Working Principle of Relay
It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction. When the circuit of the relay senses
the fault current, it energizes the electromagnetic field which produces the temporary
magnetic field.
This magnetic field moves the relay armature for opening or closing the connections. The
small power relay has only one contacts, and the high power relay has two contacts for
opening the switch.
The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core which is wound
by a control coil. The power supply is given to the coil through the contacts of the load and
the control switch. The current flows through the coil produces the magnetic field around it.
Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm. Hence close
the circuit, which makes the current flow through the load. If the contact is already closed,
then it moves oppositely and hence open the contacts.
Types of Relay:
There are various types of relays & they are classified into different categories according to
their properties. Each of these types of relays is used for a specific application & it is necessary
to select the appropriate relay before using in any circuit.
Based on Poles & Throw
These following types of relays are classified by the numbers of poles & throw inside a relay.
SPST Relay
SPST refers to single pole single throw relay.
The single pole means that it can control only one circuit while the single throw means its pole
has only one position in which it can conduct. SPST diagram is given below.
The SPST relay two states I.e. either Open or Close circuit.
SPDT Relay
SPDT refers to single pole double throw relay.
The single pole means it can control only one circuit at a time. The double throw means its
pole has two positions in which it can conduct.
The SPDT relay has two states & in each state, its one circuit remains closed while the other
remains open & vice versa.
DPST Relay
DPST refers to double pole single throw.
The double pole means it can control two completely isolated individual circuits. The single
throw means that each pole has one position in which it can conduct.
The DPST relay can switch two circuits simultaneously i.e. either providing a close or open
circuit.
DPDT Relay
DPDT refers to double pole double throw.
The double pole means it can control two circuits while the double throw means each pole
can conduct in two separate positions.
The DPDT relay can be interpreted as two SPDT relays but their switching is simultaneous.
A relay can have as many as 12 poles.
Forms of Relay
Types of relays are also classified based on its configuration known as “Forms”.
“Form A” Relay
“Form A” is an SPST relay with normally open (NO) default state.
It has NO terminal that connects the circuit when the relay is activated & disconnects the
circuit when the relay deactivates.
“Form B” Relay
Form B relay is SPST relay with normally closed (NC) default state.
The NC terminal connects the circuit while the relay is inactive & it disconnects the circuit
when the relay activates.
“Form C” Relay
Form C relay is SPDT relay with double throw contact terminals known as NC & NO.
It controls two circuit i.e. one circuit remain open while the other remains closed. It is also
known as “break-before-make” relay because it breaks open one circuit before closing
the other circuit.
“Form D” Relay
Form D relay is also an SPDT relay and has the same principle as Form C relay but it is “make-
before-break” contact relay.
It closes the next circuit before breaking (opening) the first circuit. It is used for not disrupting
the continuity of the circuit.
Based On Operation Principles
These following types of relays are classified based on their different operation principles.
EMR (Electromechanical Relay)
This type of relay has an electromagnetic coil and a mechanical movable contact.
When the coil is energized it produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field attracts the
armature (movable contact). When the coil is de-energized the coil loose magnetic field and
a spring retract the armature to its normal position.
The EMR relay is designed for AC or DC source depending on the application it is used for. The
structure of AC & DC EMR relay differs from each other by having a slight difference in its coil
construction. The DC coil has a freewheeling diode for protection against back EMF & de-
energizing the coil.
The polarity of the source in EMR relay does not matter, it energizes the coil in either way but
if there is a back EMF diode installed then polarity should be considered.
The main disadvantage of EMR relay is that its contacts produce arc during breaking which
leads to increasing its resistance over time & decreasing the lifespan of the relay.
SSR (Solid State Relay)
SSR relay is made up of semiconductors instead of mechanical parts and it works on isolating
the low voltage circuit from high voltage circuit using an optocoupler.
When the control input is applied to a solid state relay, an LED lights up which produce
infrared light. This light is received by a photosensitive semiconductor device which converts
the light signal into an electrical signal and switches the circuit.
SSR operates on relatively high speed & has very low power consumption as compared to
EMR relay. It has a longer lifespan because there are no physical contacts to burn out.
The main disadvantage of SSR relay is its nominal voltage drop across the semiconductor
which wastes power in the form of heat.
Hybrid Relay:
Hybrid relays are made using both SSR & EMR relays.
As we know that the SSR wastes power in form of heat and EMR has contact arcing problem.
The hybrid relay uses both SSR & EMR to overcome their disadvantages.
In Hybrid relay, SSR & EMR are used in parallel. A relay control circuit is used for switching
the SSR first. The SSR takes the load current. So it eliminates the arching problem. Then the
control circuit energizes the EMR coil & its contact closes but there is no arching since the SSR
is taking the load in parallel. After some time, when the EMR contact settles down, the control
input of SSR is removed. The EMR conducts the entire load current without any loss. Since
there is no current flow throw SSR & the EMR takes the entire load, there is no power loss in
form of heat. Thus, it eliminates the heat problem too.
Reed Relay
Reed relay is made up of a reed switch & an electromagnetic coil with a diode for back EMF.
A reed switch is made up of two metal blades made up of ferromagnetic material hermetically
sealed in a glass tube which also supports the metal blades. The glass is filled with inert gas.
When the coil is energized, the ferromagnetic metal blades attract each other and form a
closed path. As there is no moving armature so there is no contact wear-out problem. The
glass tube is also filled with inert gas which also prolongs its life.
Electrothermal Relay (Thermal Relay):
An electrothermal relay is made up of bimetallic (made up of two metals having different
thermal expansion coefficients) strip.
When the current flow through the conductor, it produces heat. Due to which the
temperature of the bimetallic strip rises and expands. The metal having high thermal
expansion coefficient expands more than the other metal. Due which the strip bends & closes
the contacts to usually activate the trip circuitry.
Thermal relays are usually used for electric motor protection.
Polarized & Non-polarized Relay
The polarized relay uses a permanent magnet with an electromagnet. The permanent magnet
provides a fixed position for the armature. The electromagnetic coil changes the position of
the armature about a fixed pivot. The armature position depends on the polarity of the control
input.
The non-polarized relay does not use permanent magnets & their coil can be energized in both
ways without affecting its operation. Some relay having back EMF diodes does have polarity
since the diode will bypass the coil if the connection is reversed.
H-Bridge
As we know that the H-Bridge circuit is mainly used to change the polarity of the voltage
applied to a load. So let's see the working principle of the H-Bridge circuit with an example.
As you see in the above figure we have taken a PMDC motor as a load and the PMDC motor is
connected with the H-Bridge circuit.
Now let's see how we can change the direction of the PMDC motor by the H-Bridge Circuit.
We know that if we change the polarity of the applied voltage applied to the PMDC motor
then the rotation of the motor will be change and it can be done by the H-Bridge circuit.
In the H-Bridge circuit, four switches are connected named as S1, S2, S3, S4.
(1) When switch S1, S4 are closed and S2, S3 are open then the positive voltage will be applied
across the motor and the motor will be run in the forward direction. In this case, the direction
of flow of current is indicated in the below circuit diagram.
(2) When switch S2, S3 are closed and S1, S4 are open then the negative voltage will be applied
across the motor and the motor will be run in the backward direction. In this case, the
direction of flow of current is indicated in the below circuit diagram.
(3) Using the H-Bridge, we not only change the direction of rotation of the motor, but we can
also brake the motor. We know that in the case of DC motor during rotating condition if we
removed the motor from the main supply and connect the terminals of the motor together
then the motor will brake and it stops rotating.
As you see in the above circuit diagram, S1, S3 are closed and S2, S4 are open. So the motor
removed from the main supply and terminals are connected together. So the motor
will brake or stop.
The same will happen if we close S2, S4, and open S1, S3.
One most important thing remember that S1, S2 never be connected together otherwise it
will create a short circuit with the input supply. S3 and S4 also never be connected together.
Practical H-Bridge Circuit Design
H-Bridge circuits are available with Integrated Circuit(IC) in the market. L293X series ICs are
examples of H-Bridge circuit. L9110, L293D are H-Bridge ICs.
We can also make or design an H-bridge circuit with discrete components.
H-Bridge Circuit design using Transistors
Here the H-Bridge circuit using transistor are given above. As you see we have used two types
of transistor. Tow PNP transistors and two NPN transistors.
The top two transistors are PNP transistors and Bottom two transistors are NPN transistors.
If you connect NPN transistor in the top then the circuit will not run.
We know that when we applied current to the base terminal of the transistor it will conduct.
So we can give supply to the base using Microcontroller to run the circuit.
Generally, the PWM signal is given to control the motor using H-Bridge circuit.
We know that Motor will also generate electrical energy when it running and supply is off. So
you can see in the above diagram we have used PN junction diodes as Freewheeling Diode to
release the energy. Of course, if you use H-Bridge circuit for other purposes you may not need
to use freewheeling diodes.
L298N Motor Driver Basics:
L298N is a 15 pin IC used for controlling high current drawing motors and thus cost a
little bit more than L293D. Protective diodes for the protection against back EMFs are
connected externally. It also consists of a heat sink as it has a high current/voltage
rating (operating temperature is between 0oC to 130oC).
For driving motors in both directions, L298N uses a dual H bridge circuit. This module
can operate between 5V to 46V and can supply current up to 1.2A for a single channel.
And thus consumes high power (25 W).
Features of the L298N Motor Driver Module:
Operating supply voltage up to 46 V
Total DC current up to 4 A. 2A per channel
Low saturation voltage
Over temperature protection
Logical input voltage up to 1.5 V
High noise immunity
L293D Motor Driver Basics:
L293D is a commonly used 16 pin IC for controlling DC motors. They are popular
because of their cheap cost, internally connected protective diodes for protection
against back EMFs, no need for a heat sink, and good resistance to high temperature
(operation temp. 0oC to 70oC).
This IC operates between the voltage of 4.5V to 36V and supplies a current up to 600
mA. It consists of four high current half h-bridge circuit for driving the motor in both
directions.
Specifications of L293D Motor Driver IC:
Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V
Separate Input-Logic Supply
Internal ESD Protection
High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
Output Current 600 mA Per Channel
Peak Output Current 1.2 A Per Channel
Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive Transient Suppression
Operation Temperature 0°C to 70°C.
Automatic thermal shutdown is available
