14.
8 Sand Drains 745
and
sor 5 210 kN>m2
so
Ds(p)
r 115
5 5 0.548
sor 210
r >sor 5 0.548, Ds(f)
According to Figure 14.17, for U 5 47% and Ds(p) r >Ds(p)
r < 1.8;
thus,
r 5 (1.8) (115) 5 207 kN , m2
Ds(f) ■
14.8 Sand Drains
The use of sand drains is another way to accelerate the consolidation settlement of soft, nor-
mally consolidated clay layers and achieve precompression before the construction of a
desired foundation. Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes through the clay layer(s)
in the field at regular intervals. The holes are then backfilled with sand. This can be achieved
by several means, such as (a) rotary drilling and then backfilling with sand; (b) drilling by
continuous-flight auger with a hollow stem and backfilling with sand (through the hollow
steam); and (c) driving hollow steel piles. The soil inside the pile is then jetted out, after
which backfilling with sand is done. Figure 14.20 shows a schematic diagram of sand
drains. After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground sur-
face. The surcharge will increase the pore water pressure in the clay. The excess pore water
pressure in the clay will be dissipated by drainage—both vertically and radially to the sand
drains—thereby accelerating settlement of the clay layer. In Figure 14.20a, note that the
radius of the sand drains is rw . Figure 14.20b shows the plan of the layout of the sand drains.
The effective zone from which the radial drainage will be directed toward a given sand drain
is approximately cylindrical, with a diameter of de .
To determine the surcharge that needs to be applied at the ground surface and the
length of time that it has to be maintained, see Figure 14.16 and use the corresponding
equation, Eq. (14.15):
Ds(p)
r
log B1 1 R
sor
Uv,r 5 (14.17)
Ds(p)
r Ds(f)
r
log b1 1 B1 1 Rr
sor Ds(p)
r
r , sor , and Ds(f)
The notations Ds(p) r are the same as those in Eq. (14.15); however, the left-
hand side of Eq. (14.17) is the average degree of consolidation instead of the degree of
746 Chapter 14: Soil Improvement and Ground Modification
Surcharge
Groundwater
table
Sand
Vertical drainage
Sand drain
Sand drain radius rw
Radial Radial
Hc
drainage drainage
Clay
layer Vertical drainage
Sand
(a) Section
Sand drain
radius rw
de
(b) Plan Figure 14.20 Sand drains
consolidation at midplane. Both radial and vertical drainage contribute to the average
degree of consolidation. If Uv,r can be determined for any time t2 (see Figure 14.16b), the
total surcharge Ds(f)
r 1 Ds(p) r may be obtained easily from Figure 14.17. The procedure
for determining the average degree of consolidation (Uv,r ) follows:
For a given surcharge and duration, t2, the average degree of consolidation due to
drainage in the vertical and radial directions is
Uv,r 5 1 2 (1 2 Ur ) (1 2 Uv ) (14.18)
where
Ur 5 average degree of consolidation with radial drainage only
Uv 5 average degree of consolidation with vertical drainage only
The successful use of sand drains has been described in detail by Johnson (1970b).
As with precompression, constant field settlement observations may be necessary during
the period the surcharge is applied.
14.8 Sand Drains 747
Average Degree of Consolidation Due to Radial Drainage Only
Figure 14.21 shows a schematic diagram of a sand drain. In the figure, rw is the radius of the
sand drain and re 5 de>2 is the radius of the effective zone of drainage. It is also important
to realize that, during the installation of sand drains, a certain zone of clay surrounding them
is smeared, thereby changing the hydraulic conductivity of the clay. In the figure, rs is the
radial distance from the center of the sand drain to the farthest point of the smeared zone.
Now, for the average-degree-of-consolidation relationship, we will use the theory of equal
strain. Two cases may arise that relate to the nature of the application of surcharge, and they
are shown in Figure 14.22. (See the notations shown in Figure 14.16). Either (a) the entire
surcharge is applied instantaneously (see Figure 14.22a), or (b) the surcharge is applied in
the form of a ramp load (see Figure 14.22b). When the entire surcharge is applied instanta-
neously (Barron, 1948),
28Tr
Ur 5 1 2 exp ¢ ≤ (14.19)
m
de
Smeared
zone
Clay
Hc Sand
drain
rs re
rw Figure 14.21 Schematic diagram of a sand drain
Surcharge Surcharge
per unit area per unit area
(p) (f) (p) (f)
Time Time
tc
(a) (b)
Figure 14.22 Nature of application of surcharge
748 Chapter 14: Soil Improvement and Ground Modification
where
n2 n 3 S2 kh n2 2 S2
m5 ln ¢ ≤ 2 1 1 ¢ ≤ ln S (14.20)
n2 2 S2 S 4 4n2 ks n2
in which
de re
n5 5
2rw rw (14.21)
rs
S5 (14.22)
rw
and
kh 5 hydraulic conductivity of clay in the horizontal direction in the unsmeared zone
ks 5 horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the smeared zone
Cvrt2
Tr 5 nondimensional time factor for radial drainage only 5 2 (14.23)
de
Cvr 5 coefficient of consolidation for radial drainage
kh
5 (14.24)
De
B Rg
Dsr(1 1 eav ) w
For a no-smear case, rs 5 rw and kh 5 ks, so S 5 1 and Eq. (14.20) becomes
n2 3n2 2 1
m5 ¢ ≤ ln (n) 2 (14.25)
n2 2 1 4n2
Table 14.5 gives the values of Ur for various values of Tr and n.
If the surcharge is applied in the form of a ramp and there is no smear, then
(Olson, 1977)
31 2 exp(2ATr )4
1
Tr 2
A
Ur 5 (for Tr < Trc ) (14.26)
Trc
and
3exp(ATrc ) 2 14exp(2ATrc )
1
Ur 5 1 2 (for Tr > Trc ) (14.27)
ATrc
