24

Chapter 2:
Atomic structure
Learning outcomes
You should be able to:
■ identify and describe protons, neutrons and ■ describe the contribution of protons and neutrons
electrons in terms of their relative charges and to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number and
relative masses nucleon number
■ deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons ■ distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different
and electrons in electric fields numbers of neutrons present
x
■ describe the distribution of mass and charges within ■ recognise and use the symbolism y A for isotopes,
an atom where x is the nucleon number and y is the
■ deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and proton number.
electrons present in both atoms and ions given
proton and nucleon numbers and charge
 Chapter 2: Atomic structure

Introduction
In order to explain how chemical substances behaved,
scientists first had to understand what the substances
themselves were made from. Over time, a model was
developed in which all substances were composed
of atoms of elements. Originally it was thought that
atoms could not themselves be broken up into yet
smaller parts, but now we understand the structure
inside the atoms themselves, and the role of electrons,
protons and neutrons. We can now design and make
materials and objects almost at the atomic level.
Nanotechnology is the design and making of objects
that may have a thickness of only a few thousand
atoms or less. Groups of atoms can be moved around Figure 2.1 Each of the blue peaks in this image is an
on special surfaces. In this way scientists hope to individual molecule. The molecules can be moved over
develop tiny machines that may help deliver medical a copper surface, making this a molecular abacus or
drugs to exactly where they are needed in the body. counting device.

Elements and atoms

Every substance in our world is made up from chemical
elements. These chemical elements cannot be broken down
further into simpler substances by chemical means. A few 25
elements, such as nitrogen and gold, are found on their
own in nature, not combined with other elements. Most
elements, however, are found in combination with other
elements as compounds.
Every element has its own chemical symbol. The
symbols are often derived from Latin or Greek words.
Some examples are shown in Table 2.1.

Element Symbol

carbon C

lithium Li (from Greek ‘lithos’)

iron Fe (from Latin ‘ferrum’)

potassium K (from Arabic ‘al-qualyah’ or from the

Latin ‘kalium’) Figure 2.2 Our Sun is made largely of the elements hydrogen
and helium. This is a composite image made using X-ray and
Table 2.1 Some examples of chemical symbols. solar optical telescopes.

Chemical elements contain only one type of atom. An

atom is the smallest part of an element that can take part
Inside the atom
in a chemical change. Atoms are very small. The diameter The structure of an atom
of a hydrogen atom is approximately 10 –10 m, so the mass Every atom has nearly all of its mass concentrated in a
of an atom must also be very small. A single hydrogen tiny region in the centre of the atom called the nucleus.
atom weighs only 1.67 × 10–27 kg. The nucleus is made up of particles called nucleons. There
 •
( ÷÷[¥ÉT:_
neutrons
-1+1

atom -
indivisible be

↳ cannot further ,
broken down by chemical
means .

Subatomic particles -

proton -
atomic no (identity element)
if the proton
f)
carbon = no .

changes then the

g-
N <
Nitrogen element
changes
% →
INN +
Epp -~•

beta particle
& it symbol1stfor element
Element Name
Symbol *
have two
in
capital
carbon ②
we
digitwill will be
be lowercase
→
2nd .

Sodium → N atrium → Na e
Na → Sodium .

Potassium → kalivm → K

P
Phosphorus → .

Lead Plumbum Pbbb

10mg (mad)
→
→ ←

teaspoon Gooomg-

sugar
.

Artificial → lead Acetate (PbC0z + ethanoieacid )

sugar Pb CCAs code → it tastes sugar/death .
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

are two types of nucleon: protons and neutrons. Atoms of Atoms are tiny, but the nucleus of an atom is far tinier
different elements have different numbers of protons. still. If the diameter of an atom were the size of a football
Outside the nucleus, particles called electrons move stadium, the nucleus would only be the size of a pea. This
around in regions of space called orbitals (see page 37). means that most of the atom is empty space! Electrons are
Chemists often find it convenient to use a model of the even smaller than protons and neutrons.
atom in which electrons move around the nucleus in
electron shells. Each shell is a certain distance from the
nucleus at its own particular energy level (see page 37).
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the
number of protons. A simple model of a carbon atom is
shown in Figure 2.3.
electron

nucleus

electron shells Figure 2.4 Ernest Rutherford (left) and Hans Geiger (right)
(energy levels) using their alpha-particle apparatus. Interpretation of
the results led to Rutherford proposing the nuclear model
for atoms.
proton neutron
26
Figure 2.3 A model of a carbon atom. This model is not very
accurate but it is useful for understanding what happens to
the electrons during chemical reactions.

EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

We can deduce the electric charge of subatomic b – cathode

particles by showing how beams of electrons, +
protons and neutrons behave in electric fields. If we
fire a beam of electrons past electrically charged
plates, the electrons are deflected (bent) away from fluorescent
the negative plate and towards the positive plate cathode rays screen
(Figure 2.5a). This shows us that the electrons are with scale
negatively charged. charged
plates (anode)
A cathode-ray tube (Figure 2.5b) can be used to
produce beams of electrons. At one end of the tube
magnets causing
electromagnetic
a field beam deflected
downwards
–
Figure 2.5 a The beam of electrons is deflected away from a negatively
electron charged plate and towards a positively charged plate. b The electron
beam + beam in a cathode-ray tube is deflected (bent) by an electromagnetic
field. The direction of the deflection shows us that the electron is
negatively charged.
 ATOMS -

KEY TERMS

Atomic Number -
it is the number of protons in the nucleus of an

it
atom has
symbol 8
'

and .

☐
The atomic number is equal to the number of electron
present in a neutral atom of an element .

Eg , The atomic number of Lithium is 3 which

suggests
that the neutral lithium atom has 3 protons and 3 electrons .

☐
The mass number nucleon number is the total number of
or

protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom and

AA
symbol

The number of can be calculated

neutron
by :

Number of neutrons =
mass number -

atomic number .

* Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons .

Man number =
A .

number of
nucleons ← chemical symbol
in a nucleus .

for element
2

Atomic number
=/proton number)
Number of proton in a nucleus .

Mass & Charge distribution

The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus as the

-

nucleus contains the heaviest subatomic particles

(The neutrons and protons)
* Man of electron is
negligible .

1 neutron = 1 unit =
A proton is I unit

C- proton +1 e- → 1
unit
 due
* The Nucleus is
positively charged to the protons .

The electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom

contributing
-

, very
little to the overall man ,
electrons create a cloud of negative
charge .

The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and

electrons hold
negatively
atom
charged orbiting around it an

together .

e-

Note : The of the atom is concentrated

man
He
in the
positively charged nucleus which is ••••
attracted to the
negatively charged electrons ,

orbiting around it .

Behaviour of Subatomic Particles in a Electric Field .

① Protons ,
neutrons and electrons behave differently when
they
at the in electric field
move same
velocity an .

② When a beam of electrons is fired point the

electrically from
charged plates the electrons are deflected
,
very easily away
the
negative plate towards the positive plate .

This
suggests that
the electron is
negatively charged as
-

like repel other

charges each .

It also shows that electrons have small

a
very mass as

they are
easily deflected .

- e-
_*changed ,
,

plate
electrons
'

light
←
as are
-

very ,

Beam of electron
they deflected
-

e-
very easily
-
→
are
- -
- -
.

⇐ charged
plate
 33 A beam of protons is deflected
away
from the
positive
plate towards the
negative plate .

This that the

suggests Proton is
positively charged
-

As protons deflected less than electrons this shows that

-

are ,

than electrons
protons are heavier .

€haIrged plates
protons heavier than
are
Beam of Proton →
P± - - - -
-
-
-
" electrons and are
therefore less
-
-
-
-
+
p
-

f)
charged plates deflected .

④ A beam of neutrons is not deflected at all .

This that the particle neutral in character as it

suggests
-

is

is attracted either the positive plate

not to
negative or .

neutral

Beam of Neutron → n -
- -
harged Plate

- - -
neuron
f- [Link]?t?I??*
is

charge
.

C- 1 Charged Plate

Determining the Subatomic Structure of Atoms and Ions .

① An atom is neutral and has no overall charge

② Ions on the other hand have either
gained or lost electrons
them to become
charged
causing
.

③ The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions

be determined their
can
given proton number ,
mass number
and
charge .
 Protons
① The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which
element it is .

② Therefore ,
all atoms and ions of the same element have
the same number of protons in the nucleus .

e.
g. Lithium has a an atomic number of 3
has atomic of
where as
beryllium number 4 .

③ The number of protons equals the atomic number

④ The number of in an unknown element be

protons can
calculated by using its man number and number of

neutrons .

Man no = no .

of proton + Neutron no .

No of protons
=
Man number -
neutron no .

Electrons
* An atom neutral and therefore has the same number of protons
and electrons .

* Ions have a different number of electrons to their atomic number

depending on their
charge .

* A positive charged ions have lost electrons

@ Nat 2-1
. g. , hag
D= 11 F- 12

C =/⑤ e = 10

* A
negtirely charged ion has gained electrons
and therefore has more electrons than protons .

02
-

e.
g. g- ,

8
p= 17 F-
e = 18 e = 10
Neutrons
① The mass and atomic number can be used
to find the number of neutrons in ions and atoms .

Number of neutrons =
man number (A) -

number of proton (2)

 Isotopes -
are atoms of the same

elements that contains the same

number of protons and electrons but Hydrogen

a different number of neutrons .

Deuterium

124
Examples : Carbon -
Bromine -79=551 i.
Carbon -
13 Bromine-81 -99%
Carbon - 14 Chlorine -35-751 .

Chlorine -37-25% Tritium

Symbol of isotope -
Chemical symbol/ word
followed by
dash and man no .

Isotopes can be divided into two

catagories
① Radioactive
② Non -
Radioactive

Radio -
active isotopes -
are unstable due to the imbalance of protons
(Radio isotopes)
- and neutrons which causes the nucleus to
,

overtime nuclear fission and

decay through
emit radiation .

Example ,

Carbon -14
Hydrogen -3 (Tritium)
Non -
Radioactive isotopes -
are stable atoms which are
slightly heavier
due to extra neutrons in them .

USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Medical Uses Industrial Uses

* Cancer treatment * Radioactive dating .(Carbon dating )
* Treatment for over active thyroid gland -
*
Measuring & Controlling thickness of paper
Sterilizing medical equipment fluid flow and locating leaks
Measuring
* *

*
Locating tumours (Medical tracers in pipelines .

generation nuclear
Energy
* in

power station
Note : Radioactive decay is not a chemical reaction it is a
physical breakdown .
*
÷÷÷¥i÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷¥m
proton + electron = neutron
1
negligible L

.
t Gg.
00000000
F'
¥-888880885 P
>

p Gold leaf (foil)

E -7% :&:
g.
like

p : .

Ernest Rutherford
* atoms are
mostly empty space
positive
* with

*%%n
a

, are
negatively charged .

Battery
e-
chemical
#
e-
electrical energy energy
-
 Chapter 2: Atomic structure

EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBATOMIC PARTICLES (CONTINUED)

is a metal wire (cathode), which is heated to a high In recent years, experiments have been carried out
temperature when a low voltage is applied to it. At with beams of electrons, protons and neutrons. The
the other end of the tube is a fluorescent screen, results of these experiments show that:
which glows when electrons hit it. ■ a proton beam is deflected away from a positively
The electrons are given off from the heated wire and charged plate; as like charges repel, the protons must
are attracted towards two metal plates, which are have a positive charge (Figure 2.7)
positively charged. As they pass through the metal ■ an electron beam is deflected towards a positively
charged plate; as unlike charges attract, the electrons
plates the electrons form a beam. When the electron
must have a negative charge
beam hits the screen a spot of light is produced.
■ a beam of neutrons is not deflected; this is because
When an electric field is applied across this beam they are uncharged.
the electrons are deflected (bent). The fact that the
electrons are so easily attracted to the positively
protons detected on
charged anode and that they are easily deflected by walls of apparatus
–
an electric field shows us that:
■ electrons have a negative charge
■ electrons have a very small mass.
+
beam of
+
protons

+
27

Figure 2.7 A beam of protons is deflected away from a

positively charged area. This shows us that protons have
a positive charge.

In these experiments, huge voltages have to be

used to show the deflection of the proton beam.
This contrasts with the very low voltages needed
to show the deflection of an electron beam. These
experiments show us that protons are much heavier
than electrons. If we used the same voltage to
deflect electrons and protons, the beam of electrons
Figure 2.6 J. J. Thomson calculated the charge to mass
would have a far greater deflection than the beam
ratio of electrons. He used results from experiments with of protons. This is because a proton is about 2000
electrons in cathode-ray tubes. times as heavy as an electron.

QUESTION

1 A beam of electrons is passing close to a highly a What deflection would you expect, if any, when the
negatively charged plate. When the electrons pass experiment is repeated with beams of i protons and
close to the plate, they are deflected (bent) away from ii neutrons? Explain your answers.
the plate. b Which subatomic particle (electron, proton or neutron)
would deviate the most? Explain your answer.
 /

Ia ) Proton deflected
is towards the
negative plate because unlike
attract
charges .

neutron is not deflected because it is neutral .

Electron because the

b) it is
lightest .
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Masses and charges: a summary QUESTION

Electrons, protons and neutrons have characteristic charges
and masses. The values of these are too small 2 Use the information in the table to deduce the number
to be very useful when discussing general chemical of electrons and neutrons in a neutral atom of:
properties. For example, the charge on a single electron a vanadium
is –1.602 × 10–19 coulombs. We therefore compare their b strontium
masses and charges by using their relative charges and c phosphorus.
masses. These are shown in Table 2.2.
Atom Nucleon number Proton number
Subatomic Symbol Relative Relative vanadium 51 23
particle mass charge
1 strontium 84 38
electron e ____ –1
1836
phosphorus 31 15
neutron n 1 0
proton p 1 +1

Table 2.2 Comparing electrons, neutrons and protons.

Isotopes
All atoms of the same element have the same number of
Numbers of nucleons protons. However, they may have different numbers of
neutrons. Atoms of the same element that have differing
Proton number and nucleon number numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called
28 the proton number (Z). It is also known as the atomic Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
number. Every atom of the same element has the same nucleon (mass) numbers.
number of protons in its nucleus. It is the proton number
that makes an atom what it is. For example, an atom with
a proton number of 11 must be an atom of the element Isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical
sodium. The Periodic Table of elements is arranged in order properties because they have the same number of
of the proton numbers of the individual elements electrons. They have slightly different physical properties,
(see Appendix 1, page 473). such as small differences in density.
The nucleon number (A) is the number of protons plus We can write symbols for isotopes. We write the
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. This is also known as nucleon number at the top left of the chemical symbol and
the mass number. the proton number at the bottom left.
The symbol for the isotope of boron with 5 protons and
How many neutrons? 11 nucleons is written:
We can use the nucleon number and proton number to find
nucleon number 11
the number of neutrons in an atom. As:
proton number 5 B
nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Hydrogen has three isotopes. The atomic structure and
Then: isotopic symbols for the three isotopes of hydrogen are
number of neutrons = nucleon number – number of protons shown in Figure 2.8.
=A–Z When writing generally about isotopes, chemists also
name them by omitting the proton number and placing
For example, an atom of aluminium has a nucleon number the nucleon number after the name. For example, the
of 27 and a proton number of 13. So an aluminium atom isotopes of hydrogen can be called hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2
has 27 – 13 = 14 neutrons. and hydrogen-3.
 Man
Nof Nucleon no →
proton + Neutron

23
Na
Il

n= Mass no -

proton no

= 23 - 11
= 12

Isotope :S -
atoms of the same element hair
ing .

Same no
proton but different no of neutron .

Example :

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

'
' 2
H H
A l
l l
N -
- O n -
- l n =L

Fusion Reaction in Sun .

IH t
} A → 42 He

* % %
N = 6 A- F n -
- 8

* No isotopes do not have differences in

chemical
reactivity .
However they have greater mas .
*
Isotopes react the same
way
as normal
element because
they have same no
of
outer shell electron . It is the outer shell
electron that determiner the chemical
reactivity .

֥
Compound only
carbon -

19 will be heavier .
 Chapter 2: Atomic structure

protium deuterium tritium

electron neutron

proton

protons 1 1 1
neutrons 0 1 2
1 2 3
isotopic symbol
1 H 1 H 1 H
Figure 2.8 The atomic structure and isotopic symbols for the three isotopes of hydrogen.

Isotopes can be radioactive or non-radioactive. Specific Mg Mg2+ + 2e–

radioisotopes (radioactive isotopes) can be used to check magnesium magnesium 2 electrons
for leaks in oil or gas pipelines and to check the thickness atom ion removed
of paper. They are also used in medicine to treat some 12 protons 12 protons
types of cancer and to check the activity of the thyroid 12 electrons 10 electrons
gland in the throat.
The magnesium ion has a charge of 2+ because it has 12
protons (+) but only 10 electrons (–).
QUESTION The isotopic symbol for an ion derived from sulfur-33
33 2–
is 16S . This sulfide ion has 16 protons, 17 neutrons
3 Use the Periodic Table on page 473 to help you.
(because 33 – 16 = 17) and 18 electrons (because 16 + 2 = 18).
Write isotopic symbols for the following neutral atoms: 29
a bromine-81
b calcium-44 QUESTION
c iron-58 4 Deduce the number of electrons in each of these ions:
d palladium-110.
a
40
19 K+
b
15
7 N3–

How many protons, neutrons c

18
8 O2–

and electrons? d 71
31 Ga3+
In a neutral atom the number of positively charged protons
in the nucleus equals the number of negatively charged
electrons outside the nucleus. When an atom gains or loses
electrons, ions are formed, which are electrically charged.
For example:

Cl + e– Cl–
chlorine atom 1 electron gained chloride ion
17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 18 electrons

The chloride ion has a single negative charge because there

are 17 protons (+) and 18 electrons (–).
 81
Br
=É> as

=
19-1 = 18

=
10

=
10

= 28
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Summary
■ Every atom has an internal structure with a nucleus ■ The number of neutrons in an atom is found by
in the centre and the negatively charged electrons subtracting the proton number from the nucleon
arranged in ‘shells’ outside the nucleus. number (A – Z).
■ Most of the mass of the atom is in the nucleus, which ■ In a neutral atom, number of electrons = number
contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons of protons. When there are more protons than
(uncharged). electrons, the atom becomes a positive ion. When
■ Beams of protons and electrons are deflected by there are more electrons than protons, a negatively
electric fields but neutrons are not. charged ion is formed.

■ All atoms of the same element have the same ■ Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number
number of protons. This is the proton number (Z), but different nucleon numbers. They only differ in
which is also called the atomic number. the number of neutrons they contain.

■ The nucleon number, which is also called the mass

number (A), is the total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.

30

End-of-chapter questions
1 Boron is an element in Group 13 of the Periodic Table.
a Boron has two isotopes.
What do you understand by the term isotope? -
definition -

[1]
11
b State the number of i protons, ii neutrons and iii electrons in one neutral atom of the isotope 5B. [3]
c State the relative masses and charges of:
P =5
i an electron -
C I-

/ it 56 n = 6
[2]
ii a neutron [2]
iii a proton
-

(o) / i e
=3 [2]
ft ) l
-

l Total = 10

2 Zirconium, Zr, and hafnium, Hf, are metals.

An isotope of zirconium has 40 protons and 91 nucleons.
a i Write the isotopic symbol for this isotope of zirconium. 912*40 51
[1]
ii How many neutrons are present in one atom of this isotope? -
. 91 -
40 =
[1]
180
b Hafnium ions, 72Hf 2+, are produced in a mass spectrometer.
How many electrons are present in one of these hafnium ions? → 72 - 2 = 70 electrons
[1]
 Chapter 2: Atomic structure

c The subatomic particles present in zirconium and hafnium are electrons,

neutrons and protons. A beam of protons is fired into an electric field +
produced by two charged plates, as shown in the diagram. beam of
- -

protons
-
-
-
-
-
-

Describe how the beam of protons behaves when it passes through the gap between the charged plates. repelled
i
Explain your answer. is bends toward negative plate because it is [2]
by
ii Describe and explain what happens when a beam of neutrons passes through the gap between the positive
by plate .

charged plates. and attracted

[2]
as it is
is passes straight through attracted or
negative
by Total = 7
neutral So it doenot get Plate
3 a Describe the structure of an atom, giving details of the subatomic particles present. repelled
.

①
.

[6]
.

b Explain the terms atomic number and nucleon number. [2]

c Copy and complete the table:

Neutral atom Atomic number Nucleon number Numbers of each subatomic particle present
Mg 12 24
Al 13 27
[2]
d Explain why atoms are neutral. -
because atoms contain same number of proton & [1]electron , so

e An oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Explain why it cannot have 9 protons. their charges cancel [1]
-

f When calculating the relative mass of an atom, the electrons are not used in the calculation. Explain why not. [1]
the
identity of element of Proton
>
Proton no is an
, changing the number
Total = 13 31

g
4 The symbols below describe two isotopes of the element uranium.
235 238
changes the element .

92U 92U
a State the meaning of the term isotope. [1]
b i In what ways are these two isotopes of uranium identical? [2]
ii In what ways do they differ? [2]
92-2
c In a mass spectrometer uranium atoms can be converted to uranium ions, U2+. 920 →

State the number of electrons present in one U2+ ion. =

90 [1]
Total = 6
0
5 The table below shows the two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine.
a Copy and complete the table.
35 37
17Cl 17Cl

number of protons
number of electrons
number of neutrons
[3]

b The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. What does this tell you about the relative abundance of the
two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine? [2]
2+
c Magnesium chloride contains magnesium ions, Mg , and chloride ions, Cl . –

i Explain why a magnesium ion is positively charged. because Momen oof proton than [1]
-
electrons .

ii Explain why a chloride ion has a single negative charge. because 1- [2]
-

each accepts electron

to fulfill their octet state
/ valence shell .
Total = 8