to
make people understand this definition. Let us try to know what the
specialty of the second definition is. It may be the situation or condition
that would make difference. In this second definition there can be always
possibility to be able to be idiomatic expression in some extent. So many
confused cases to fix difficult to idiomatic expressions may be carried by
this unsealed definition. And so it may also make vague of discussion
about the definition of idioms. Let us now see an example for the second
definition in the D. There is a phrasal idiom, “aññamaññassa uju-
vipaccanīka-vādā”35. It is frequently repeated and appears in the Pāli
suttas in a specific situation where people argue with each other.

For the definition no. 3 as a special character of idiom, let us study an

36
example for that is the “brahma-jāla” which is translated as “the
Supreme Net”. Only with the word itself, none can decipher a meaning. It
requires some knowledge about its background. The term ‘brahma’ means
‘divine’ or ‘most excellent’ and the ‘jāla’, simply ‘a net’. The word ‘net’
35
D. I. 1, “holding opinions in direct contradiction one to the other”; this appears 3
times only in the Brahmajāla sutta (D1).
36
D. I. 46
22
 seems to be metaphorical being usually used for holding, carrying or
covering something. The Buddha used this term for not less than sixty-
two kinds of views or opinions that human beings can have in their
perception throughout their present, past and future. Man is an animal of
views. So Buddha explained all different views in detail in the first sutta
of the D and then gave it a name: “brahma-jāla”.

In this manner we can figure out that Pāli is able to cover all the five
categories of definition of IDIOM elaborated upon by the modern
linguists or grammarians. Despite all this, the debate is still going on in
search of concrete solution and clarity. Hence, in dealing with idioms in
the D in the present study, much broader explanations and standards need
to be evolved to collect and subsequently classify the idiomatic
expressions.

3. Idiom-Formation of Pāli
What is the language Pāli? Scholars generally are of the opinion that Pāli
is an archaic Prakrit and a middle Indian language. Pāli is a mixture of
various dialects spoken somewhere in the Indian peninsula, which are
descendants of one of the Old Indo-Ariyan languages. According to
Junghare, “It is very closely related to both Vedic and Sanskrit, although
by no means identical with either one of them.”37 This language was
written in various scripts. The Pāli canon was first recorded in Ceylon in
the first century B.C. It was put in Sinhala characters — by stenciling ōla

37
Indira Yashwant Junghare, Topics in Pāli Historical Phonology, Motilal
Banarsidass, 1979, Delhi, pp. 1-3
23
leaves with stylus and treating with dummālā oil.38 On the other hand,
Winternitz comments on the oral tradition of Pāli, “Pāli-canon are
supposed to have been handed down at first orally until under the
Singhalese king Vaṭṭagāmini (BC 104-88), in the first century B. C.39
these were committed to writing. In the opinion of the Buddhists of
Ceylon it is the canon which was compiled during the third council,
brought to Ceylon by Mahinda and recorded under Vaṭṭagāmini.”40 R.
Gombrich adds his view to that, “There is no archaeological evidence for
the use of writing in India during the early phase of Buddhism, that is,
before the time of Aśoka.”41 He again advises, “Many of the stylistic
features of the Pāli canonical texts indicate an oral origin.”42 Mark Allon
refers A.B. Lord’s statement, “The formula is the product of the
constraints of rapid oral verse.” 43 According to K.M. Gupta, “The
meaningful sounds were the source of any language especially, when
writing was not the medium at all and oral medium was thoroughly
followed by all ancient speech-communities.”44 Many of idioms collected
in the present study are of the nature of metaphors and similes which have
been used in colloquial or spoken Pāli.

38
Allen, G.F., The Buddha’s Philosophy, George Allen and Unwin LTD, 1959,
London, p. 69
39
AA. I. 92
40
Winternitz, Maurice, A history of Indian literature Vol. II., Motilal Banarsidass,
Rep. in 1993, Delhi, p. 10
41
Gombrich, R., How Mahāyāna began, the Buddhist Forum, Vol. I, Ed. T.
Skorupski, London, p. 27; cf. Vit Bubenik, The Structure and Development of Middle
Indo-Aryan Dialects, 1st Ed., Motilal Banarsidass, 1996, Delhi, p. 2; the first authentic
document of dialectal differentiation which enables a back-projection to the state of
affairs in the 6th/ 5th C. B.C. are the dialectical inscriptions in which Aśoka addressed
his subjects in the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
42
Ibid., pp. 21-22; R. Gombrich, Recovering the Buddha’s message, the Buddhist
Forum. Vol. I, Ed. T. Skorupski, London, pp. 7-8
43
Allon, M., Style and Function, IIBR of ICABS, 1997, Tokyo, p. 11
44
Gupta, K.M., Linguistics in Pāli. Sundeep, 2003, Delhi, p. 34
24
 Let us direct our attention towards the present situation of the use of Pāli,
so that we can observe the specialty of idiom-formation in Pāli.
Nowadays Pāli is no more a spoken language in any region. It has
remained only within a religious boundary, i.e. chanting of Sūtra and
Vinaya, Dhamma-preaching, study of Buddhism in the academic field and
Buddhist associations. However, in countries such as Sri-Lanka, Myanmar,
Tai-Land, Laos, and Cambodia belonging to Southern Buddhism in
particular, Pāli had played a major role in their cultural and spiritual world
through the ages.45 Even to this day, Pāli is flowing in their blood and is
constantly creating history not in the name of tradition but in the practical
life, exerting great influence. That is a language that influences or governs
human psychology and culture. The point is that Pāli, the language of
Buddhist canon, is still popular, even in the western countries. It is the
modern time human intellect becomes quite widely generalized. The
Buddha’s intuitive message is today influencing the daily life of human
beings all over the world in the form of psychology, philosophy, religion,
practice or even cultural activities too.

During his time, the Buddha imparted his excellent knowledge and
wisdom to the people through this language. Pāli was the common tool or
language to communicate his thoughts to those societies. M.G. Dhadphale
has furnished some seminal ideas so that we gain more concrete
understanding about this matter, “the Buddha as a social and religious
reformer could use only one instrument of communication viz. Language.
For about forty-five years of his active career he was primarily speaking

45
The Northern Buddhist countries have been excluded from Pāli point of view and
that is being discussed in the present study.
25
to the people. In his teaching tours he came across people using different
dialects, people literate and illiterate and of various dispositions. To
instruct these people he had to use many dialects and many literary
devices. The teacher, whose only instrument of imparting his message
was speech, must have realized the efficacy of language and also its
shortcomings.”46 In this processes, we can guess, the Pāli language was
probably born with idioms of numerous shape.

However, the formation and existence of idioms in a certain language or

languages may be examined from different points of view. Radha Madhab
states “A certain linguistic form would mean in a certain way differently
from what its components should have meant.”47 According to Gupta,
“What we call idiomatic expression in Pāli in reference to certain noun-
phrases though carry meaning, is related to other parts of the speech in a
sentence, though within such phrase, it may be a sentence itself. So for
Pāli, the meaning in stages is important to understand the kāraka (case or
noun inflection) relation exhibited by words acting as nouns and therefore,
the study of words is equally important since many words are not simple
words, but are phrases and in some cases convey the meaning of an
independent sentence.”48

Herein Gupta puts especial emphasis on the Pāli word49 itself with deep
meaning behind along with syntactic relation. That is to say, even a word

46
Dhadphale, M.G., Some Aspects of (Buddhist) Literary Criticism as gleaned. from
Pāli Sourses, Adreesh Prakashan, 1975, Mumbai, p. 2
47
Dash, R.M., Idioms in Kāśikā, Pratibha Prakashan: 1st Ed., 1996, Delhi, p. 428
48
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 57
49
Cf. R. G. Bhandarkar, Wilson Philological Lectures, Asian Education Services,
Delhi, 1991, p. 276, 292, 294; he estimated that two-fifths of the Pāli vocabulary are
26
in Pāli is suitable to idiomatic expressions. Let us see an example: there is
a word ‘antevāsin’50 which initially and literally only means ‘staying
nearby’. But it signifies something else from the literal meaning of the
individual words. And it eventually indicates ‘a pupil’ or ‘a student’ who
stays near master to receive instruction. By this example we can recover
something new by way of idiomatic formation or expression. That is the
relative compound (bahubbīhi samāsa). As said just above, it signifies
something else from the literal sense, e. g. lohitamakkhitasīso51; whose
head is smeared with blood. It means a person. This kind of the relative
compound is very close to metaphorical expression. The word is only the
sign pointing to a meaning. There is a problem to define what a word is,
and distinguish it from a phrase or a sentence. Gupta points out, “also
there are words or phrases such as manasikāra, sotāpanna, anāgāmi etc.,
each of which is treated mostly as a full word, but in fact represents a
compound or a phrase.”52 In syntactical point of view, on the other hand,
in Pāli the use of absolute locative, genitive, or accusative are really rare.
Passive participles or gerundives are also highly idiomatic. We will see
the examples at the end of this second chapter.

Regarding idiom-formation in Pāli there is another point for

consideration. In the prose portions of Pāli canonical sutta texts,
individual words are used to form groups of words which are then used as

composed of pure Sanskrit words and the remaining, altered in one or other modes. So
several words unknown to Sanskrit, but formed from Sanskrit roots, have come into
use.
50
D. I. 1; This short compound word ‘antevāsin’ is repeatedly and numerously used,
appearing 39 times in different case-endings in the D.
51
“lohitena makkhitaṃ sīsaṃ (atthi)”
52
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 290
27
fixed units of meaning in a variety of contexts. These fixed units, which
can also be called phrases or expressions, may at one level express or
depict a given concept, action or event. These units are then used to build
up larger units of meaning which in turn may be used in a variety of
contexts as fixed units.53 The term ‘formula’ merely refers to the fact that
the group of words (large or small) is regularly used to express or depict a
given concept, action or event.54 According to Mark Allon, “One of the
most dominant characteristics of the prose portions of Pāli canonical sutta
texts is the use of standardized phrases or passages to express or depict a
given concept, action or event. These standardized phrases have been
variously called ‘formulae’, ‘clichés’, ‘stock expressions’, ‘stock phrases’
and ‘stereotyped phrases’. This diversity of terminology in part reflects a
general uncertainty as to what actually constitutes a ‘formula’, ‘stock
pharase’ and so on, and whether, say, a ‘formula’ is different from a ‘stock
phrase’ or ‘stock expression’.”55

We probably can agree with this interrogative statement. However, in

Pāli canon it will be quite complicated to generalize this terminology and
to fix it in those above categories. Even if possible, it will be a hard task,
because even Mark Allons shows many different words as formula, stock
expression, stock phrase and stereotyped phrase which need to be defined.
Extending the same argument further, more terms must also be added to it
such as phrase idiom, stock idiom, clause idiom, sentence idiom etc.
Besides, the problem of metrical length or size of terminology or number
of occurring words, phrases, clauses and sentences etc. are to be
53
Allon, M., ibid., p. 9
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
28
considered. We must at least define some scope for the linguistic study so
as to prevent such chaotic state. It will be helpful for the matter of
defining many terms. Mark Allon has also concluded, “The term does not
refer to a unit of specific size, structure or location within the text, but to
the function or use of that group of words within the text or tradition. And
in this sense we can have formulae within oral or literate traditions. This
is the sense in which I use the word ‘formula’. It is regarded as being
synonymous with stock, stereotyped, or formulaic phrase, expression, or
passage.” 56 Milman Parry defines the formula as “a group of words
which is regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to
express a given essential idea”.57 This definition of formula seems to be
better. However, in the present study for many diverse idioms in different
figures of speech and repetitive idioms, the term ‘formula’ or ‘fixed
expression’ would be used as representative terms.

The Pāli, in fact, is a language covered with idioms. ALL THE

DHAMMAS THE BUDDHA PRECHED CAN BE THOUGHT OF
BEING IDIOMANTIC. W. Geiger states, “Pāli is a Middle-Indian IDIOM,
which is characterized by the same peculiarities which distinguish the
Middle-Indian from the Old-Indian.”58 Herein the word ‘idiom’ is used
but it has a reference to Otto Franke’s work: Pāli and Sanskrit. But there
is no further statement about why he put the word ‘idiom’ in his book.
However, we are not certain whether that word ‘idiom’ is to be

56
Ibid., pp. 13-4
57
Cf. ibid., p. 10; H. Lloyd-Jone, Becoming Homer, New York Review of Books,
XXXIX, no.5, March 5, p. 52
58
Geiger, W., Pāli Literature and Language, Eng. Trans. by Batakrishna, G.,
Munshiram Manoharlal, Ed. 2004, Delhi, p. 1
29
understood as ‘language’ in general. M. Winternitz also described, “The
Buddha makes use of the same IDIOMS and phrases as his opponent.”59
According to T.W. Rhys Davids, “Buddha, like other Indian teachers of
his time, taught by conversation. A highly educated man (according to the
education current at the time), speaking constantly to men with similar
education, he followed the literary habit of his time by embodying his
doctrines in set phrases, sūtras, on which he enlarged on different
occasions in different ways. On the absence of books — for though
writing was widely known, the lack of writing materials made any lengthy
written books impossible60 — such sūtras were the recognized form of
preserving and communicating opinion. These particular ones were not in
Sanskrit, but in the ordinary conversational IDIOM of the day, that is
to say, in a sort of Pāli.”61

As observed in the first chapter the main character of the Pāli canon is
the Buddha himself. The Dhamma consists of a lot of material involving
psychology, philosophy, religion, ethics and so on. We have to consider
more closely his particular personal style of speech and the meaning
behind it, and we may then gradually understand why Pāli language itself
is IDIOMATIC. Therefore we can conclude according to the above
scholars that they certainly connote that the language Pāli is IDIOM

59
Winternitz, Maurice, ibid., p. 68
60
Most probably ‘writing’ was used only for memoranda. But the earliest records of
any extant were the Asoka Edicts, and they were written on stones.
61
Rhys Davids, T.W., Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. I. Eng. Trans. of the D, 1st
Indian Edn., 2000, Delhi, p. xvi
30
itself 62 from the point of historical and cultural background and
linguistics.

II. Types of Idioms

Noam Chomsky states, “Stimulated by appropriated and continuing

experience, the language faculty creates a grammar that generates
sentences with formal and semantic properties.”63 Thus semantics and
syntax rules or conventions determine the meaning of the sentences in a
language. It is understood by way of the communicator’s intention. The
important criteria for classifying idioms in Pāli could be analyzed in two
ways of syntax which is close to grammar and semantics that is meaning.
Gupta points out, “All the words are related to each other both by way of
syntax and also meaning. Syntax shows the relation of words in a
sentence which is a unit of expression or proposition. Semantics describes
the meaning of words and sentences in various ways.”64 The Buddha, in
his journey to impart the Dhamma, had also used a number of splendid
expressions to make his preaching comprehensible with the help of
syntactic as well as semantic factors.

Idioms in the D contain many structural varieties of syntax and

semantics. For the classification of idioms from the point of view of
semantics and syntax, all idiomatic expressions may not be mutually

62
Cf. Jon Wright, Idioms Organiser-organised by metaphor, topic and key word,
Global ELT, 2002, Boston, p. 9, “All native speaker English is idiomatic”
63
Noam Chomsky, Reflection on Language, Pantheon Books, 1975, NY, p. 36
64
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 8
31
exclusive. What it means is that the two factors, semantics and syntax, can
overlap each other which can be called as syntactico-semantic.65 Here the
term syntactico-semantic denotes difficulty in separating the syntactic
component from semantic that exist in a sentence in Pāli. That is to say,
the syntactic analysis always works in association with the semantic. The
degree of overlap between two linguistic terms may only differ in the D.
For example, there is a term “puthujjano”66. It is a compound word
joining adjective term ‘puthu’ with masculine noun ‘jana’: puthu (adj.,
separated) + jana (m., person). According to the present study, this
compound word is NP belonging to phrasal idiom in syntax and it
overlaps with Icp belonging to semantics as well.

Let us see one more example, “etth’ eva te sattadhā muddhā

phalissati”67. This is quite often used while giving somebody an oath of
desecration or warning. If the word structure is analyzed, then it comes
out as below.

A (adv.) + A (emphatic part.) + Sm68 (2nd pron. gen. sg.) + C (the object
of prep. ‘into’)69 + S (m. nom. sg.) + V (fut. 3rd. sg., √phal, to split)

65
Cf. Sharma, R.N., Aṣṭādhyāyī of Paṇini-Vol. I, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1987, Delhi,
pp.57-8; Gupta, K.M., ibid., pp. 60-71; in these texts we can see the term syntactic-
semantic or semantico-syntactic.
66
D. I. 3, “worldling”; this appears 29 times in the D.; ref. PED. p. 466
67
D. I. 94, “Your head will split into seven pieces right here”; this appears 4 times in
the D.
68
Subject modifier: In grammar, a modifier (or qualifier) is an optional element in
phrase structure or clause structure; the removal of the modifier typically doesn't
affect the grammaticality of the construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an
entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and provide more accurate definitional
meaning for another element. In English, adverbs and adjectives generally function as
modifiers, but they also have other functions.
32
 » S+V+C+A
If it is put in a syntactic structure like in English grammar, then this
sentence comes under [S+V+C+A] in clausal idiom belonging to syntax
and also overlaps with Fhp70 and Ist belonging to semantics. Accordingly
all sorts of idioms in the D would be classified under these two technical
terms, syntax and semantics in the present study. Nonetheless, many
idioms under the present classification are nothing but the Pāli figures of
speech in semantics but not so complicated.

1. Syntax
Syntax is a matter of grammatical concern. Syntax covers the entire parts
of speech in a sentence. Syntactic relation among the words exposes the
meaning which depends on the context and the verbs as well. “It is helpful
to determine what kind of pattern an idiom corresponds to, how an idiom
can be broken down into elements smaller than itself, and what other
elements precede, follow or interrupt it.”71 According to ODEI, “the
information about syntax is essential for a variety of reasons. First, it
enables the person to compare like with like and to build up a general
categorization of idioms. Second, it is important for the one to be able to
locate and identify the exact point or points in idioms at which lexical
choice can operate.”72 Besides, “in this way, the syntactic relationship of

69
The term “sattadhā” is an adverbial complement. The suffix ‘dhā’ is added to the
numerals in the sense of ‘ways, times, piece’, or ‘-fold’ to make an adverb.
70
The capital letter ‘F’ in Fhp means an item belonging to ‘figures of speech’ in
semantics.
71
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xxvii
72
Ibid.
33
the parts to the whole is made clear. Such guidance has the further
advantage that it helps to explain structural changes or transformations.”73

In the word-structure in Pāli, there are four parts of speech such as noun
(nāma), verb (ākhyāta), prefix (upasagga) and indeclinable (avyaya) or
particle (nipāta). Pāli is a highly inflexional language. The uninflected
form of a Pāli-word is called stem (liṅga; e.g. buddha) which is again
derived from verbal roots (dhātu; e.g. √buddh). There are also certain
uninflected words used in sentences like indeclinable words including
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections and so on. In
order to modify, intensify and sometimes totally change their meaning,74
some verbs and nouns are derived with the prefixes or suffixes75. That is
to say, many words in Pāli are formed from the roots along with prefix
and suffix. The form of the verb is the first stage of its (root’s)
transformation and then the verb takes the conjugational sign to indicate
specific function in a sentence. On the other hand, the nouns are generated
from the verbs by means of some suffixes, passing through the primary
derivational process (kitaka; verbal root + suffix = subs.) and the
secondary derivational process [taddhita; subs. (or subs. + suffix) +
suffix].

According to M.R. Kale, “under syntax in Pāli, the area of study is wide
covering the eight cases of nouns and pronouns, participles and gerundial
formations including infinitive mood and tenses and moods of verbs and
also indeclinable like adverbs, particles, conjunctions and so on. But
73
Ibid.
74
Joshi. J.R. & Koparkar, D.G., Introduction to Pāli, Uni. of Pune, 1985, Pune, p. 73
75
In Pāli the term ‘upassga’ means all three of prefix, affix, and suffix in general.
34
among all, chief area is the study of kāraka (the relation of noun and verb
in a sentence, case-relation) relation where grammar and practical usage
meet.”76 Kale insists that the kāraka relation is the heart of syntax in all
inflectional languages and so in Pāli. Adding to it, Gupta says, “All nouns
in a sentence are said to be governed by syntax relations and represented
by their inflectional suffixes denoting particular type of kāraka and
through this, different words which are used as nouns show their position
with the subject through kāraka relation.”77 This is the very usage of
kāraka suffixes. The case or inflectional-ending that is called as ‘vibhatti’
(Skt. vibhakti) are grouped under eight categories which govern nominal
endings. It is the structural expression of sentence with syntactic
components. In a sentence a noun in nominative case generally shows its
gender (m./nt./fem.) and number (sg./pl.), for example, ‘naro’ with the
nominative case ending ‘-o’ indicates the masculine gender and the
singular number.

Pāli language is very flexible and so we could see more than one form of
inflectional signs for the same case that seems to be produced from a
number of dialects.78 This point also denotes that the strict case-ending or
inflectional sign is not very important but the meaning in which speaker
wants to express and the listener’s linguistic nature living in different
regions. Such expression again points out the syntactico-semantic aspect
of the language. There are three grammar texts79 in Pāli: Kaccāyana-

76
Kale, M.R., A Higher Sanskrit Grammar, M/s. Motilal, 1961, Delhi, p. 468
77
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 52
78
Ibid., p. 61
79
Cf. Geiger, W., ibid., pp. 50-55; the exact grammatical works came out on the date
of 12th century first. “That is Kaccāna (some say that it is written before all other Pāli
35
vyākaraṇa, Moggallāna-vyākaraṇa, and Aggavaṃsa’s Saddanīti. Pāli
grammarians mainly composed the grammar for the better understanding
of the Buddha’s teaching. The last one80 is exhaustive in the treatment of
kāraka and is followed in Burma. The Aggavaṃsa mentions six kārakas
only and he quotes that the other two vocative and genitive are not kāraka.

There is the verb separated from the noun due to its role. It indicates
action or state in a sentence. All expressions in any language are governed
by the verb. The meaning of the verb also governs the nominal inflection.
As Speijer comments, “the manifold relations between nouns and verbs or
noun and nouns are signified by cases, by the periphrases of cases, by
compounding.”81 The verb normally shows the tense, person and number.
For example, there is a verb ‘pacati’ (√paca, to cook) meaning the present
tense, the 3rd person and the singular number. Gupta states, “It is tense and
gender that separate the verb from the subject respectively, while person
and number are common to both the subject and the verb. The
specification of the person and the number both in the subject and the
verb ensures that the subject and verbs are bound by concord (sambandha)
irrespective of the place of the words.”82 This concord enables the free

grammars perhaps after 6th century AD and before 11th century AD.). The date of this
book being 1175-1181 AD, second being that of Moggallāna’s in and during 1153-
1186 AD and the third is Aggavaṃsa’s Saddanīti in and during 1154 AD and all these
traditions appear to have sprung up approximately at the same time, the first in India,
the second in Sri-Lanka and the third in Burma.”
80
Cf. ibid., p. 55; EB. VII. P. 276; R.O. Franke has shown the Saddanīti is based on
Kaccayāna. … But Aggavaṃsa utilized for his work also the Sanskrit grammars such
as those of Pāṇini, etc. This work deals with mainly the language of the canonical
literature and the writings of the Ācariyas as well.
81
Speijer, J. S., Sanskrit Syntax, M/s. Motilal, 1973, Delhi, p. 24
82
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 52
36
word-order in Pāli like any other inflectional language.83 A sentence
consists of two parts: subject and predicate. The subject may be a noun,
an adjective, a participle declinable, or even an indeclinable particle.
There must be concordance between subject and predicate. The subject
must always agree with the verb in the predicate in number and person,
e.g. “so gacchati” (he goes), “te gacchanti” (they go), “aham gacchāmi”
(I go), “mayaṃ gacchāma” (we go). And if the predicate is an adjective or
declinable particle, it must agree with the subject in number, gender and
case, e.g. “so bhagavā abhayo” (the Exalted One is fearless), “buddho
loke uppanno” (the Enlightend One is born in the world).

In Pāli there is no fixed word-order. According to A.K. Warder, “In Pāli

word-order is not important. In the normal prose-order of a sentence is:
agent-attribute-patient-action, thus placing the verb usually at the end.
The order however, is very rarely of grammatical value i.e. the agent will
still be the agent even if it follows the patient or the verb, but it is
stylistically important.”84 The Indian stalwart lexicographer Apte gave us
conclusive statements over the issue of word-order, “the grammatical
inflection itself shows the relation in which one word stands to
another … though grammatical order, there is a sort of logical sequence
of ideas… where words must be so arranged so that ideas will follow in
their natural order… natural connection…”85 For Indian grammarians,

83
Ibid.
84
Warder, A. K., Introduction to Pāli, PTS, 1963, London, p. 15
85
Staal, J. F., Word Order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar, D.R. Publishing Co.,
1967, Holland, p. 1
37
 word-order had no importance but kāraka and other grammatical relations
are significant.86

As explained above, Pāli language does not have word-order. The

structural analysis of all components can therefore be shown as if
something unfolded disorderly on the street market. But those disorderly
word-structures can be considered to be very rhythmical, literary or poetic,
being able to express things in a sensitive and beautiful way, with their
own rule or system which is called ‘vibhatti (case)’ and ‘gana
(conjugation)’ to put the meaning in a sentence. The words, phrases,
clauses and sentences with idiomatic expressions in the D would be
analyzed by means of a grammatical code under syntax. However, simple
clauses or sentences having fundamental relation would be only dealt with
for the analysis of the clausal idioms in the present study. They are
classified under two general headings: clausal idiom and phrasal idiom.
Within these two are several dominant sub-categories.

1.1 Clausal Idiom

A clause is a pair or group of words that consist of a subject and a
predicate. However, in Pāli, the subject may not appear openly as a noun
phrase. It may instead be indicated by the verb. For example, there is a
verb ‘vadati (√vad, to say)’. This verb indicates ‘he or she says’ with the
subject. The most basic kind of sentence consists of a single clause and
more complicated sentences may contain multiple clauses, including
clauses contained within clauses. It is generally known that clauses are
often contrasted with phrases. A clause is said to have both a finite verb

86
Ibid., p.60
38
 and its subject, whereas a phrase either contained a finite verb but not its
subject (in which case it is a verb phrase) or does not contain a finite verb.
For the classification of clausal idiom87 the analysis would initially be
done by means of syntax so that we can approach each word with the
grammatical observation. It is the analytical work with Pāli grammar. The
present study would again set up clause patterns or codes according to the
structural patterns in English. So this can be a kind of a comparative study
of syntactical structure between two languages. All the expressions
belonging to the clausal idioms, first of all, are of idiomatic value which
means that they have been brought from idioms in semantics. The
followings are some instances for clausal idioms.

① [S+V+A88]
“evam me sutaṃ”89 (Thus I have heard)
A (adv.) + S (1st pron. instr. sg.) + V (m. nom. sg.; √śru, to listen, pp.)90

② [S+V+C]
“sahitam me, asahitam te”91 (I am consistent. You are not!)

87
Ref. ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, pp. xxix-xxxvii; I have especially drawn a way to
classify the clausal idioms and the phrasal in the D from the ODEI. In addition, I have
also added and subtracted from that for the convenience of this study.
88
An adjunct is a word or group of words that indicates the circumstances of an
action, event or situation. It is usually a prepositional phrase or an adverb group.
According to ODEI, p. xxxii, the adjective can also be adjunct.
89
D. I. 1; this is Ist.
90
Participle has two characters of the verb and adjective in a sentence. It is a form of
a verb and so it is called verbal noun and may also be used as an adjective.
91
D. I. 8; this is an antithetic clausal idiom.
39
 VC92 (nt. nom. sg.; saṃ + √dhā, to put, pp.) + S (1st. pron. instr. /gen. sg.)
+ VC (nt. nom. sg.; a + saṃ + √dhā, to put, pp.) + S (2nd. pron. instr. /gen.
sg.)
The words ‘sahitam’ and ‘asahitam’ are participles and they also work
for the verb in this clause, and so it comes under VC which denotes that
the verb is attached to the complement.

③ [S+V+C+A]
“etth’ eva te sattadhā muddhā phalissati”93 (Your head will split into
seven pieces right here)
A (adv.) + A (emphatic part.) + Sm94 (2nd pron. gen. sg.) + C (the object
of prep. ‘into’)95 + S (m. nom. sg.) + V (fut. 3rd. sg., √phal, to split)

④ [S+V+O]
“idam avoca bhagavā”96 (The Exalted One spoke this)
O (dem. pron. acc. sg.) + V (aor. 3rd. sg.; √vac, to speak) + S (m. nom. sg)

⑤ [S+V+O+A]

92
VC (Verb-Complement) is the code that the verb is attached to the complement. It
is applicable to the participle which usually acts as adj. or the verb in a sentence. The
participle comes here under the case that the complement or adjunct sometimes works
for a verb as there is no particular verb in a sentence. The participles in Pāli take
multiplied roles to compose a sentence structure; In English when asked “happy?” it is
an omitted-form meaning “are you happy?”
93
D. I. 94; this appears 4 times in the D and it belongs to Sg and Ist in semantics.
94
Subject modifier
95
The term ‘sattadhā’ is adverbial complement. The suffix dhā is added to the
numerals in the sense of ‘ways’, ‘times’, ‘piece’, or ‘-fold’ to make adverb.
96
D. I. 46; this is a part of a sentence belonging to Ist.
40
 “pure vacanīyaṃ pacchā avaca, pacchā vacanīyaṃ pure avaca”97 (You
said last what you should have said first, and you said first what should
have said last)
A (indecl.) + O (nt. acc. sg., grd.) + A (indecl.) + SV98 (aor, 2nd, sg.; √vac,
to say)

⑥ [S+V+O+C] (‘that…’: relative clause with objective complement)

“so dhammaṃ deseti ādikalyāṇaṃ majjhe kalyāṇaṃ
pariyosānakalyāṇaṃ sātthaṃ savyaṇjanaṃ”99 (He teaches the Dhamma
that is good in the beginning, good in the middle and good in the end,
possessing the meaning and phrasing)
S (3rd. pron. m. nom. sg.) + O (m. acc. sg.) + V (pres. 3rd. sg., √diś, to
point out, caus.) + C (m. acc. sg., adj.) + [A (m. loc. sg., adv.)] + C (m.
acc. sg., adj.) + C (m. acc. sg., adj.) + C (m. acc. sg., adj.) + C (m. acc. sg.,
adj.)
Let us see the word ‘majjhe’ in the middle of this sentence. It is normally
used adverbially in the locative case. Herein it is modified word over the
next adjective word ‘kalyānaṃ’ but it is not compounded like other words
as ‘ādikalyāṇaṃ’ and ‘pariyosānakalyāṇaṃ’. In the VRI, however, it
appears in the compound word holding its locative case as
‘majjhekalyānaṃ’. If it is so, then there is no problem to make it
compound word acting as C (complement) in this sentence analysis.
Besides, it also has no problem to convey sense. It is eventually better to
concord it with other complements.

97
D. I. 8; this is Fa.
98
The code ‘SV’ is applied to the case where only the verb, indicating the person and
number, appears without particular subjects in a sentence.
99
D. I. 62; this is Ist.
41
1.2. Phrasal Idiom
Phrasal idioms are more common than the clausal in general. A phrase is
a group of words that acts as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.
They are syntactically invariable100, do not have the subject and the verb,
and function as a part of speech like a word or a vocab in a sentence. A
phrase also consists of a word group that is centered on the verbal form
such as infinitive, gerund, or participle. Most phrases have a central word
defining the type of phrase. This word is called the head of the phrase.
Some phrases, however, can be headless. That is to say, phrasal idioms
can be classified by the head in a phrase. It is also significant that all
phrasal idioms function in their turn as the elements in clauses or
sentences, the precise element varying both with the type of phrase and
with particular instances. 101 The following are sub-divisions under
phrasal idioms.

① Noun Phrase (NP)

“bhava-netti” (D. I. 46; the leash that bounds it to existence)
The term ‘netti’ (√nī; to lead) means ‘a leash’ (rajju) or ‘a rope’ in
accordance with the DA 102 . In Buddhism this compound particularly
connotes ‘craving for existence’ (bhava-taṇhā).

“brahma-jālam” (D. I. 46; the Supreme Net)

100
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xxiv
101
Ibid.
102
DA. I. 127-8
42
 The word ‘brahma’ herein denotes ‘supreme’ (seṭṭha) and so it is called
‘the Supreme Net’ indicating ‘the knowledge of omniscience’
(sabbaññuta-ñāṇaṃ).103

② Pronominal Phrase104 (PronP)

“aññamañña” (D. I. 1; one another, each other, mutually)
The term ‘añña’ is a pronoun meaning ‘another’ or ‘other’.

“yaṃ kiñci” (D. I. 110; whatsoever)

The relative pronoun ‘yaṃ’ is sometimes followed by an indefinite
pronoun ‘kiñci’ to express the senses ‘whatsoever’ or ‘whosoever’.

③ Adjectival Phrase (AdjP)

“addhāna-magga-paṭipanno” (D. I. 1; going along a road for journey)
The first two terms ‘addhāna-magga’ are of the same meaning of ‘a road,
high road or a road for journey’. The last term ‘paṭipanno’ is a past
participle and a declinable adjective which denotes ‘going along’. So this
compound indicates ‘going along a road for journey’.

“loma-haṭṭha-jāto” (D. I. 50; bristled, lit. having hairs erect)

The terms ‘haṭṭha’ (√hṛṣ, to bristle, to be delighted) and ‘jāta’ (√jan, to be
born) are past participles denoting together ‘erect or having something
erect’. This compound, therefore, means ‘having hairs erect’ which often
appears as the sign of fear or rapture in Pāli texts.

103
DA. I. 129
104
The case of pronominal phrase is very rare in the D because most pronominal
phrases are also applicable to the clausal structure with a verb in a sentence.
43
 “saṃkhalikhita” (D. I. 63; bright like conch)
The term ‘likkhita’ (√likh, to cut, to write) is a past participle denoting
‘polished’. This phrasal idiom is used to compare a pure life to a conch in
a text. The commentary105 thus explains that it is ‘like bright conch or
clean conch’.

④ Adverbial Phrase (AdvP)

“piṭṭhito piṭṭhito” (D. I. 1; closely behind)
The term ‘piṭṭhito’ is an adverbial expression from the feminine noun
‘piṭṭhi’ meaning ‘(from) behind’. The same word is repeatedly used here
to convey succession.

“paramparā” (D. I. 239; after the other)

In this phrase the same word ‘para’ is repeated to convey adverbial sense.

“bhūtapubba” (D. II. 337; in old times or once or once upon time)
This frequently occurs in the cases before parable.

⑤ Verb Phrase (VP)

“avaṇṇam bhāsati” (D. I. 1; One speaks in dispraise of)
In this phrase the key word is the verb. The verb phrase functions as a
single verb. A group of words function as a single word. Let us see an
example in English, e.g. we lost sight of the ship. However, if the key
word is ‘avaṇṇam’ in accusative case, then this phrase can be the clause in
the form of [S+V+O]. In fact, the verb phrase is very rare in the D.

105
DA. I. 181, “likhita-sankha-sadisa dhota-sankha-sappaṭibhāga”
44
 “kammante payojeyya”106 (D. I. 71; set a business on foot or engage in a
business)
The key word is the verb ‘payojeyya’ in the potential mood. Therefore this
becomes a verb phrase.

⑥ Prepositional Phrase107 (PrepP)

“aneka pariyāyena” (D. I. 1; in many ways;)
The word ‘pariyāya’ denoting ‘way’ or ‘method’ always appears in the
instrumental case in the D. It also works adverbially.

“kim āgamma kim ārabbha”108 ( D. I. 13; about what, concerning what)

The word ‘kim’ is in the accusative case of the interrogative pronoun
‘kiṃ’. The next word ‘āgamma’ is a gerund and adverb. It is synonymous
with the next word ‘ārabbha’ denoting ‘about’ or ‘regarding’.

⑦ Interjectional Phrase (IntP)

“acchariyaṃ … abbhutaṃ” (D. I. 2; It is wonderful! It is marvelous!)
The term ‘acchariyaṃ’ is very frequently combined with a synonymous
word ‘abbhutaṃ’ denoting ‘wonderful, marvelous, or extraordinary’ in the
D. It often comes out in exclamation or surprise as well.

“aho vata” (D. I. 17; O alas!)

106
pa + √yuj (to yoke) + e + eyya, caus. pot. 3rd. sg.
107
In Pāli there are 20 prepositions (upasagga) ā, pa, parā etc. which are prefixed to
the roots. At times, two, three or even more prepositions are added to a root. In a
number of cases the meanings of roots undergo radical change. From the usage, it
appears that some roots take a large number of prepositions and some take only a few.
108
ā + √gam (to go) + ya, ger. and indecl.; ā + √rabh (to begin) + ya, ger. and indecl.
45
 This is a fixed expression giving exclamation of surprise, astonishment or
pain. These two words are indeclinable. The word ‘vata’ is an enclitic
particle which never occurs at the beginning of a sentence.

2. Semantics
Idiomaticity is largely a semantic matter, and that it is manifested in
much the same way in expressions of different structural types.109 W.A.
Ladusaw states that the term semantics covers a wide range of issues
involving the meaning, significance, interpretation and understanding of
language.110 However, the central problem of semantics is the problem of
meaning.111 P.C. Chakravarti defines semantics as the science of meaning
to deal with internal or psychological aspect of language and to show how
particular things are denoted by particular words, how things are named,
how meanings are widened or specialized and so on.112 According to
Eastman, a modern linguist, “semantics
(Greek semantikos, ‘significant’) 113 is the study of the meaning of
linguistic signs — that is, words, expressions, and sentences. Scholars of
semantics try to answer such questions as ‘What is the meaning of (the
word) X ?’ They do this by studying what signs are, as well as how signs
possess significance — that is, how they are intended by speakers, how
they designate (make reference to things and ideas), and how they are

109
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xi
110
Newmayer, F. J., Linguistics- Vol. I: Linguistic Theory: Foundation, Cambridge
Uni. Press, 1988, N. Y., p. 500
111
Bakhle, S. W., Nature of Development of Linguistic Analysis, Datt Sons, 1987,
Nagpur, p. 279
112
Chakravarti, P.C., The Linguistic Speculations of the Hindus, Uni. of Calcutta,
1933, p. 327
113
The word is also derived from the Greek word ‘semaino’ (to signify, to indicate)
and that from ‘sema’ (sign, mark or token).
46
interpreted by hearers. The goal of semantics is to match the meanings of
signs—what they stand for—with the process of assigning those
meanings.”114 It is known that semantics is usually possible to access by
means of the logical and philosophical standpoint in linguistics. He again
said, “semantics is studied from philosophical (pure) and linguistic
(descriptive and theoretical) approaches, plus an approach known as
general semantics. Philosophers look at the behavior that goes with the
process of meaning. Linguists study the elements or features of meaning
as they are related in a linguistic system. General semanticists concentrate
on meaning as influencing what people think and do.” 115 Stephen
Ullmann suggests, “the sense change will fall into two categories: those
based on an association between the senses and those involving an
association between the names.”116

Countless idioms in the D are profoundly connected to meaning in

general. The Buddha, since he preferred attha (meaning) to nirutti
(language), used words only for the sake of transmitting his profound
meaning and not for showing his ability of language or fluent speech.
However, the dhamma displayed by him already is full of meaning (attha)
and phrasing (vyañjana) or letters, good in the beginning, good in the
middle, good in the end.117 According to Mishra, “Buddhists though used
the vocabulary of existing dialects of those, be it Vedic or otherwise, their
signification is certainly twisting and the meaning is somewhat

114
Eastman, Carol M., ‘Semantics’, Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD], Redmond,
WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
115
Ibid.
116
Ullmann Stephen, Semantics, Basil Blackwell, 1967, Oxford, pp. 211-22
117
D. I. 63, “dhammaṃ …ādi kalyānaṃ majjhe kalyānaṃ pariyāyosāna kalyānaṃ
sātthaṃ savyañjanaṃ”
47
sectarian.”118 Besides, “the language of Pāli follows a pattern different
from common languages in the sense that many verbs are expressed for
the same subject and also it is highly inflexional. Another important
feature is that the meanings of the words are to be learnt from Pāli sources
only though derivable from Sanskrit.” 119 F. Edgerton comments, “In
Buddhist literature, the relation between the language and its relative
concept is not always formative, not direct; because language is mostly
related to the concept and the derivative significance. For instance, the
word karuṇa which has Vedic relevance as to mean ‘acting’, its use in the
Buddhist context specify differently, i.e. compassion in contrast to the
Vedic subject.”120 The ODEI described, “Many idioms are restricted to
particular groups of users or particular occasions of use, or indicate the
speaker’s attitude to the persons or events denoted, or are used to
perform special functions (for example, greetings or warnings).”121

Semantics, as a form of linguistics, tries to set up logical connection

between words regarding their meaning in a speech. In the Buddhist
semantics, as a significant result in linguistic development in those days,
the Buddha with his intuitive wisdom had given various ways for
expansion of the meaning of words which was exceedingly related to the
ethics, psychology and philosophy. So far as the Buddhist linguistics is
concerned, we need to figure out the relevance of those above three
aspects: ethics, psychology and philosophy. They often work together in

118
Mishra, M.; A Comparative and Historical Pāli Grammar, Aroma Publishing
House, 1986, Delhi, p. 69
119
Gupta, K.M., ibid., pp. 191-2
120
Edgerton, F, Language and Literature, BHS, 1954, Banaras, p. 168
121
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, pp. xxxvii-xxxviii
48
interpreting the Buddhist technical terms in Pāli texts. For example, the
word ‘taṇhā’ that was used to denote ‘thirst’, had been expanded into
abstracted meaning of ‘craving’ that was ethical and psychological. The
word ‘magga’ in Pāli texts is not used to mean ‘a simple road’, but ‘a path
to a practical scheme of elevation’, following that one is bound to attain
cessation of suffering. The word ‘ogha’ does not mean simple ‘flood’ of
water alone, but ‘clinging’. Anyone would often find change of words or
referents from concrete state to abstract that is the major motivation of
semantic changes in Pāli texts. The goal of the Buddhists had been to
walk on the path of purification to reach Nibbāna which was very difficult
to follow for worldlings. This aspect has caused unique changes in the
meaning of the then existing words and in worldly usages of common
language. Dhadphale comments, “Buddhas spoke not for the pleasure of
122
speaking but to drive home his point.” Gupta states, “The
reinterpretation was possible due to the elasticity offered by the words
themselves since the derivation from the roots is wide open and the
practical usage of such words was by implication, and not direct.”123

On the other hand, there are some factors that can distinguish semantic
idioms from normal descriptions. One, connotation – it is connotation that
indicates implication of a word, phrase, or clause, giving additional
meaning apart from the literal meaning. A word is both denotative and
connotative. The connotative aspect is related to the core of sense behind
a word. Expressions in texts devoid of connotative sense are simple
descriptions. Two, emphasis – the special emphasis is particularly given

122
Dhadphale, M.G., ibid., p. 42
123
Gupta, K.M., ibid., p. 285
49
 by the user’s conscious change from the literal meaning of a word, phrase,
or sentence construction. There can be a number of methods to give
emphasis in speech or written material such as repetition, enumeration,
string of synonyms, word-order and so on. Three, figures of speech – as
linguistic device, figurative expression is also referred to as figure of
speech in general. Figures of speech, word or group of words, is often
used to give particular emphasis and show contrast in a context as well as
to provide freshness of expression or clarity.

The headings listed below are to classify the predominant idiomatic

expressions relating to semantics. Especially the first item, idioms in
figures of speech, is of most various and quite rich in number and
contents.

2.1. Idioms in Figures of Speech

A ‘figure of speech’ sometimes termed a ‘rhetorical figure’ or ‘trope’ is a
word or group of words used in some deviation from the strict literal
sense of the word(s), or from the more commonly used form of word
order or sentence construction. 124 According to Y. Shen, “Figurative
language is central to both poetic and non-poetic discourse. Throughout
the ages, figurative expressions have been featured extensively in the
work of both orators and writers alike, which used them to embellish their
style, to clarify or illuminate meaning in an efficient, compact manner, or

124
Keith Brown, Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistic vol. I, 2nd Ed. 2005,
London, p. 459; this line is referred from Y. Shen’s article, titled ‘figures of speech’.
50
 as a particularly effective persuasive device.”125 The style of an idiom is
regarded as the reflection of certain variable factors in situations in which
that idiom is normally used.126 In linguistics, idiomatic expressions are
classified on the basis of a variety of figures of speech. Concerning
categorizing the figures of speech, over time these figures of speech have
been organized in a variety of different ways in order to make sense of
them and to learn their various qualities.127 Although many complicated
classifications are available in the field of figures of speech, the present
study will not go deep into them to avoid complication. The figures of
speech in the D are divided into three broad categories according to the
difference in methods of expression such as “method of comparison”,
“method of emphasis” and “method of variation”.

2.1.1. Method of Comparison

In figures of speech this portion is normally the most significant and
well known to people. The method of comparison is a use of a word that
diverges from its normal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning
not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. There are two objects:
the first object is to be described and it is the primary idea (upameya). The
second object is compared with the first object to discover similarity
between them. Here the second object is the supplementary idea
(upamāna). For example, “a man is like a tiger”. Here a man is ‘upameya’
and a tiger ‘upamāna’. This is the process of comparing two things having

125
Ibid.
126
ODEI, 1st Indian Edn., 2007, p. xxxviii
127
Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two
main categories: schemes and tropes.
51
 a common quality. Simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, parable,
personification, pun and onomatopoeia come under this category.

128
A. Simile (Fs)
This is a method of explicit and specific comparison by means of the
words like, ‘like’ or ‘as’ between two kinds of ideas or things. For
example, the sentence “She is beautiful like a rose” is a simile. On the
contrary, a metaphor does not use ‘as’ or ‘like’ for comparison. The
Buddha preferred abundant use of similes (upamā) for explaining the
complicated and subtle points of teaching in the D. Regarding
compilation of similes Mrs. Rhys Davids has done an admirable ground
work in ‘the Similes in the Nikāya’ in the JPTS (1906-7). However, some
of them are closer to metaphorical expression, for example, ‘āsavānaṃ
khaya-ñāṇāya’129 (the knowledge of the destruction of the cankers) and
‘satte apparajakkhe mahārajakkhe’130 (the beings with little dust and a
lot of dust). There are particular words used to construct a simile in Pāli
such as yathā, iva, and va.
e.g.) “rahadam iva vippasannaṃ” (D. I. 50; as serene as a clean lake)
The term ‘iva’ is a particle of comparison. This is a comparison for the
Sangha.

“Sunakkhatto licchavi-putto mayā vuccamāno apakkam’ eva imasmā

dhamma-vinayā yathā taṃ apāyika nerayika” (D. III. 6; Sunakkhatto, the

128
The capital letter ‘F’ in the ‘Fs’ indicates ‘figures of speech’ and hence the ‘Fs’
means an item belonging to ‘figures of speech’ in semantics.
129
D. I. 83; JPTS, 1906-7, p. 67
130
D. II. 38; JPTS, 1906-7, p. 58
52
son of Licchavi clan, while I told, has departed from this dhamma and
principle just as a man belonging to hell)

“tuccha-kumbhi va naṃ maññe orodheyyāma” (D. III. 38; we will

certainly subdue him like an empty pot)

B. Metaphor (Fm)
This figure of speech uses a word or phrase that denotes one kind of
idea or object in place of another word or phrase for the purpose of
suggesting a likeness or similarity between the two in a quality. The
metaphorical word is used not in its literal meaning, but in one similar to
it. It is also used in an imaginative way. For example, the sentences “Life
is a gambling” and “A soldier has a heart of stone” contain metaphor.
Gray Louis states, “Metaphor is the chief cause of semantic change”131

According to M.G. Dhadphale, “in Pāli language ‘adhivacana’ is a

peculiar term used to convey the sense of a metaphor. The commentators
explain ‘adhivacana’ as ‘ativacana’, which when literally translated
means a ‘transcendental meaning’, i.e. a meaning which transcends its
primary meaning and suggests ‘a secondary one’.”132 The metaphorical
expressions (adhivuttipadāni) according to Buddhaghosa reveal an
unusual or extraordinary view of life (diṭṭhi). 133 Dhadphale further

131
Gray Louis, H., Foundations of Language, The MacMillan Company, 1939, N.Y.,
p. 251
132
Dhadphale, M.G., ibid., p. 43
133
Ibid., p. 44; ref. DA. I. 103-4 & its English translation by BB., The All-Embracing
Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and its Commentaries, 2nd ed., BPS, 2007, Candy,
pp. 128-9, “atha vā bhūtam attham abhibhavitvā yathā-sabhāvato agahetvā vattanato
adhivuttiyo ti diṭṭhiyo vuccanti, adhivuttīnam padāni diṭṭhi-dīpakāni vacanānīti attho”
53
 comments, “Buddhaghosa’s observation that ‘adhivacana’ is ‘that which
throws light’ (dīpaka) on the view (diṭṭhi) of a poet-philosopher has a
parallel in the statement of Valery that ‘a metaphor is what is arrived at
when one views things in a particular manner.’”134 Thus the study of
metaphors should yield us the view of a poet and the process of re-
visualisation. 135 However, bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli 136 suggested a word
‘pariyāya’ for metaphor.
e.g.) “sīha-nādaṃ” (D. I. 175; lion’s roar)
This literally means the roaring of a lion. It also connotes the fearless
sound which is able to break other’s sound, but lifts one’s own. The
commentary explains it as the excellent sound (seṭṭha-nādo) that a lion
roars and the best sound (utama-nādo).137 It is a very unique term that is
often used when the Buddha gives discourses to audience. Afterward its
sense has been generalized into the great person’s voice.

“sabbe va kho ete ... paribbājakā andhā acakkhukā, tvaṃ yeva nesaṃ eko
cakkhumā” (D. I. 191; All those ascetics are blind, without eyes, you
alone have eyes among them)

[Views are called adhivutti (expression or opinion) because they do violence to the
real meaning (bhūtam attham) and do not apprehend things according to their true
nature (yathā-sabhāvato). The adhivuttīnam-padāni, therefore, are terms signifying
(dīpaka) views.]
134
Ibid., p. 45
135
Ibid., p. 45
136
Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, Pāli-English Glossary of Buddhist Terms, 2nd Ed. by BB.,
BPS, 2007, Kandy, p. 124
137
DA. III. 844, 879
54
 This expression implies ‘eyes of wisdom’ leading to the last truth,
Nibbāna. In general, we could see some metaphorical words with ‘cakkhu’
denoting ‘mental eye’ in the D.138

C. Metonymy (Fmt)
This figure of speech applies to substitution of a word to suggest what is
really meant. It is to use a word or phrase for another to which it bears an
important relation such as the effect for the cause, the abstract for the
concrete and similar constructions. Bloomfield speaks a single line
defined by other scholars; the meanings are near each other in space or
time.139 Gupta describes, “This metonymy happens due to the operation
of contiguity of sense-field of the denotative meaning.”140 Metonymy141
(Greek, metōnymía ‘change of name’) is that in which a thing or concept
is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately
associated with that thing or concept.142 For instance, ‘the Pentagon’, as
the five-sided figure, could be used as a metonymy for the department of
defense in the USA.
e.g.) “antevāsī” (D. I. 1; a pupil, lit. staying near)
The word ‘antevāsī’ is derived from Skt. ‘antevāsin’. In semantic change,
it denotes a pupil who always dwells near his master to receive instruction.

138
D. I. 86, “dhamma-cakkhum”; D. II. 38, “buddha-cakkhunā”
139
Leonard Bloomfield, Language, Motilal Banarsidass, Rep. 2005, Delhi, p. 427
140
Gupta, K.M., ibid., pp. 420-1
141
Metonymy may be instructively contrasted with metaphor. Both figures involve
the substitution of one term for another. In metaphor, this substitution is based on
similarity, whereas, in metonymy, the substitution is based on contiguity (association)
between two concepts of senses, particularly in time or space.
142
The on-line Encyclopedia Wikipedia; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/metonymy
55
 This case is used as the effect for cause. In the commentary, it is said,
“ante vasatīti antevāsī, samīpa-cāro santikāvacaro sisso ti attho”.143

“khattiyo muddhāvasitto”144 (D. I. 69; a crowned king)

This phrase literally denotes ‘a head-anointed warrior’ but it connotes ‘a
crowned king’ with his head anointed by sprinkling water which is
brought from the ocean of the four directions. The real meaning comes
due to the contiguity of sense and the effect for cause.

D. Synecdoche (Fsn)
This is a figurative expression where the part is made to stand for the
whole, the whole for a part, the species for the genus, and vice versa.
Synecdoche is closely related to metonymy. It is sometimes considered a
subclass of metonymy.145 More rigorously, metonymy and synecdoche
may be considered as sub-species of metaphor, intending metaphor as a
type of conceptual substitution.146 For example, ‘white hair’ stands for

143
DA. I. 36, “One who dwells near (master to receive instruction) means a pupil, (or)
being near, (or) a student.” Buddhaghosa, without illustration of deep background,
commented for the meaning of this word with the four synonyms. It may have been a
very commonly used term without doubt even in the time when Buddhaghosa lived.
144
D. II. 60, 69; muddhā + avasitta (pp. ava + √sic, to anoint)
145
Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/metonymy; Metonymy and Synecdoche:
sometimes, however, people make an absolute distinction between a metonymy and a
synecdoche, treating metonymy as different from rather than inclusive of synecdoche.
When the distinction is made, it is the following: when A is used to refer to B, it is a
synecdoche if A is a component of B and a metonymy if A is commonly associated
with B but not actually part of its whole.
146
Lanham, Richard A, A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms: A Guide for Students of
English Literature, 2nd Ed., California University Press, 1991, Berkeley, pp. 189 ff..
The three terms have somewhat restrictive definitions, arguably in tune with a certain
interpretation of their etymologies from Greek:
• Metaphor: changing a word from its literal meaning to one not properly applicable but
an alogous to it; assertion of identity rather than, as with simile, likeness
• Metonymy: substitution of cause for effort, proper name for one of its qualities, etc.
56
 an elderly person where a part refers to the whole. On the other hand, “the
India won a gold medal” can be used where instead of saying, “the
members of the India cricket team won a gold medal” the whole nation is
used to refer to a part of it. There is an example for a specific class name
used to refer to a general set of associated things, ‘an aspirin’ for any kind
of drug which relieves from fever and headache. Actually synecdoche is
rather rare than metonymy in the D.
e.g.) “sahassī loka-dhātu” (D. I. 46; the thousand world-system)
The partial number ‘thousand’ here connotes the whole world or all the
universes that exist. Sometimes in other suttas in the D more numbers are
added just as the ten thousand (dasa-sahassa, D. II. 12). However, its
implied meaning does not change.

“khādanīyena bhojanīyena”147 (D. I. 109; hard and soft food)

These two terms are opposed to each other in the meaning but these two,
being clubbed together where a part refers to the whole, connote various
kinds of food. It is a very well used expression by laypeople for the meal
of the Buddha and the Sangha.

E. Parable (Fpb)
A parable is a brief simple story, in prose or verse, which illustrates a
moral or religious lesson. It also is a coherent fictitious narrative to impart
ethical teaching and values. It differs from fables that use animals, plants,
inanimate objects and forces of nature as characters, while parables
generally feature human characters. According to David B. Gowler a

• Synecdoche: substitution of a part for whole, species for genus, etc.

147
khād (to chew) + a + anīya, grd.; bhuj (to eat) + a + anīya, grd.
57
parable is a type of analogy.148 Christian parables in the Bible have
recently been studied as extended metaphors. Parables are favored in the
expression of mental concepts. According to H.W. Fowler, “Parables
frequently use metaphorical language which allows people to more easily
discuss difficult or complex ideas. In Plato’s Republic, parables like the
“parable of the cave” teach an abstract argument, using a concrete
narrative which is more easily grasped.”149 F.T. George defined parable as
“the designed use of language purposely intended to convey a hidden and
secret meaning other than that contained in the words themselves.”150 In
Pāli, the Buddhist canon, we find beautiful and veritable flood of parables
to captivate and convince the listeners. M. Winternitz states, “A parable is
certainly no argument, but on the heart and even on the mind of the
listener a parable often has an effect which is more than that of thousand
arguments.”151 Most parables in the D begin with particular words such
as ‘seyyathā pi’, ‘bhūtapubbam’ or ‘iti kira’. The words ‘seyyathā pi’,
though translated like as ‘just as’, ‘as if’, or ‘suppose’ in English, belongs
to this category, for all illustrations associated with it narrate a moral
lesson or philosophical concepts. Besides, the term ‘seyyathā’152 is a
word giving a description.
e.g.) “bhūtapubbaṃ … sāmuddikā vāṇijā tīradassiṃ sakuṇaṃ gahetvā
nāvāya samuddaṃ ajjhogāhanti” (D. I. 222; Once upon a time seafaring
traders, having taken a landsighting bird in their ship, set out to the ocean)

148
David B. Gowler, What are they saying about the parables (2000), pp. 63, 99, 132,
133, 137
149
H. W. Fowler, Modern English Usage, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1958, London
150
George Fyler Townsend, translator’s preface to Aesop’s Fables, Clarke & Co.,
1887, Belford.
151
Winternitz, Maurice, ibid., p. 68
152
se (= taṃ, Māgadhī form of so) + yathā + api, indcl.
58
 “seyyathā pi puriso evaṃ vadeyya; ahaṃ yā imasmiṃ janapade
janapadakalyāṇī taṃ icchāmi taṃ kāmemi” (D. I. 193; suppose a person
would say in this way, “I wish and desire the most beautiful girl in this
country!”)

“iti kira … sapariggaho tevijjā brāhmaṇā apariggaho brahmā” [D. I. 247;

suppose brahmins learned in the threefold Vedas with belongings (wives
and wealth) but Brahmā without belongings.]
The term ‘kira’ is an adverb and is presumptive. It connects new point in
a narrative with something preceding, either as expected or guessed. It is
also translated with ‘iti’ like “thus I have heard” that refers to a report by
hear-say.

F. Personification (Fps)
This figure of speech is to attribute or apply human qualities to
inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena. It is also the
representation of an inanimate object or abstract concept as if it is a
person or living being, as in the sentences “Necessity is the mother of
invention” and “India expects every man to do his duty”.
e.g.) “māra” (D. II. 104; god of death)
The word ‘māra’ is a pure personification of death. (maccu; ThagA. II. 46)

“dibbāni pi mandārava-pupphāni antalikkhā papatanti, tāni tathāgatassa

sarīraṃ okiranti ajjhokiranti abhippakiranti tathāgatassa pūjāya” (D. II.
137; divine Mandārava flowers fall from the sky and they scatter, sprinkle
and cover upon the Tathāgata’s body to pay homage to him)

59
 The divine Mandārava flowers, an inanimate object, pay homage to the
Buddha before his passing away.

G. Pun (Fpn)
This is a clever or humorous use of a word or phrase that has more than
one meaning or of words that have different meaning but sound the same.
Hockett defines, “a pun is an utterance susceptible of two (or more)
different interpretations.”153 He further explains, “A perfect pun involves
semantic and grammatical ambiguity in the face of absolute phonemic
identity, with both interpretations sensible in the context in which it
occurs.” 154 The ambiguity can arise from the intentional use of
homonymous, metonymic, or metaphorical language. Puns may be
regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, given that their usage and
meaning are entirely local to a particular language and its culture.
e.g.) “amarā-vikkhepikā” (D. I. 24; equivocators or eel-wrigglers)
The first word ‘amarā’ is the name of a slippery fish (maccha), an eel.
On the other hand, it also denotes ‘deathless’ according to the
commentary 155 . The word ‘vikkhepika’ 156 is an adjective with the
possessive suffix ‘-ika’ denoting ‘one who has confusion or ambiguity’.
This idiomatic expression eventually indicates ‘those who have endless
views and insistences’. 157 M. Walshe notes for this expression, “A
deliberate pun may well be intended.”158

153
Hockett, C. F., ibid., p. 90
154
Ibid., p. 318
155
DA. I. 115, “na maratīti amarā”
156
vi + √kṣip (to throw) + ika, der. adj.
157
BB. rendered it as ‘endless equivocators’ and T.K. Rhys Davids ‘eel-wriggling’.
158
Walshe, M, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom, 1995, Boston, p. 80 fn.
58
60
 “govindo vata bho brāhmaṇo, mahāgovindo vata bho brāhmaṇo” (D. II.
232; this brhmin is really Govinda! He is really great Govinda!)
The term ‘go-vinda’ literally means cowherd but it connotes ‘great
person’ or ‘the name of Krishṇa’ (Skt. Kṛṣṇa).

H. Onomatopoeia159 (Fon)
This is the formation or use of words that sounds like their meaning. It is
a word that imitates or suggests the source of natural sound that it
describes. It is a figure of speech for comparing characteristic sounds and
often used repetitively. Hockett states, “onomatopoeia can be judged only
in terms of sound and meaning.”160 According to Bloomfield, “A special
type of symbolic form, which is quite widely distributed, is the repetition
of the form with some phonetic variations. Closely akin to these are
imitative or onomatopoetic intense forms, which denote a sound or an
object which gives out a sound.”161 On the other hand, there is often a
large arbitrary element in the phonemic shape of the word. Therefore,
onomatopoeias are not universally the same across all languages. In
English a bell says ding-dong but in German bim-bam.
e.g.) “gaḷagaḷāyante” (D. II. 131; it sounds ‘gala gala’)
The repeated term ‘gaḷa gaḷa’ is the sound that takes place as heavy rain
pours and flows in particular. It is the sound of roaring, crashing or
thundering from inanimate nature.

“jīvaṃ jīvaka” (D. III. 201; a kind of pheasant)

159
Ref. PED, pp. 246-7, there is a detailed note on elements belonging to the
onomatopoetic roots.
160
Hockett, C. F., ibid., p. 299
161
Leonard Bloomfield, ibid., p. 156
61
 This is the name of a bird which utters a note sounding like ‘jīvaṃ jīva’.

“milakkhu” (D. III. 264; foreign or a non-Arian)

The Sanskrit-form of this word is the ‘mleccha’ which means foreigner
or outcaste.162 These people do not pronounce Sanskrit properly due to
their accustomed tongue. This term may be coined being dependent on
their strange sound. It also occurs in another form ‘milakkha’.

2.1.2. Method of Emphasis

Method of emphasis is a technique which involves in expressing an
object or contents more strongly for the purpose of showing its
significance. With special stress it is mainly used to give deep impression
to listener or reader. Besides, it breaks a plain or dull style in being
accustomed sensation in speaking or writing. Hyperbole, litotes, repetition,
enumeration, climax, anticlimax and exclamation belong to this category.

A. Hyperbole (Fhp)
This is a use of exaggerated terms for emphasis. It is a form of deliberate
and obvious exaggeration for effect according to which a person or thing
is depicted as being better or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually
the case. The Pāli term for hyperbole would be ‘atisayutti’ according to
PED. In fact there has no reference ‘atisayutti’ for hyperbole in entire Pāli
texts. An affix ‘ati’ denoting ‘surpass’ or ‘over’ is added to ‘sayutti’ which
is parted into ‘sa’ (short form or abbreviation of saha) and ‘yutti’ denoting
application, use or connection.

162
Ref. PED, p. 533
62
 e.g.) “imasmiṃ ca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamane sahassī loka-
dhātu akampittha”163 (D. I. 46; When this exposition was being spoken,
the thousand world-system trembled)
This special phenomenon is religiously symbolic. It is a fixed formula
presenting at the conclusion of the Buddha’s discourse. According to the
DA many more occasions are explained in detail about earthquake.164 It
more often appears at the end of in the Mahāyana Buddhist suttas.

“loma-haṭṭha-jāto” (D. I. 50; bristled; lit. having hairs erect)

This phrase shows ‘terror and surprise’ in semantics. It denotes bristling
or standing erect the hairs of one’s body.

“ito ce pi so bhavaṃ gotamo yojanasate viharati alam eva saddhena

kulaputtena dassanāya upasaṃkamituṃ api puṭaṅsenāpi” (D. I. 117;
Even if the venerable Gotamo lives a hundred yojanas away from here, it
is fit for any young man of family with faith to approach in order to see
him with provisions on his shoulder)
The word ‘yojana’ is a measure of length. According to Buddhaghosa
one yojana is a distance as much as can be travelled with one yoke of
oxen.165 It is about 7 miles and its l00 times are a quite long distance to
walk.

B. Litotes (Fl)

163
vi + ā + √kṛ (to do) + ana, der.; √bhaṇ (to speak) + ya + mana (māna), pass. ppr.;
Locative Absolute construction; a + √kamp (to shake) + ittha, aor. 3rd. sg.
164
DA. I. pp. 130-1
165
Ref. PED, p. 559; 1 yojana = 4 gāvuta; 1 gāvuta (a little less than 2 miles) = 80
usabha; 1 usabha = 20 yatthi (140 cubits); 1 yatthi = 4 hattha; 1 hattha is a measure of
length from elbow to extended little-fingertip.
63
 This is a form of understatement employed for the purpose of enhancing
the effect of the ideas expressed. It is also used in which a certain
statement is expressed by denying its opposite and is always deliberate
with the intention of emphasis. However, the interpretation of litotes can
depend on context, including cultural context. In speech, it may also
depend on intonation and emphasis; for example, the phrase ‘not bad’ can
be said in such a way to mean ‘good’ or ‘excellent’, “You are not wrong”
to mean “You are right”, and “It is not ordinary city” to mean “It is a very
impressive city”.
e.g.) “n’ atthi ito bahiddhā” (D. I. 21; There is no other way outside from
here)
“gāthā … no dugītā” (D. III. 97; the verse is not sung wrongly)

“no aññathā” (D. III. 103; There is not otherwise)

The term ‘no’ is a negative particle and ‘aññathā’ is an indeclinable.

C. Repetition (Frp)
This is a repeated usage of word(s) or group of words in the same
sentence or in the successive clauses or sentences to create a poetic or
rhythmic effect. It is, without particular placement of the words, the
simple repetition of words to make emphasis. A.K. Warder gives some
definition according to the Paṭṭhāna, “repetition strengthens mental
principles.” 166 Mark Allon states, “The repetition encountered in
Buddhist texts has frequently been taken to have a mnemonic
function.”167 Those texts were designed to be memorized and transmitted

166
Warder, A. K., Indian Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidas, Rep. 1991, Delhi, p. 311
167
Cf. Allon, M., ibid., pp. 357-363
64
 verbatim. According to M. Walshe, “the repetitions in the canon have
probably two distinct sources. Firstly it is that the Buddha himself
developed a standard form for sermons, which he doubtless uttered
verbatim, or nearly so, many thousands of times during his forty-five
years’ ministry. … Secondly the repetition will have been inherent in the
oral tradition itself. This is always characterized by long repetitive
passages and stereotyped epithets and descriptions.” 168 The D is
thoroughly permeated by repetitions deep in quality and ample in number.
While reading Pāli texts we often observe the wearisomeness of the
numerous repetitions which are striking feature of the original and which
are omitted due to that reason.
e.g.) “piṭṭhito piṭṭhito” (D. I. 1; closely behind)

“ramaṇīyā vata bho dosinā ratti. abhirūpā vata bho dosinā ratti.
dassanīyā vata bho dosinā ratti. pāsādikā vata bho dosinā ratti.
lakkhaññā vata bho dosinā ratti” (D. I. 47; How pleasant, O friend, is the
moonlit night! How beautiful, O friend, is the moonlit night! How lovely,
O friend, is the moonlit night! How clear, O friend, is the moonlit night!
How auspicious, O friend, is the moonlit night!)

“tuṇhī-bhūtaṃ tuṇhī-bhūtaṃ bhikkhu-saṃghaṃ” (D. I. 50; the bhikkhu

Sangha being silent extremely)

D. Enumeration (Fnm)
This is a usage that arranges words, phrases, clauses, or sentences with
similar contents or character side by side. It is a figure of speech that

168
Walshe, M, ibid., p. 49
65
emphasizes the entire content in enumerating several words, phrases and
sentences connected in. Enumeration is also said to be a way to arrange
various similar characters or phenomena in the same place of sentence
component. It contributes to a detailed account, in which each thing is
specially noticed. In the D a number of enumerated cases is observed
causing boredom to readers. It is the most common style along with
repetition in Buddhist canonical texts. These two figures of speech,
enumeration and repetition, often stand out together. Enumeration
frequently portrays the same matter from various points of view. There is
a particular term to start enumeration, namely ‘seyyathīdaṃ’169 denoting
‘as follows’ or ‘that is (i.e.)’. In the D there are especially two suttas
where all items are numerically well enumerated, listed or grouped,
namely the Saṅgīti sutta (D33) and the Dasuttara sutta (D34). They
entirely enumerate dhammas by means of number. I have, accordingly,
excluded the cases applicable to this figure of speech from these two
suttas.
e.g.) “tass’ imāni satta ratanāni bhavanti, seyyathīdaṃ cakka-ratanaṃ
hatthi-ratanaṃ assa-ratanaṃ maṇi-ratanaṃ itthi-ratanaṃ gahapati-
ratanaṃ pariṇāyaka-ratanam” (D. II. 16; These seven treasures arise to
him as follows: the Wheel treasure, the Elephant treasure, the Horse
treasure, the Gem treasure, the Woman treasure, the Householder treasure,
the Counselor treasure)

“dhammā gambhīrā duddasā duranubodhā santā paṇītā atakkāvacarā

nipuṇā paṇḍita-vedanīyā” (D. I. 17; Dhammas that are profound, hard to

169
sa + yathā + idaṃ
66
 see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, unthinkable, subtle, and
comprehensible only to the wise)

E. Climax (Fc)
This is an arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in order of
increasing importance, the least forcible coming first and the others rising
in power until the last. It sometimes uses the repetition of a word or
phrase in successive clauses or sentences.
e.g.) “sakyā vata bho kumārā, paramasakyā vata bho kumārā ti” [D. I. 93;
O my dear princes as strong as teak170 (sāka tree)! O my dear princes as
strong as the best teak]

“gavā khīraṃ khīramhā dadhi dadimhā navanītaṃ navanītamhā sappi

sappimhā sappimaṇḍo” (D. I. 201; From the cow there is milk, from the
milk milk-curds, from the milk-curds butter, from the butter clarified
butter, and from the clarified butter ghee)

F. Anticlimax (Fac)
This is an arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in order of
decreasing importance. It can be intentionally employed only for a satiric
purpose. It frequently partakes of the nature of antithesis as well. In the D,
however, this figure of speech is so rare.

170
D. I. 92, the source of the name ‘sāka’ (teak tree) is derived from this line, “Te
raṭṭhasmā pabbājitā yattha himavanta-passe pokkharaṇiyā tīre mahā sāka-saṇḍo
tattha vāsaṃ kappesuṃ” (These, being banished from the kingdom, built their
residence where there was a big teak tree near a lotus-lake on the slopes of the
Himalayas.)
67
 e.g.) “yasmiṃ padese mahesakkhā devatā vatthūni parigaṇhanti
mahesakkhānaṃ tattha raññaṃ rājamahāmattānaṃ cittāni namanti
nivesanāni māpetuṃ. yasmiṃ padese majjhimā devatā vatthūni
parigaṇhanti majjhimānaṃ tattha raññaṃ rājamahāmattānaṃ cittāni
namanti nivesanāni māpetuṃ. yasmiṃ padese nīcā devatā vatthūni
parigaṇhanti nīcānaṃ tattha raññaṃ rājamahāmattānaṃ cittāni namanti
nivesanāni māpetuṃ” (D. II. 87; In the place, where the powerful devas
take grounds, there powerful king’s ministers are inclined to build
residences. Where the mid-powerful devas take grounds, there king’s mid-
powerful ministers are inclined to build residences. Where the low
powerful devas take grounds, there low powerful king’s ministers are
inclined to build residences)

G. Exclamation (Fx)
This is a sound, word, or sentence that is spoken suddenly or emphatically
and that expresses strong emotion, such as surprise, exclamation, joy,
terror, grief, hatred etc. It depends on the manner in which people express
their attitude and emotions. This figure of speech is generally composed
of uninflected function words. It sometimes appears as sentence-words
and combines with other words to form sentences, but not with finite
verbs. Exclamation can be phrase or even sentence, as well as word.
e.g.) “ramaṇīyā vesālī, ramaṇīyaṃ udenaṃ cetiyaṃ, … ramaṇīyaṃ
cāpālaṃ cetiyaṃ” (D. II. 102; Vesālī is beautiful, the Udena shirin is
beautiful, … Cāpāla shrine is beautiful)

“abhikkantaṃ bhante abhikkantaṃ bhante” (D. I. 85; Excellent, venerable

sir! Excellent, venerable sir!)

68
 “yāva parisudho tathāgatassa chavi-vaṇṇo pariyodāto” (D. II. 133; How
clear and pure the Tathāgata’s complexion is!)

2.1.3. Method of Variation

Method of variation is a technique which makes a fresh sensation giving
a change to words, phrases or clauses, as well as changing the order of
description so that we do not feel monotonous and tedious. Parallelism,
antithesis, irony, oxymoron, paradox, apostrophe and rhetorical question
belong to this category.

A. Parallelism (Fpr)
This figure of speech gives two or more parts of the sentences a similar
form so as to give the whole a definite pattern. It first juxtaposes opposing
words as well as words or phrases with similarity and then sets tone or
rhythm. It is often used in poems and canonical texts just like Biblical
poetry in Hebrew and Chinese poetry.
e.g.) “yam aham jānāmi tam tvam jānāsi, yam tvam jānāsi tam aham
jānāmi” (D. I. 88; you know what I know; I know what you know)

“rājā mahā-sudassano brāhmaṇa-gahapatikānaṃ piyo ahosi manāpo,

rañño pi mahā-sudassanassa brāhmaṇa-gahapatikā piyā ahesuṃ manāpā”
(D. II. 178; King Mahāsudassana was the favorite and beloved one of
brahmins and householders. Brahmins and householders are also the
favorite and beloved ones of King Mahāsudassana)

“yathā-vādī tathā-kārī, yathā-kārī tathā-vādī” (D. II. 224; one behaves as

he speaks, one speaks as he behaves)

69
B. Antithesis (Fa)
This is a figure of speech denoting a direct contrast to the original
statement. It is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas to give emphasis,
usually in a balanced way. It brings out the ideas by an obvious contrast in
the words, clauses, or sentences, within a parallel structure. An example
of antithesis is “To err is human, to forgive divine.”
e.g.) “idam eva saccaṃ mogham aññaṃ” (D. I. 187; only this is true, the
rest is false)

“evam manasikarotha mā evāṃ manasākattha” (D. I. 214; pay attention

to this way, not that way)

“sabba-pāpassa akaraṇaṃ, kusalassa upasampadā” (D. II. 49; not to do

any evil, but to do good)

C. Irony (Fir)
This is an expression of something which is contrary to the intended
meaning: the words say one thing but mean another. It is a humorous or
lightly sarcastic mode of speech, in which words are used to convey a
meaning contrary to their literal sense. It often depends on the stress or
mood of expression. For example, “This is a nice, pleasant sort of weather”
which means the weather is actually terrible and “John is a real genius” in
the real sense he is normal.

70
 e.g.) “eke bhonto samaṇa-brāhmaṇā saddhā-deyyāni bhojanāni
bhuñjitvā”171 … (D. I. 5; some honorable recluses and brahmins have
enjoyed food given out of faith)
Some recluses and brahmins living on food offered by the faithful, cause
damage to seed and plant life. They are the subject to be blamed but
honorific word is used to address them. The term ‘bhonto’ puts this
expression an irony.

“sīho ti attānaṃ samekkhiyānaṃ maññi kotthu “migarājā ’ham asmi,”

tath’ eva so sigālakaṃ anadi, “ke ca chave sigāle, ke pana sīha-nāde ti”
172
(D. III. 25; thinking of himself as a lion, a jackal thought, “I am the
king of animals”. Nonetheless he howls. “Where are the scurvy jackal and
the lion’s roar?”)
This expression indicates a scurvy jackal thinking a lion of himself but
sounding howls.

D. Apostrophe (Fap)
This is an exclamatory figure of speech. It is used when speaker or
writer breaks off and directs speech to a specific group or person or
personified abstraction absent or present. Apostrophe mainly plays a role
of drawing the attention of the audience or making them concentrate on
some activities. It is often introduced by an exclamation ‘O’. Apostrophe
is sometimes used to convey extreme emotion as well.

171
√dā (to give) + ya, grd.; √bhuj (to eat, to enjoy) + tvā, ger.
172
sam + √īkṣ (to see) + i + (ya) + āna, ppr.; √man (to think) + i, aor. 3rd. sg.; a +
√nad (to make a noise) + i, aor. 3rd. sg.; the word ‘ke’ is in m. nom. pl. of the interr.
pron. ‘ka’
71
 e.g.) “vadehi bho saṅkha, vadehi bho saṅkha” (D. II. 337); speak! Mr,
conch, Speak!

“tiṭṭha kāma-vitakka! tiṭṭha vyāpāda-vitakka! tiṭṭha vihiṃsā-vitakka!

ettāvatā kāma-vitakka! ettāvatā vyāpāda-vitakka! ettāvatā vihiṃsā-
vitakka!”(D. II. 186; Stop, Sensual thought! Stop, Thought of ill-will!
Stop, Thought of cruelty! To this much is only your Sensual thought,
thought of ill-will and cruelty!)

E. Rhetorical question (Frh)

This is to ask questions as a way of asserting something. It is not for the
sake of getting an answer but to assert the obvious answer to the opponent.
No answer, in fact, is expected by the speaker. In the D the indeclinable
particle ‘nu’ is frequently used to form rhetorical questions. It often
combines with other emphatic or dubitative particles ‘api’ or ‘na’, just
like ‘api nu’ or ‘na nu’.
e.g.) “tatra ce tumhe assatha kupitā vā anattamanā vā, api nu tumhe
paresaṃ subhāsitaṃ dubhāsitaṃ ājāneyyātha”173 (D. I. 3; In that case if
you are angry or displeased, could you know other’s good or bad speech?)

“api nu tathāgato taṃ vācaṃ bhāseyya yā sā vācā dvayagāmīnī” (D. III.

14; would the Exalted One speak a word leading to a duality?)

2.2. Synonym (Syn)

This is a use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence.
Synonyms (vevacanāni) 174 are different words with identical or very

173
ā + √jān (to know) + nā + eyyātha, pot. 2nd. pl.
72
similar meanings. The word comes from Ancient Greek: ‘syn’ (with) and
‘onoma’ (name). In the figurative sense, two or more words are often said
to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. Any part of
sentence (e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition etc.) can be a
synonym, as long as members of the series are in the same part of
sentence. The Buddha expounded his teaching in manifold ways
(pariyāyadesana) with synonymous words to put enough emphasis for
listeners to remember and understand his teaching deeply. It must be
remembered that Pāli is thoroughly Buddhistic so that we concern more
with typical Buddhist usages. In fact, Pāli, it is not only a question of
language, but religion. A chief function of using synonyms is to make
meaning clearer and more emphatic. 175 M.G. Dhadphale exposes,
“synonymic repetition is perhaps the most striking stylistic feature of the
Tipiṭaka.”176 He further comments, “The synonyms express the richness
of the Buddha’s analytic thought, his way of encompassing a subject in all
its aspects. One grows richer with the wealth of synonyms, for synonyms
exhibit in turn, the varied aspects of things. The Pāli term ‘vevacana’
denoting synonym is as much stylistic as semantic, as much decorative as
discriminative. In the suttas synonyms are mostly used to emphasize and

174
DA. I. 108; words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of
being a synonym is called synonymy. Some scholars in linguistics claim that no
synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language)
because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc.
make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a
reason: ‘long’ and ‘extended’ are only synonyms in one usage and not in others, for
example, ‘a long arm’ is not the same as ‘an extended arm’. Ref. Raja, K. K., Indian
Theories of meaning, The Adyar Library and Research Center, 1963, Madras, p. 33;
Ullmann Stephen, Semantics, Basil Blackwell, 1967, Oxford, p. 141-2; Gupta, K.M.,
ibid., p. 250
175
Gupta, K.M., ibid., pp. 246-51
176
Dhadphale, M.G., Synonymic Collocations in the Tipiṭaka, BORI, 1980, Poona, p.
1
73
 clarify certain doctrinal and ethical points. One can never think of the
suttantas without their wealth of synonymic expressions.” 177 For
collecting synonyms in the present study the technical term ‘vevacana’
has been searched in the DA along with some other technical terms like
‘adhivanana’, ‘pariyāya’, ‘ekattha’ and ‘samānattha’. As the result, the
terms ‘vevacana’ and ‘adhivacana’ are only used in the sense of synonym
in the DA.
e. g.) “appamattakaṃ … oramattakaṃ” (D. I. 3; unimportant, little)
These two adjectives denoting little, inferior, mere or insignificant are
synonymous according to the DA.178

“na brāhmaṇe sakkaronti na brāhmaṇe garukaronti na brāhmaṇe mānenti

na brāhmaṇe pūjenti na brāhmaṇe apacāyanti” (D. I. 91; They don’t
honor, esteem, revere, worship, and pay homage to brahmins)

“asatā tucchā musā abhūtena”179 (D. III. 34; untrue, empty, false, unreal)
The four adjectives are synonymous denoting ‘something that is not true’
or ‘false’.

2.3. Saying (Sy)

A saying is a sentence that people often say and that gives advice or
information about human life and experience. It expresses a general truth
about some aspect of life in an interesting or wise way. There are a
number of specific types of saying, such as proverb, aphorism, adage,
maxim, cliché, mantra, motto etc. In the present study ‘saying’ is the
177
Ibid., pp. 252-4
178
DA. I. 55
179
asatā, instr. of √as (to be; atthi)
74
 representative among this similar group of words. In general the Buddhist
canon itself can be called as the book of sayings and so we can also find
many splendid sayings in the D.
e.g.) “ambaṃ vā puṭṭho labujaṃ vyākareyya labujaṃ vā puṭṭho ambaṃ
vyākareyya” (D. I. 57; One asked about a mango would explain about a
breadfruit, or one asked about a breadfruit would explain about a mango)

“atta-dīpā viharatha atta-saraṇā anañña-saraṇā, dhamma-dīpā dhamma-

saraṇā anañña-saraṇā” (D. II. 100; Be an island to yourself, be a refuge
to yourself, do not be depend on any other refuge; take the dhamma as an
island, take the dhamma as a refuge, do not depend on any other refuge)
The term ‘dīpa’ denotes an island according to the commentary. 180
However, in Mahāyana texts it often means ‘lamp’. There is no fixed
reference for exact sense about it. The term ‘atta’ means ‘not soul or ego’
but oneself. This line is quite a famous golden saying for all Buddhists.

“yo kho … mayā dhammo ca vinayo ca desito paññatto, so vo mam’

accayena satthā” (D. II. 154; The Dhamma and the Discipline I have
taught and explained will be your teacher after my passing away)

2.4. Slang (Sg)

Slang are words, expressions, and usages that are casual, vivid, racy, or
playful replacements for standard ones, are often short-lived, and are
usually considered unsuitable for formal contexts, e.g. Bean is a slang
word for head. It is the use of informal words and expressions that are not

180
DA. II. 548, “mahāsamuddagataṃ dīpaṃ viya” (like an island accompanied by the
great ocean)
75
 considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. Slang can be
regional in that it is used only in a particular territory. Nevertheless, slang
expressions can spread outside their original areas to become commonly
used. According to Hockett, “It is not certain whether slang is universal or
even widespread, but, wherever it is found, its idiomatic nature is clear.
Slang depends for its effect on the striking and far-fetched nature of its
semantic overtones and its secondary associations.”181
e.g.) “mogha-purisa” (D. III. 3; a foolish man)

“muṇḍake samaṇake ibbhe kaṇhe bandhu-pādāpacce” (D. III. 81;

shavelings, petty ascetics, lowly servants, dark fellows, offsprings born
from Brahmā’s foot)
These five terms are abusive insulting words.

“amanussā rittam pi pattaṃ sīse nikkujjeyyuṃ”(D. III. 203; non-humans

would put even empty bowl upside down on the head)

2.5. Idiomatic Repetition

In the D, in the dialogues of the Buddha, there are innumerable idiomatic
expressions of a particular type that can be named as Idiomatic
Repetition. It may be also called as a set or fixed expression. Set
expressions, with or without modification in phrases, sentences or
paragraphs, are used repeatedly which is quite unique as compared to the
style of the modern literary works. The descriptive style in the D shows
exceptionally little concern for length and frequency in favor of emphasis
and mnemonic function. According to Mark Allon, “there is no attempt on

181
Hockett, C. F., ibid., p. 318
76
the part of sutta texts to avoid using the same word or expression time and
again.” 182 It is closely associated with the tendency for the wording
which depicts a particular concept, action or event to be standardized.183
For the classification of idiomatic expressions under this heading, the
present study has divided it into two parts as two sub-headings: the
compound & phrase idiom and the sentence idiom.

A. Compound & Phrase Idiom (Icp)

The compound & phrase idiom here is used to indicate that something
consists of one, two or more words, or one or more phrases. In general,
this type of idiom appears without subject or verb. In other words, it is
formed from two or more syntactically related words to make a fixed
expression. In the present study, however, the frequency of form is taken
as a regulating factor of an idiomatic expression whether it is compound
or phrase. If any compound or phrase with philosophical or religious
background is repeated in different sentences, passages or suttas in
different situations or conditions, it can belong to this category.
e.g.) “yathābhirantaṃ” (D. II. 91; as long as one likes)
This is an adverbial compound appearing 8 times in the D. The ‘yathā’ is
an indeclinable and adverb.

“aneka pariyāyena” (D. I. 1; in many ways)

This is a prepositional phrase appearing 32 times in the D.

182
Allon, M., ibid., pp. 351
183
Ibid.
77
“addhagato, vayo anuppatto”184 (D. I. 47; being advanced age, in the last
part of life)
This appears 18 times in the D. In those days this expression was
generally used towards respectful spiritual leaders.

“ida-paccayatā paṭiccasamuppādo”185 (D. II. 36 dependent origination

that is a conditioned nature of things)

B. Sentence Idiom (Ist)

A sentence (vyāka) can include words grouped meaningfully to express a
statement, question, exclamation, request or command. As with all
language expressions, sentences contain both semantic and logical
elements (words, parts of speech). In the D many descriptions can fall in
the category of sentence idiom. In particular, the present study has put the
genitive absolute and the locative absolute construction in this category,
though they do not bear connotative meaning. This kind of construction is
syntactically quite idiomatic in Pāli along with Sanskrit. A sentence or a
clause in these two has both the subject and the participle put in the
genitive and the locative case respectively. When these constructions are
translated into English, the relative adverb ‘when’ or ‘while’ should begin
the sentence or the clause, for example, “imasmiṃ ca pana
veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamane” 186 (D. I. 46; when this exposition is
being spoken). The agent ‘veyyākaraṇa’ and the participle ‘bhaññamana’
are in locative case, so this is applicable to locative absolute construction.

184
addha + √gam (to go) + ta, pp.; anu + pa + √āp (to obtain) + ta, pp.
185
ida (ṃ) + paṭi + aya (√i, to go) + tā, der.; saṃ + u (t) + √pad (to go) + a, der.
186
vi + ā + √kṛ (to make) + ana, der.; √bhaṇ (to say) + ya + māna, pass. ppr.
78
 In the D, if the same expression, which is called a set or fixed expression
including set clauses, set sentences or set paragraphs, repeatedly appears
for emphasis and mnemonic function in different places, then it is the
sentence idiom. Even paragraphs or long or short passages with
stereotyped characters would belong to this category. For example, there
is a clause: “evam me sutaṃ”187 This particular opening clause with
historical background appears 33 times in the D. The longest repetitive
portion in the D is from paragraph number 43 to 98 188 in the
Sāmmaññaphala sutta (D2). This longest repetitive portion appears 9
times in different suttas of the first volume in the D.189
e.g.) “atha kho tesaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ acira-pakkantassa bhagavato ayaṃ
antara-kathā udapādi” (D. II. 8; when the Buddha has just gone away,
these monks newly began to talk together)
This is a genitive absolute construction. The subject ‘bhagava’ and the
participle ‘pakkanta’ are in the genitive case.

“suṇohi sādhukaṃ manasikarohi bhāsissāmi”190 (D. I. 62; listen, and pay

attention carefully, I will speak)
This clause probably was in common use in those days by preachers. It
is often used before giving a discourse. It appears 18 times in the D.

“attamanā te bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinanduṃ” (D. I. 46; those

rapt bhikkhus are pleased towards the Exalted One’s speech)

187
D. I. 1, “Thus I have heard”
188
Ibid., 63-85
189
D3 §2.2, D4 §23, D5 §27, D6 §16-§19, D7 §2-§5, D8 §18-§20, D10 §1.7-§2.36,
D11 §9-§66, D12 §53-§77
190
√śru (to hear) + nā + hi, imper. 2nd. sg.; sādhukaṃ, adv.; manasi + √kṛ (to make, to
do) + o + hi, imp. 2nd. sg.
79
 At the end of the Buddha’s discourse this statement frequently comes out
in the texts. It appears 9 times in the D.

“pubbaṇha-samayaṃ nivāsetvā patta-cīvaram ādāya piṇḍāya pāvisi”191

(D. III. 1; in the morning having dressed and taken the bowl and the robe,
one has entered into for alms-food)
This is one of the routines for the monks or ascetics every day. It appears
20 times in the D.

191
pubba + aṇha (Skt. ahna) + samaya; ni + √vas (to dress, to dwell) + e + tvā, caus.
ger.; ā + √dā (to give) + ya, ger.; pa + √viś (to enter) + si, aor. 3rd. sg.
80