Lecture #8

Classification: Naïve Bayes’ Classifier

Today’s discussion…
 Introduction to Classification

 Classification Techniques
 Supervised and unsupervised classification

 Formal statement of supervised classification technique

 Bayesian Classifier
 Principle of Bayesian classifier
 Bayes’ theorem of probability

 Naïve Bayesian Classifier

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A Simple Quiz: Identify the objects

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Introduction to Classification
Example 8.1
 Teacher classify students as A, B, C, D and F based on their marks. The
following is one simple classification rule:

Mark ≥ 𝟗𝟎 : A
𝟗𝟎 > Mark ≥ 𝟖𝟎 : B
8𝟎 > Mark ≥ 𝟕𝟎 : C
𝟕𝟎 > Mark ≥ 𝟔𝟎 : D
6𝟎 > Mark : F
Note:
Here, we apply the above rule to a specific data
(in this case a table of marks).

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Examples of Classification in Data Analytics
 Life Science: Predicting tumor cells as benign or malignant

 Security: Classifying credit card transactions as legitimate or

fraudulent

 Prediction: Weather, voting, political dynamics, etc.

 Entertainment: Categorizing news stories as finance, weather,

entertainment, sports, etc.

 Social media: Identifying the current trend and future growth

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Classification : Definition
 Classification is a form of data analysis to extract models describing
important data classes.

 Essentially, it involves dividing up objects so that each is assigned to one of

a number of mutually exhaustive and exclusive categories known as
classes.
 The term “mutually exhaustive and exclusive” simply means that each object
must be assigned to precisely one class
 That is, never to more than one and never to no class at all.

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Classification Techniques
 Classification consists of assigning a class label to a set of unclassified
cases.

 Supervised Classification
 The set of possible classes is known in advance.

 Unsupervised Classification
 Set of possible classes is not known. After classification we can try to assign a
name to that class.
 Unsupervised classification is called clustering.

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Supervised Classification

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Unsupervised Classification

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Supervised Classification Technique
 Given a collection of records (training set )
 Each record contains a set of attributes, one of the attributes is the
class.

 Find a model for class attribute as a function of the values of

other attributes.
 Goal: Previously unseen records should be assigned a class as
accurately as possible.
 Satisfy the property of “mutually exclusive and exhaustive”

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Illustrating Classification Tasks
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class Learning
1 Yes Large 125K No
algorithm
2 No Medium 100K No

3 No Small 70K No

4 Yes Medium 120K No

Induction
5 No Large 95K Yes

6 No Medium 60K No

7 Yes Large 220K No Learn

8 No Small 85K Yes Model
9 No Medium 75K No

10 No Small 90K Yes

Model
10

Training Set
Apply
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class Model
11 No Small 55K ?

12 Yes Medium 80K ?

13 Yes Large 110K ? Deduction

14 No Small 95K ?

15 No Large 67K ?
10

Test Set

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Classification Problem
 More precisely, a classification problem can be stated as below:

Definition 8.1: Classification Problem

Given a database D = 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , … . . , 𝑡𝑚 of tuples and a set of classes C =

𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . . , 𝑐𝑘 , the classification problem is to define a mapping f ∶ D → 𝐶,

Where each 𝑡𝑖 is assigned to one class.

Note that tuple 𝑡𝑖 ∈ 𝐷 is defined by a set of attributes 𝐴 = 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … . . , 𝐴𝑛 .

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Classification Techniques
 A number of classification techniques are known, which can be broadly
classified into the following categories:

1. Statistical-Based Methods
• Regression
• Bayesian Classifier
•

2. Distance-Based Classification
• K-Nearest Neighbours

3. Decision Tree-Based Classification

• ID3, C 4.5, CART

5. Classification using Machine Learning (SVM)

6. Classification using Neural Network (ANN)

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Classification Techniques
 A number of classification techniques are known, which can be broadly
classified into the following categories:

1. Statistical-Based Methods
• Regression
• Bayesian Classifier
•

2. Distance-Based Classification
• K-Nearest Neighbours

3. Decision Tree-Based Classification

• ID3, C 4.5, CART

5. Classification using Machine Learning (SVM)

6. Classification using Neural Network (ANN)

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 Bayesian Classifier

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Bayesian Classifier
 Principle
 If it walks like a duck, quacks like a duck, then it is probably a duck

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Bayesian Classifier
 A statistical classifier
 Performs probabilistic prediction, i.e., predicts class membership probabilities

 Foundation
 Based on Bayes’ Theorem.

 Assumptions
1. The classes are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. The attributes are independent given the class.

 Called “Naïve” classifier because of these assumptions.

 Empirically proven to be useful.
 Scales very well.

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Example: Bayesian Classification
 Example 8.2: Air Traffic Data

 Let us consider a set

observation recorded in a
database
 Regarding the arrival of airplanes
in the routes from any airport to
New Delhi under certain
conditions.

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Air-Traffic Data
Days Season Fog Rain Class
Weekday Spring None None On Time
Weekday Winter None Slight On Time
Weekday Winter None None On Time
Holiday Winter High Slight Late
Saturday Summer Normal None On Time
Weekday Autumn Normal None Very Late
Holiday Summer High Slight On Time
Sunday Summer Normal None On Time
Weekday Winter High Heavy Very Late
Weekday Summer None Slight On Time

Cond. to next slide…

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Air-Traffic Data
Cond. from previous slide…

Days Season Fog Rain Class

Saturday Spring High Heavy Cancelled
Weekday Summer High Slight On Time
Weekday Winter Normal None Late
Weekday Summer High None On Time
Weekday Winter Normal Heavy Very Late
Saturday Autumn High Slight On Time
Weekday Autumn None Heavy On Time
Holiday Spring Normal Slight On Time
Weekday Spring Normal None On Time
Weekday Spring Normal Heavy On Time

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Air-Traffic Data
 In this database, there are four attributes
A = [ Day, Season, Fog, Rain]
with 20 tuples.
 The categories of classes are:
C= [On Time, Late, Very Late, Cancelled]

 Given this is the knowledge of data and classes, we are to find most likely
classification for any other unseen instance, for example:

Week Day Winter High None ???

 Classification technique eventually to map this tuple into an accurate class.

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Bayesian Classifier
 In many applications, the relationship between the attributes set and the
class variable is non-deterministic.
 In other words, a test cannot be classified to a class label with certainty.

 In such a situation, the classification can be achieved probabilistically.

 The Bayesian classifier is an approach for modelling probabilistic

relationships between the attribute set and the class variable.

 More precisely, Bayesian classifier use Bayes’ Theorem of Probability for

classification.

 Before going to discuss the Bayesian classifier, we should have a quick look
at the Theory of Probability and then Bayes’ Theorem.

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 Bayes’ Theorem of Probability

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Simple Probability
Definition 8.2: Simple Probability

If there are n elementary events associated with a random experiment and m of n

of them are favorable to an event A, then the probability of happening or
occurrence of A is
𝑚
𝑃 𝐴 =
𝑛

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Simple Probability
 Suppose, A and B are any two events and P(A), P(B) denote the
probabilities that the events A and B will occur, respectively.

 Mutually Exclusive Events:

 Two events are mutually exclusive, if the occurrence of one precludes the
occurrence of the other.
Example: Tossing a coin (two events)
Tossing a ludo cube (Six events)

Can you give an example, so that two events are not mutually exclusive?
Hint: Tossing two identical coins, Weather (sunny, foggy, warm)

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Simple Probability
 Independent events: Two events are independent if occurrences of one
does not alter the occurrence of other.

Example: Tossing both coin and ludo cube together.

(How many events are here?)

Can you give an example, where an event is dependent on one or more

other events(s)?
Hint: Receiving a message (A) through a communication channel (B)
over a computer (C), rain and dating.

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Joint Probability
Definition 8.3: Joint Probability

If P(A) and P(B) are the probability of two events, then

𝑃 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵 −𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵

If A and B are mutually exclusive, then 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 0

If A and B are independent events, then 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 . 𝑃(𝐵)

Thus, for mutually exclusive events

𝑃 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 +𝑃 𝐵

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Conditional Probability
Definition 8.2: Conditional Probability

If events are dependent, then their probability is expressed by conditional

probability. The probability that A occurs given that B is denoted by 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵).

Suppose, A and B are two events associated with a random experiment. The
probability of A under the condition that B has already occurred and 𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0 is
given by

Number of events in 𝐵 which are favourable to 𝐴

𝑃 𝐴𝐵 =
Number of events in 𝐵

Number of events favourable to 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

=
Number of events favourable to 𝐵

𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
=
𝑃(𝐵)
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Conditional Probability
Corollary 8.1: Conditional Probability

𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 .𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 𝐴 ≠ 0
or 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐵 .𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0

For three events A, B and C

𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝑃 𝐴 .𝑃 𝐵 .𝑃 𝐶 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

For n events A1, A2, …, An and if all events are mutually independent to each other

𝑃 𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ … … … … ∩ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐴1 . 𝑃 𝐴2 … … … … 𝑃 𝐴𝑛
Note:
𝑃 𝐴𝐵 =0 if events are mutually exclusive
𝑃 𝐴𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 if A and B are independent
𝑃 𝐴 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑃 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑃(𝐴) otherwise,
P A ∩ B = P(B ∩ A)
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Conditional Probability
 Generalization of Conditional Probability:

P(A ∩ B) P(B ∩ A)
P AB = =
P(B) P(B)

P(B|A)∙P(A)
= ∵P A ∩ B = P(B|A) ∙P(A) = P(A|B) ∙P(B)
P(B)

ഥ , where A
By the law of total probability : P(B) = P B ∩ A ∪ B ∩ A ഥ denotes
the compliment of event A. Thus,

P(B|A) ∙ P(A)
P AB =
P B∩A ∪ B∩A ഥ

P BA∙P(A)
=
P BA ∙P A +P(B│Aഥ )∙P(A
ഥ)
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Conditional Probability
In general,
P(A) ∙ P D A
P AD =
P A ∙ P D A + P B ∙ P D B + P(C) ∙ P(D│C)

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Total Probability
Definition 8.3: Total Probability

Let 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … … 𝐸𝑛 be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a

random experiment. If A is any event which occurs with 𝐸1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 𝑜𝑟 … … 𝐸𝑛 , then

𝑃 𝐴 = 𝑃 𝐸1 . 𝑃 𝐴 𝐸1 + 𝑃 𝐸2 . 𝑃 𝐴 𝐸2 + ⋯ … … … . +𝑃 𝐸𝑛 . 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸𝑛 )

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Total Probability: An Example
Example 8.3
A bag contains 4 red and 3 black balls. A second bag contains 2 red and 4 black balls.
One bag is selected at random. From the selected bag, one ball is drawn. What is the
probability that the ball drawn is red?

This problem can be answered using the concept of Total Probability

𝐸1 =Selecting bag I
𝐸2 =Selecting bag II
A = Drawing the red ball

Thus, 𝑃 𝐴 = 𝑃 𝐸1 . 𝑃 𝐴|𝐸1 + 𝑃 𝐸2 . 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸2 )

where, 𝑃 𝐴|𝐸1 = Probability of drawing red ball when first bag has been chosen
and 𝑃 𝐴|𝐸2 = Probability of drawing red ball when second bag has been chosen

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Reverse Probability
Example 8.3:
A bag (Bag I) contains 4 red and 3 black balls. A second bag (Bag II) contains 2 red and 4
black balls. You have chosen one ball at random. It is found as red ball. What is the
probability that the ball is chosen from Bag I?

Here,
𝐸1 = Selecting bag I
𝐸2 = Selecting bag II
A = Drawing the red ball

We are to determine P(𝐸1 |A). Such a problem can be solved using Bayes' theorem of
probability.

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Bayes’ Theorem
Theorem 8.4: Bayes’ Theorem

Let 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … … 𝐸𝑛 be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a

random experiment. If A is any event which occurs with 𝐸1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 𝑜𝑟 … … 𝐸𝑛 , then

𝑃 𝐸𝑖 . 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸𝑖 )
𝑃(𝐸𝑖 𝐴 =
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃 𝐸𝑖 . 𝑃(𝐴|𝐸𝑖 )

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Prior and Posterior Probabilities
 P(A) and P(B) are called prior probabilities X Y
 P(A|B), P(B|A) are called posterior probabilities
𝑥1 A
Example 8.6: Prior versus Posterior Probabilities 𝑥2 A
 This table shows that the event Y has two outcomes
namely A and B, which is dependent on another event X 𝑥3 B
with various outcomes like 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and 𝑥3 . 𝑥3 A
 Case1: Suppose, we don’t have any information of the
event A. Then, from the given sample space, we can 𝑥2 B
5
calculate P(Y = A) = 10 = 0.5 𝑥1 A
•

 Case2: Now, suppose, we want to calculate P(X = 𝑥1 B

2
𝑥2 |Y =A) = 5 = 0.4 .
𝑥3 B
The later is the conditional or posterior probability, where 𝑥2 B
as the former is the prior probability.
𝑥2 A
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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
 Suppose, Y is a class variable and X = 𝑋1, 𝑋2 , … . . , 𝑋𝑛 is a set of attributes,
with instance of Y.

INPUT (X) CLASS(Y)

… … …
… … … …
𝑥 1, 𝑥 2 , … , 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑖
… … … …

 The classification problem, then can be expressed as the class-conditional

probability
𝑃 𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 | 𝑋1 = 𝑥1 AND 𝑋2 = 𝑥2 AND … . . 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
 Naïve Bayesian classifier calculate this posterior probability using Bayes’
theorem, which is as follows.
 From Bayes’ theorem on conditional probability, we have
𝑃(𝑋|𝑌)∙𝑃(𝑌)
𝑃 𝑌𝑋 =
𝑃(𝑋)
𝑃(𝑋|𝑌) ∙ 𝑃(𝑌)
=
𝑃 𝑋 𝑌 = 𝑦1 ∙ 𝑃 𝑌 = 𝑦1 + ⋯ + 𝑃 𝑋 𝑌 = 𝑦𝑘 ∙ 𝑃 𝑌 = 𝑦𝑘
where,
𝑃 𝑋 = σ𝑘𝑖=1 𝑃(𝑋|𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 ) ∙ 𝑃(Y = 𝑦𝑖 )
Note:
 𝑃 𝑋 is called the evidence (also the total probability) and it is a constant.
 The probability P(Y|X) (also called class conditional probability) is therefore
proportional to P(X|Y)∙ 𝑃(𝑌).
 Thus, P(Y|X) can be taken as a measure of Y given that X.
P(Y|X) ≈ 𝑃 𝑋 𝑌 ∙ 𝑃(𝑌)

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
 Suppose, for a given instance of X (say x = (𝑋1 = 𝑥1 ) and ….. (𝑋𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 )).

 There are any two class conditional probabilities namely P(Y= 𝑦𝑖 |X=x)
and P(Y= 𝑦𝑗 | X=x).

 If P(Y= 𝑦𝑖 | X=x) > P(Y= 𝑦𝑗 | X=x), then we say that 𝑦𝑖 is more stronger
than 𝑦𝑗 for the instance X = x.

 The strongest 𝑦𝑖 is the classification for the instance X = x.

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
 Example: With reference to the Air Traffic Dataset mentioned earlier, let
us tabulate all the posterior and prior probabilities as shown below.
Class
Attribute On Time Late Very Late Cancelled
Weekday 9/14 = 0.64 ½ = 0.5 3/3 = 1 0/1 = 0
Saturday 2/14 = 0.14 ½ = 0.5 0/3 = 0 1/1 = 1
Day

Sunday 1/14 = 0.07 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0

Holiday 2/14 = 0.14 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0
Spring 4/14 = 0.29 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0
Season

Summer 6/14 = 0.43 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0

Autumn 2/14 = 0.14 0/2 = 0 1/3= 0.33 0/1 = 0
Winter 2/14 = 0.14 2/2 = 1 2/3 = 0.67 0/1 = 0
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Naïve Bayesian Classifier

Class
Attribute On Time Late Very Late Cancelled
None 5/14 = 0.36 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0
Fog

High 4/14 = 0.29 1/2 = 0.5 1/3 = 0.33 1/1 = 1

Normal 5/14 = 0.36 1/2 = 0.5 2/3 = 0.67 0/1 = 0
None 5/14 = 0.36 1/2 = 0.5 1/3 = 0.33 0/1 = 0
Rain

Slight 8/14 = 0.57 0/2 = 0 0/3 = 0 0/1 = 0

Heavy 1/14 = 0.07 1/2 = 0.5 2/3 = 0.67 1/1 = 1
Prior Probability 14/20 = 0.70 2/20 = 0.10 3/20 = 0.15 1/20 = 0.05

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
Instance:

Week Day Winter High Heavy ???

Case1: Class = On Time : 0.70 × 0.64 × 0.14 × 0.29 × 0.07 = 0.0013

Case2: Class = Late : 0.10 × 0.50 × 1.0 × 0.50 × 0.50 = 0.0125

Case3: Class = Very Late : 0.15 × 1.0 × 0.67 × 0.33 × 0.67 = 0.0222

Case4: Class = Cancelled : 0.05 × 0.0 × 0.0 × 1.0 × 1.0 = 0.0000

Case3 is the strongest; Hence correct classification is Very Late

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
Algorithm: Naïve Bayesian Classification
Input: Given a set of k mutually exclusive and exhaustive classes C =
𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . . , 𝑐𝑘 , which have prior probabilities P(C1), P(C2),….. P(Ck).

There are n-attribute set A = 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … . . , 𝐴𝑛 , which for a given instance have

values 𝐴1 = 𝑎1 , 𝐴2 = 𝑎2 ,….., 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛

Step: For each 𝑐𝑖 ∈ C, calculate the class condition probabilities, i = 1,2,…..,k

𝑝𝑖 = 𝑃 𝐶𝑖 × ς𝑛𝑗=1 𝑃(𝐴𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗 |𝐶𝑖 )
𝑝𝑥 = max 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … . . , 𝑝𝑘

Output: 𝐶𝑥 is the classification

Note: σ 𝒑𝒊 ≠ 𝟏, because they are not probabilities rather proportion values (to
posterior probabilities)

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
Pros and Cons
 The Naïve Bayes’ approach is a very popular one, which often works well.

 However, it has a number of potential problems

 It relies on all attributes being categorical.

 If the data is less, then it estimates poorly.

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
Approach to overcome the limitations in Naïve Bayesian Classification
 Estimating the posterior probabilities for continuous attributes
 In real life situation, all attributes are not necessarily be categorical, In fact, there is a
mix of both categorical and continuous attributes.

 In the following, we discuss the schemes to deal with continuous attributes in Bayesian
classifier.
1. We can discretize each continuous attributes and then replace the continuous
values with its corresponding discrete intervals.

2. We can assume a certain form of probability distribution for the continuous variable
and estimate the parameters of the distribution using the training data. A Gaussian
distribution is usually chosen to represent the posterior probabilities for continuous
attributes. A general form of Gaussian distribution will look like
2
1 x−μ
P x: μ, σ2 = e−
2πσ 2σ2
2
where, μ and σ denote mean and variance, respectively.

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Naïve Bayesian Classifier
For each class Ci, the posterior probabilities for attribute Aj (it is the numeric
attribute) can be calculated following Gaussian normal distribution as
follows.
2
1 aj − μij
P Aj = aj|Ci = e−
2πσij 2σij2
Here, the parameter μij can be calculated based on the sample mean of
attribute value of Aj for the training records that belong to the class Ci.

Similarly, σij2 can be estimated from the calculation of variance of such

training records.

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 Naïve Bayesian Classifier
M-estimate of Conditional Probability

 The M-estimation is to deal with the potential problem of Naïve Bayesian

Classifier when training data size is too poor.
 If the posterior probability for one of the attribute is zero, then the overall class-
conditional probability for the class vanishes.

 In other words, if training data do not cover many of the attribute values, then we may
not be able to classify some of the test records.

 This problem can be addressed by using the M-estimate approach.

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 M-estimate Approach
 M-estimate approach can be stated as follows
𝑛𝑐𝑖 +𝑚𝑝
P Aj = aj|Ci =
𝑛+𝑚

where, n = total number of instances from class C𝑖

𝑛𝑐𝑖 = number of training examples from class C𝑖 that take the value Aj =aj
m = it is a parameter known as the equivalent sample size, and
p = is a user specified parameter.

Note:
If n = 0, that is, if there is no training set available, then 𝑃 ai|C𝑖 = p,
so, this is a different value, in absence of sample value.

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A Practice Example
age income studentcredit_rating
buys_compu
Example 8.4 <=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
Class: 31…40 high no fair yes
C1:buys_computer = ‘yes’
>40 medium no fair yes
C2:buys_computer = ‘no’
>40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
Data instance
31…40 low yes excellent yes
X = (age <=30,
<=30 medium no fair no
Income = medium,
<=30 low yes fair yes
Student = yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
Credit_rating = fair)
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
31…40 medium no excellent yes
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no
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A Practice Example
 P(Ci): P(buys_computer = “yes”) = 9/14 = 0.643
P(buys_computer = “no”) = 5/14= 0.357

 Compute P(X|Ci) for each class

P(age = “<=30” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 2/9 = 0.222
P(age = “<= 30” | buys_computer = “no”) = 3/5 = 0.6
P(income = “medium” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 4/9 = 0.444
P(income = “medium” | buys_computer = “no”) = 2/5 = 0.4
P(student = “yes” | buys_computer = “yes) = 6/9 = 0.667
P(student = “yes” | buys_computer = “no”) = 1/5 = 0.2
P(credit_rating = “fair” | buys_computer = “yes”) = 6/9 = 0.667
P(credit_rating = “fair” | buys_computer = “no”) = 2/5 = 0.4

 X = (age <= 30 , income = medium, student = yes, credit_rating = fair)

P(X|Ci) : P(X|buys_computer = “yes”) = 0.222 × 0.444 × 0.667 × 0.667 = 0.044

P(X|buys_computer = “no”) = 0.6 × 0.4 × 0.2 × 0.4 = 0.019

P(X|Ci)*P(Ci) : P(X|buys_computer = “yes”) * P(buys_computer = “yes”) = 0.028

P(X|buys_computer = “no”) * P(buys_computer = “no”) = 0.007

Therefore, X belongs to class (“buys_computer = yes”)

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 Reference

 The detail material related to this lecture can be found in

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, (3rd Edn.), Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber,
Morgan Kaufmann, 2015.

Introduction to Data Mining, Pang-Ning Tan, Michael Steinbach, and Vipin Kumar,
Addison-Wesley, 2014

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