600E230

1–8

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

[Link]. Real Estate Valuation

Second Year

BUILDING REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE

LESSONS: 1 – 8

Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
 ii
[Link]. REAL ESTATE VALUATION
Second Year
BUILDING REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE

EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. C. Antony Jayasehar
Dean
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Annamalai University
Annamalainagar.

Dr. V. Arutchelvan Dr. A. Prabaghar

Professor & Head Associate Professor & Head
Dept. of Civil Engineering Engg. Wing, D.D.E
Faculty of Engg. and Technology Annamalai University
Annamalai University Annamalainagar.
Annamalainagar.
INTERNALS

Mr. K. Balasubramanian Dr. R. Balamurugan

Assistant Professor Assistant Prof. in Civll Engg.
Engg. Wing, D.D.E Engg. Wing, D.D.E
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Annamalainagar. Annamalainagar.
EXTERNALS
Dr. A. Murugappan Dr. J. Saravanan (5070)
Professor Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil & Structural
Faculty of Engg. and Technology Engineering
Annamalai University Faculty of Engg. and Technology
Annamalainagar Annamalai University
Annamalainagar.

LESSON WRITER
Dr. S. Thirugnanasambandam
Associate Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engg. and Technology
Annamalai University
Annamalainagar
 [Link]. REAL ESTATE VALUATION
SECOND YEAR
BUILDING REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
SYLLABUS
Repairs and Maintenance of Buildings
Repairs and Maintenance of buildings, principles of construction and detection
of defects, and advice on the course of action to be taken: planning.
General knowledge of the life serviceability and strength of building materials
in common use for the purpose of maintenance.
The preparation of schedules of dilapidation and bill of quantity with
specifications for repairs.
Methods of measurement, recording and pricing of work.
Building survey for assessment of damage due to fire, explosion, earthquake or
any other peril for insurance purpose and preparation of estimate for insurance
claim.
Maintenance of plants providing services and refurbishment cost in use and
prediction of performance in building.
Dilapidations
Liability from dilapidations. Nature of waste.
Implied and statutory obligation to repair as between landlord and tenant
under different tenancy / lease agreements. Fair wear and tear.
Recent amendments in the rent control act, Housing and Area Development
Authority Act for different States, its effects on property market for real estate.
Site visits and preparing report on repairs and maintenance of buildings.
References
1. B.G. Blake, Building Repairs, B.T. Batsford Press (1999) U.K.
2. Lan A. Melvice, Repairs and Maintenance of Houses, Estate Gazette (1999)
3. R.N. Raikar, Learning from Failures, Dhanpatrai & Sons (2008), New Delhi
4. Malcolm Hollis, Surveying for Dilapidation, Estate Gazette (1999).
5. Jagadish, K.S, Reddy, B.V. Venkatarama & Rao, K.S. Nanjunda, Alternative
Building Materials and Technologies, New Age Publisher (2007), New Delhi.
 ii

[Link]. REAL ESTATE VALUATION

SECOND YEAR
BUILDING REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
CONTENTS

LESSON PAGE
TITLE
No. No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 CRACKS 6
3 CORROSION DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES 28

4 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES 38

5 METHODS OF SURVEY 91

6 REPAIR METHODS 103

7 STRENGTHENING OF RC MEMBERS 139

8. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES 162

 1
LESSON - 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures are designed to withstand safely a particular predetermined load
during their life period. Generally reinforced concrete (RC) structures can suffer
varying degrees of damage due to several reasons including material deterioration,
construction technique adopted, poor workmanship, overloading, aggressive
environments, fatigue and corrosion of steel reinforcement embedded in concrete.
The RCC buildings have been extensively constructed throughout the world since
1950. The deterioration of RCC is a natural phenomena and has started exhibiting
in large number of concrete structures. Hence a systematic approach is needed in
dealing with such problems.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
 To understand the terms used in repair and rehabilitation of structures.
1.3 CONTENTS
1.3.1 Quality of concrete
1.3.2 Damages in RC structures
1.3.3 Deterioration of structures
1.3.4 Damage assessment of structures
1.3.5 Repairs and Rehabilitation
1.3.6 Repair management
1.3.7 Maintenance of structures
1.3.1 Quality of Concrete
The performance of concrete structures depends not only on the improper use
but also the quality of concrete. In most of the cases the root cause of concrete
disintegration is the inherent porosity, which in turn leads to absorption, diffusion
and permeability of water. The quality of concrete depends on the following factors.
1. Water cement ratio
2. Sand/stone ratio
3. Cover depth
4. Chloride content in constituents
5. Moisture content
6. Oxygen
7. Ph value
8. Temperature
9. Permeability of concrete
10. Method and time of curing
 2
11. Electrical resistivity of concrete
12. Crack width
13. Type and size of reinforcement bars.
Concrete provides excellent protection to reinforcing steel. But large numbers
of structures have been reported in which corrosion of reinforcement has caused
damage to concrete structures within a few years. Repairing of corrosion damaged
reinforced concrete elements is very difficult in practice. Reinforcement corrosion
caused by carbonation is arrested to a great extent through repairs executed in a
sound manner. But, the treatment of chloride induced corrosion is very difficult
and more often the problem continues even after extensive repairs have been
carried out. It invariably re-occurs in a short period of time. When chlorides are
present in concrete, it is very difficult to protect reinforcing steel from chloride
attack.
1.3.2 Damages in RC Structures
 Cracking
 Leakage
 Settlement
 Over Deflection
 Wearing
 Spalling
 Disintegration
 Delamination
 Over loading
 Aggressive Environments
 Materials used for construction
 Fatigue and Corrosion
1.3.3 Deterioration of Structures
The major factors responsible for concrete deterioration are permeability,
carbonation, chemical attack, alkali aggregate reaction and physical aggression like
thermal shock and abrasion. The general deterioration of concrete structures is
usually accompanied by cracking and spalling. Reinforcement corrosion plays the
most vital role in the deterioration of the concrete structure. Inspite of advanced
developments in building construction, all the buildings deteriorate from the time
they are completed. The rate of deterioration depends upon a number of factors.
Not all the factors are under the control of the occupants. During the design and
construction stages, the following factors are considered as essential parameters for
durability of structures:
1. Right choice of material
2. Proper construction methods
 3
3. Adequate specifications for construction and installation work.
4. Effective supervision throughout the construction period and rectification
of defects prior to final handover of the buildings.
5. Provision of adequate space for landscaping with proper design.
1.3.4. Damage Assessment of Structures
To identify the suitable repair procedure, it is necessary to have a planned
approach to investigate the condition of concrete and reinforcement. This will
require a thorough technical inspection and an understanding of the behavior of
the structural component, which is being repaired. By the visual inspection, a
detailed mapping of affected areas, documentation of type and location of
symptoms, their history and photographic evidences are prepared. A comprehensive
inspection data helps in making an effective strategy for repair and rehabilitation.
Early detection of structural damage is an important issue to minimize the
cost of repairs.
Non-Destructive Tests (NDT) can be effectively employed to evaluate the
damages in structures and to choose a suitable method of repair technique to
extend their service life. The strength and life depends on deterioration of
structures and in turn change the structural parameters like stiffness of a member.
The extent of damage can be effectively assessed using the stiffness degradation in
the member. The level of damage in RC structures should be effectively assessed in
order to ensure safety and serviceability conditions.
1.3.5 Repair and Rehabilitation
Repair and Rehabilitation mean restoring the damaged structures to make
them fit for serviceability condition. Rehabilitation of structurally deteriorated RC
structures is one of the major tasks for the construction industries worldwide. Use
of properly selected repair materials can solve this tough task. Durable repair can
be obtained only by matching the properties of the base concrete with those of the
repair material intented for use (Neelamegam, 2001). The selection of repair
materials is based on their properties and some of them are listed below:
i) Dimensional stability
ii) Modulus of elasticity
iii) Permeability

iv) Chemical resistance

v) Adhesion with parent concrete

vi) Coefficient of thermal expansion

vii) Easy to use

Selecting a most appropriate material and repair methodology is very

important to achieve durable, effective and economic repairs. Matching the
response of repaired sections with the main structure is an important task.
Compatibility of materials and matching specifications are essential in any repair
 4
job. Just as building durable construction requires understanding of structural
engineering, material science, and environment/exposure conditions, repair jobs
also require the same level of attention in these areas. The engineer incharge
should be familiar with repair methodology and repair materials. The engineer
undertaking such specialized jobs should have thorough knowledge of new
materials, repair methodologies, its limitation and the fundamentals of structural
engineering to ensure safety and serviceability of the building during repair and
thereafter.
1.3.6 Repair Management
A repair job involves three distinct stages at different levels. In the first stage,
documentation of damage, type of damage and its extent, forecasting the repaired
structure and recommendations on repair methodology. The second requires
preparation of detailed drawings, sketches, execution guidelines and notes,
material and works specifications and tender document. The third stage is actual
execution of repairs. For specialized jobs, experts in this repair field and resources
in terms of tools and plants should be engaged. The engineer incharge should have
a good understanding of the procedures and give an attentive supervision. To find
out the effectiveness of repairs, various tests before and after the repairs have been
employed.
1.3.7 Maintenance of Structures
Building maintenance is work undertaken to keep, restore or improve every
facility at every part of the building, its services including horticulture operations to
a currently acceptable standard and to sustain the utility and value of the facility.
The objectives of maintenance include the following:
1. To preserve machinery, building and services, in good operating condition.
2. To restore it back to its original standards,
3. To improve the facilities depending upon the development that is taking
place in the building engineering.
Maintenance aims at effective and economic means of keeping the building
and services fully utilizable. It involves a lot of skills as influenced by occupancy
and the performance level expected of a building. Programming of works to be
carried out to keep the building in a good condition calls for high skills. Feedback
from the maintenance should be a continuous process to improve upon the design
and construction stages. Preventive maintenance is also carried out to avoid
breakdown of machinery and occurrence problems in buildings and services. It
should be carried out on the basis of regular inspection of buildings.
1.4 REVISION POINTS
Deterioration, Damage, Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting
1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the factors affecting the quality of concrete?
2. List the damages occurred in RC structures.
 5
3. What are the factors to be considered during design and construction stages
for durable structures?
1.6 SUMMARY
The terms used in repair and rehabilitation of structures such as damage,
quality of concrete, assessment, repair techniques and maintenance are discussed
in this chapter.
1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. NDT – means ________.
2. Three distinct stages at different levels of a repairs job are _______.
3. The root cause of the concrete disintegeration is the ________.
1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. http:// www building [Link]. hk /...
2. ... / code_ of_ practice_ on_building_maintenance_en pdf
1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Why is damage assessment necessary?
2. How will you select a repair material?
3. What are the objectives of maintenance of structures?
1.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS/SET BOOKS
[Link], ‘Building Repairs’ [Link] Press (1999) UK
1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on (during pcp days) Repair, Rehabilation and Retro fittings.
1.12 KEYWORDS
Repair – Rehabilitation – Damage assessment – maintenance.


 6
LESSON – 2

CRACKS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A common adage is that there are two guarantees with concrete. One, it will
get hard and two, it will crack. Cracking is a frequent cause of complaints in the
concrete industry. Cracking can be the result of one or a combination of factors
such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction, restraint (external or internal) to
shortening, subgrade settlement, and applied loads. Cracking can not be prevented
but it can be significantly reduced or controlled when the causes are taken into
account and preventative steps are taken. Another problem associated with
cracking is public perception. Cracks can be unsightly but many consumers feel
that if a crack develops in their wall or floor that the product has failed. In the case
of a wall, if a crack is not structural, is not too wide (the acceptable crack ranges
from 1/16” to 1/4”) and is not leaking water, it should be considered acceptable.
2.2 OBJECTIVE
 To study about the causes, types and control of cracks in concrete
strucutures.
2.3 CONTENTS
2.3.1 Wall cracks
2.3.2 Causes of concrete cracking
2.3.3 Types of cracks
[Link] Plastic shrinkage cracks
[Link] Plastic settlement cracks
[Link] Drying Settlement cracks
[Link] Thermal cracks
[Link] Map cracks due to alkali aggregate reaction
[Link] Longitudinal cracks due to corrosion
[Link] Transverse cracks due to loading
[Link] Shear cracks due to loading
2.3.4 Micro cracks
2.3.5 Macro cracks
2.3.6 Aggressive Deteriorating Chemical Agents
[Link] Corrosion of reinforcing bar
[Link] Carbonation
[Link] Chlorides
[Link] Sulphate attack
[Link] Alkali Silica Reaction
2.3.7 Causes and stages of disintegration
2.3.1 Wall Cracks
Diagonal cracks that extend nearly the full height of the wall are often an
indication of settlement. Diagonal cracks emanating from the corner of windows
 7
and other openings are called reentrant cracks and are usually the result of stress
build-up at the corner. Diagonal reinforcement at the corner of openings can reduce
the instance of crack formation and will keep the cracks narrow.
Other procedures which can reduce cracking in concrete include the following
practices.
1. Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper
subbase material at adequate moisture content.
2. Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of
coarse aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate.
3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit
overly wet consistencies.
4. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures.
5. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic
through use of spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid
plastic-shrinkage cracks.
6. Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab
thickness.
7. Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining elements of a
structure.
8. Prevent extreme changes in temperature.
9. To minimize cracking on top of vapor barriers, use a 100-mm thick (4-in.)
layer of slightly damp, compactable, drainable fill choked off with fine-
grade material. If concrete must be placed directly on polyethylene sheet or
other vapor barriers, use a mix with a low water content.
10. Properly place, consolidate, finish, and cure the concrete.
11. Avoid using excessive amounts of cementitious materials.
12. Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture to reduce drying
shrinkage, which may reduce shrinkage cracking.
13. Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.
Cracks can also be caused by freezing and thawing of saturated concrete,
alkali- aggregate reactivity, sulphate attack, or corrosion of reinforcing steel.
However, cracks from these sources may not appear for years. Proper mix design
and selection of suitable concrete materials can significantly reduce or eliminate
the formation of cracks and deterioration related to freezing and thawing, alkali-
aggregate reactivity, sulphate attack, or steel corrosion.
2.3.2 Causes of Concrete Cracking
i. Physical damage
ii. Structural damage
iii. Chemical and electrochemical damage
 8
iv. Construction damage
I. Physical Damage
a) Plastic shrinkage
b) Plastic Settlement
c) Drying Shrinkage
d) Thermal effects
e) Freeze and thaw
f) Abrasion
g) Erosion and cavitation
h) Fire
II. Structural Damage
a) Design errors
b) Overloading
c) Settlement
d) Creep
e) Deflection
f) Fatigue
III. Chemical and Electrochemical Damage
a) Corrosion of reinforcement
b) Alkali-aggregate reaction
c) Sulphate attack
d) Acid attack
e) Carbonation
IV. Construction damage
a) Movements of the ground and formwork
b) Construction movement
c) Vibration
2.3.3 Types of Cracks
The following eight types of cracks are generally observed in buildings.
1. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
2. Plastic Settlement Cracks
3. Drying Shrinkage Cracks
4. Thermal Cracks
5. Map Cracks due to alkali aggregate reaction
6. Longitudinal Cracks due to Corrosion
7. Transverse Cracks due to loading
 9
8. Shear Cracks due to loading
2.4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
These cracks form during construction on a concrete surface, such as roof or
road slab, if rapid evaporation of moisture from the concrete takes place (Figure
2.1). Plastic-shrinkage cracks are of varying lengths spaced from a few centimeters
(inches) up to 3 m (10 ft) apart and often penetrate to mid-depth of a slab.

Figure 2.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

These cracks are harmless unless the concrete surface will be exposed to salt
or contaminated dust. Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete
is placed in the forms while the concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by
evaporation from the surface of concrete or by the absorption by aggregate or
subgrade is believed to be the main reasons of plastic shrinkage. The loss of water
results in the reduction of volume. The factors affecting the plastic shrinkage are
(i) Ambient temperature (ii) Relative humidity (iii) Wind velocity (iv) Temperature of
concrete.
Volume change is one of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which
affects the long-term strength and durability. To the practical engineer, the aspect
of volume change in concrete is important from the point of view that it causes
unsightly cracks in concrete. High water/cement ratio, badly proportioned
concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the
reasons for plastic shrinkage. It can also be further added that richer concrete
undergoes greater plastic shrinkage.
The preventive measures for plastic shrinkage are listed below:
1. Dampening of subgrade and forms
2. Controlling the wind velocity by erection of windbreaks
3. Minimizing placing and finishing time
4. Using membrane curing, begin curing as soon as possible after finishing
5. Using monomolecular films (evaporation retarders) or fog spray
immediately after the screeding to maintain the water/cement ratio at
the surface
6. Using surface dry aggregates
 10
2.4.2 Plastic Settlement Cracks
These cracks form during construction in concrete due to settlement of
concrete and bleeding of excess water from the concrete. Longitudinal cracks over
the reinforcement will form and are a common cause of serious rusting of
reinforcement. After concrete is placed, concrete bleeds, ie the solids settle down
and the mix water rises up to the surface. If there is no restraint this merely
produces a slight lowering of the concrete surface. But if the concrete is locally
restrained from settling (eg: a reinforcing bar, duct or insert) while the adjacent
concrete continues to settle, there is the potential for a crack to form over the
restraining element (Figure 2.2). Water which collects under the reinforcement
displaces the cement grout and leaves the reinforcement unprotected.

Figure 2.2 Plastic Settlement Cracks

Plastic settlement cracks are distinguished from plastic shrinkage cracks by
their distinct pattern which typically mirrors the pattern of the restraining elements
such as the reinforcement. The amount of settlement tends to be proportional to
the depth of concrete, ie the deeper the section the greater the settlement. At changes
of section such as the section at a beam/slab junction, the different amount of
settlement can lead to cracks forming at the surface as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Differential Settlement Cracks

 11
The risk of plastic settlement cracks can be minimized by the following
practices:
1. Use mixes with lower bleeding characteristics, eg: Lower slump and more
cohesive mixes.
2. Increase the ratio of cover to reinforcing bar diameter, ie, by increasing the
cover or decreasing the size of the bars.
3. Wet the subgrade before placing concrete to avoid excessive water loss from
the base of the concrete.
4. Set all the formwork accurately and rigidly so that it will not move during
concrete placement.
5. Place concrete in deep sections first (including columns) and let it settle
prior to placing and compacting the layers(ensuring that the two layers
blend together)
6. Fully compact the concrete
7. Cure the concrete promptly and properly
The repair of plastic settlement cracks can be carried out in pre-hardened
concrete as follows:
The most effective repair is to close the cracks shortly after formation by re-
vibration and reworking the surface while the concrete is still plastic. Careful
timing is essential to ensure the concrete re-liquefies under the action of the
vibrator so that the cracks are fully closed. Re-vibrate too soon and cracks may
reform; too late and the bond to the reinforcement may be damaged. Mechanical re-
trowelling of the surface may be sufficient to close the cracks and compact the
concrete around the reinforcement provided the cover is not too great, but the best
result is where this is combined with some form of vibration. Caution needs to be
exercised in the use of re-trowelling alone since it may just form a skin (which can
fracture with subsequent shrinkage, thermal or traffic impacts) over the cracks but
not close them. If used it must be done as soon as the cracks become evident.
In the hardened concrete, plastic settlement cracks may be chased out and
filled using a suitable quality material. It is almost impossible to make a proper
bond. However this repair simply ensures the durability and the wear
characteristics of the surface.
2.4.3 Drying Shrinkage Cracks
The excess water evaporation after hardening of concrete results the drying
shrinkage cracks (Figure 2.4). Just as the hydration of cement is an everlasting
process, the drying shrinkage is also an everlasting process when concrete is
subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of concrete is analogous to the
mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water contained in
hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the
loss of water held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying
 12
conditions, the gel water is lost progressively over a long time, as long as the
concrete is kept in drying conditions. Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and
mortar shrinks more than concrete. Concrete made with smaller size aggregate
shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size aggregate. The magnitude of
drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer the gel the more
is the shrinkage.

Floor Above the doors

Figure 2.4 Drying Shrinkage Cracks
While drying, hardened concrete will shrink about 1/16 in. in 10 ft of length.
One method to accommodate this shrinkage and control the location of cracks is to
place construction joints at regular intervals. For example, joints can be
constructed to force cracks to occur in places where they are inconspicuous or
predictable. Horizontal reinforcement steel can be installed to reduce the number of
cracks or prevent those that do occur from opening too wide. The combination of
drying shrinkage and restraint develops tensile stresses within the concrete. Due to
inherent low tensile strength of concrete, cracking will often occur (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Cracking of concrete due to drying shrinkage

 13
The major factor influencing the drying shrinkage properties of concrete is the
total water content of the concrete. As the water content increases, the amount of
shrinkage increases proportionally. Large increases in the sand content and
significant reductions in the size of the coarse aggregate increase shrinkage
because total water is increased and because smaller size coarse aggregates provide
less internal restraint to shrinkage. Use of high-shrinkage aggregates and calcium
chloride admixtures also increases shrinkage.
The factors affecting the drying shrinkage are shown in Figure 2.6 tabulated in
Table.2.1. If a structural member is free to deform, there is no build-up of internal
stress. But most of the structural members are restrained, stress build-up occurs
and can be very significant. When stress build-up is relieved, it will occur in the
weakest portion of the structural member or its connection to other parts of the
structure. The developed stress causes tension cracks, shear cracks and buckling.

Figure 2.6 Factors affecting the drying shrinkage

Table 2.1 Factors Affecting the Drying Shrinkage
Reduced
Factor Increased Shrinkage
Shrinkage
Cement type Low grade High grade
Cement content 325 kg/m2 450 kg/m2
Aggregate Size 40mm 20mm
Aggregate type granite Sand stone
Slump 50 - 75mm 125mm – 150mm
Curing 7 days 3 days
Placement temperature 15-20°C 30°C
Aggregate state washed dirty
2.4.4 Thermal Cracks
During hardening process of concrete, temperature rise due to cement
hydration will take place (Figure 2.5). Concrete has a coefficient of thermal
 14
expansion and contraction of about 5.5 × 10 -6 per °F. Concrete placed during hot
midday temperatures will contract as it cools during the night. When cooling takes
place, the concrete experienced tension cracks due to its very little tensile strength.
A 40°F drop in temperature between day and night-not uncommon in some areas-
would cause about 0.03 in. of contraction in a 10-ft length of concrete, sufficient to
cause cracking if the concrete is restrained. Thermal expansion can also cause
cracking.

Figure 2.5 Thermal Cracks

In thin members, such as pavements and bridge decks, thermal cracking is
most likely to present problems when the concrete undergoes large temperature
swings during the first several days after placement. Such effects are most
pronounced in heavily reinforced structures such as continuously reinforced
concrete pavementand decks; however, they can present serious problems for plain
jointed pavements if midslab cracks result. The factors affecting the thermal cracks
are as follows:
1. Initial temperature of materials
2. Ambient temperature
3. Large dimensions
4. Curing conditions
5. Early removal of formwork
6. More cement
7. Cement grade
8. Admixtures like flyash, etc.
Differential Thermal Exposure: The structural members having different
thermal exposure conditions on the opposite faces, more particularly, those located
on the exterior, are subjected to loading due to temperature gradient within the
cross section. This is due to difference in temperature on the two faces of member
during different times. As a result, tensile stresses in excess of tensile strength of
concrete could develop across the cross section and result in formation of micro
cracks. This process is cyclic due to daily and seasonal temperature variation
conditions. Cyclic nature of loading is responsible for further increase as the crack
 15
depths propagate deeper with each cycle. The cyclic process of thermal loading of a
structural member is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Cyclic process of thermal loading of a structural member

2.4.5 Map Cracks Due to Alkali Aggregate Reaction
The reaction of siliceous minerals (silica) in aggregate with alkalies (sodium
oxide and potassium oxide) present in cement causes the swelling of concrete which
results a pattern of cracking of concrete surface (Figure 2.7). The alkali aggregate
reaction can be controlled by proper selection of non-reactive aggregates, use of low
alkali cement, controlling moisture content and temperature.

Figure 2.7 Cracks due to alkali aggregate reaction

2.4.6 Longitudinal Cracks Due to Corrosion
Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is one of the leading
causes of deterioration of concrete (Figure 2.8). When steel corrodes, the resulting
rust occupies a greater volume than steel. The expansion creates tensile stresses in
the concrete, which can eventually cause cracking and spalling. Normally, the high
pH of concrete protects the reinforcing steel from oxidation. The passivating effect of
concrete on steel can be negated by the intrusion of chloride ions or by carbonation
of the paste surrounding the reinforcement. The concrete between the
 16
reinforcement and the outer surface of the element thus serves as a barrier to the
ingress of chloride ions or carbon dioxide.

Figure 2.8 Cracks due to corrosion of reinforcement

These cracks form along the direction of the reinforcement in the members. In
a beam, corrosion cracks form along the longitudinal direction and in a column, it
forms in vertical direction. These cracks are a symptom of deterioration which will
eventually lead to spalling and complete loss of cover of concrete.
2.4.7 Transverse Cracks Due to Loading
These cracks form in the concrete after it has hardened due to shrinkage,
thermal contraction or structural loading. These cracks occurs perpendicular to the
centerline of the pavement, or laydown direction, as shown in Figure 2.9.
Transverse cracks are generally caused by thermally induced shrinkage at low
temperatures. When the tensile stress due to shrinkage exceeds the tensile strength
of the pavement surface, cracks occur. These cracks can be effectively treated with
crack sealants. In RCC beams, cracks which are transverse to the main
reinforcement occur along stirrups in vertical direction and cause corrosion of
stirrups.

Figure 2.9 Transverse Cracks

2.4.8 Shear Cracks Due to Loading
Due to shear failure in beams and columns, shear cracks form at the support
where the shear is maximum (Figure 2.10). It will form diagonally at the supports.
These cracks can cause corrosion if they are left untreated.
 17

Beam Column base

Columns of bridge
Figure 2.10 Shear Cracks
2.5 Micro Cracks
During service life of a reinforced structure, it is subjected to various types of
loading conditions (static and/or of cyclic nature) and also exposed to extreme
exposure conditions of temperature variations (daily and seasonal). Micro-cracking
combined with capillary porosity is generally responsible for ingress of aggressive
chemicals in RCC. Figure 2.11 shows the crack propagation due to cyclic load in
tensile zone of an RCC beam. The crack depths in structural members due to cyclic
loading are higher than due to static loads of same intensity. Initial and after care
of the structure in the form of periodical painting also plays an important role in
controlling the adverse effect due to propagation of such micro-cracks.
 18

Figure 2.11 Cracks propagation in tensile zone of RCC beam

2.6 Macro Cracks
Some minor cracking in concrete structures would occur within the normal
practice. Proper design and detailing coupled with proper construction practice can
control the crack widths. Any crack width, which allows aggressive chemicals to
travel freely into the concrete, is termed as Macro crack. The threshold limiting
crack width has been defined by various codes of practices for RCC design. These
vary from 0.1 mm to 3 mm. Any crack in concrete, which is wider than this, is
likely to cause durability problems. The reasons for macro cracks are due to the
following:
1. Improper placement of concrete
2. Settlement cracks of fresh concrete
3. Cracking due to
 Intrinsic sulphate attack
 Alkali aggregate reaction
 Heat of hydration
 Increased volume of corroded reinforcement exerting bursting
pressure on concrete
4. Excessive loading
2.7 Aggressive Deteriorating Chemical Agents
The deterioration of RCC is related to loss of water tightness of cover concrete
and migration of aggressive chemicals through interconnected porosity, which in
 19
turn chemically attacks on its constituents i.e. hydrated cement gel, aggregate and
the reinforcement as following:
1. Corrosion of reinforcing bar – due to carbonation of concrete
– due to ingress of chloride
2. Sulphate attack
3. Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
2.7.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Bar
Steel reinforcement in concrete is protected from corrosion by a combination of
the following:
a) The formation of a passivating protective layer on steel surface due to
chemical reation under highly alkaline environment
b) The environment protection provided by the concrete cover
The hydration process of Portland cements release alkalies giving it a high pH
in the range of 12 to 14. Even though oxygen and moisture may reach the steel
surface, it will not corrode and will remain passive as long as high pH is maintained
and the cover concrete is intact. The two common conditions that lead to the loss of
passivity of steel in concrete are (a) reduction of alkalinity of concrete surrounding
the steel with pH lower than 11 to 11.5 (b) presence of chemicals (chloride ions),
which destroy the passivity even while the alkalinity of surrounding concrete
remains high.
2.7.2 Carbonation
The Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing phases
present are attacked by carbon dioxide (CO2) of the air and converted to calcium
carbonate. Cement paste contains 25-50 wt% calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which
mean that the pH of the fresh cement paste is at least 12.5. The pH of a fully
carbonated paste is about 7. As the concrete lost its alkalinity, the passive layer of
the reinforcement bar breaks down and in the presence of water and air, corrosion
starts. The carbonation process requires the presence of water because CO2
dissolves in water forming H2CO3.
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (Acid)
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2H2O
(Alkali) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
When Ca(OH)2 is removed from the paste hydrated CSH will liberate CaO
which will also carbonate. The rate of carbonation depends on porosity & moisture
content of the concrete. If the concrete is too dry (RH <40%) CO2 cannot dissolve
and no carbonation occurs. If on the other hand it is too wet (RH >90%) CO2 cannot
enter the concrete and the concrete will not carbonate. Optimal conditions for
carbonation occur at a RH of 50% (range 40-90%). Normal carbonation results in a
decrease of the porosity making the carbonated paste stronger. Carbonation is
therefore an advantage in non-reinforced concrete. However, it is a disadvantage in
reinforced concrete, as pH of carbonated concrete drops to about 7; a value below
 20
the passivation threshold of steel. Carbonation may be recognized in the field by the
presence of a discoloured zone in the surface of the concrete. The colour may vary
from light gray and difficult to recognize to strong orange and easy to recognize.
Occasionally concrete may suffer from the so called bi-carbonation process. Bi-
carbonation may occur in concrete with very high water to cement ratio due to
formation of hydrogen carbonate ions at pH lower than 10. Contrary to normal
carbonation, bi-carbonation results in an increase in porosity making the concrete
soft and friable. Bi-carbonation may be recognized by the presence of large “pop-
corn” like calcite crystals and the highly porous paste.
A common and simple method for establishing the extent of carbonation is to
treat the freshly broken surface of concrete with a solution of phenophthalein in
diluted alcohol. If the Ca(OH) is unaffected by CO2 the colour turns out to be pink.
If the concrete is carbonated it will remain uncloured. It should be noted that the
pink colour indicates that enough Ca(OH)2 is present but it may have been
carbonated to a lesser extent. The colour pink will show even up to a pH value of
about 9.5.
2.7.3 Chlorides
Chlorides may be present in the fresh mix or may penetrate from external
source into the hardened concrete. During the use of the structures, chlorides may
penetrate into the concrete from various sources. The most important one is sea
water. Substantially greater amounts of chlorides may ingress into the hardened
concrete via water transport mechanisms than via pure chloride ion diffusion. The
following are the three forms of chloride can be existed in concrete mass:
a) Free Chlorides
They are the most dangerous forms of chlorides in the concrete as upon
entering into concrete free chloride will diffuse through the pore water to attack the
reinforcement bar by breaking down its passive oxide layer. The corrosion of
reinforcement takes place due to chloride ions.
b) Physically Adsorbed Chlorides
Weakly bonded Chloride ions can be existed in the concrete due to the
chemical composition of cement hydrate and type of surface area of hydrate. These
forms of physically adsorbed Chlorides have the potential to move toward the
reinforcement bar to start corrosion.
c) Chemically Adsorbed Chlorides
There are strongly chemically bonded chloride ions with the Calcium
Aluminium Hydrate to form Friedell’s salts. These forms of chlorides are safer as
they can not proceed to the reinforcement to induce corrosion.
2.7.4 Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is the chemical reaction between the sulphate ions from the
ground-water and the different hydrate phase of cement hydrate, but mainly
calcium aluminate hydrate to form calcium sulfo-aluminate hydrate, ettringite, or
with calcium hydroxide to form gypsum. Initially these products may results in a
 21
void filling but eventually it expand and crack concrete. It leads to reduction of
stiffness and strength of concrete.
Solid salts, such as sulphates, will not directly attack concrete however, when
in solution, they can react with certain components of the cement paste leading to
expansion, cracking and spalling of concrete. The most common forms of sulphate
are:
1. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
2. Potassium sulphate K2SO4
3. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4
4. Calcium sulphate CaSO4
The above sulphates are common in natural groundwater conditions and may
exist singly or in combinations. Sulphates may also be present from unnatural
sources such as fertilizers (ammonium sulphate) or contaminants in soils such as
industrial effluent. The essential agents for sulphate attack are sulphate anions.
These are transported to the concrete through diffusion in various concentrations
in water, together with cations, the more common of which are calcium,
magnesium and sodium.
Sulphate attack can be categorized as two separate forms:
1. The well-known ‘conventional form of sulphate attack’ leading to the
formation of ettringite and gypsum
2. The more recently identified type producing thaumasite
Both conventional form and thaumasite sulphate attack can occur together in
buried concrete. Thaumasite sulphate attack can only be occurred at a temperature
below 15°C. Generally sulphate attack can only be identified when the physical
signs of degradation such as expansion, surface erosion or softening of the cement
paste matrix are observed. Figure 2.12 shows the severe suphate attack in a 30
year old highway bridge structure exposed to wet, pyritic clay fill.

Figure 2.12 Severe suphate attack in a bridge structure exposed to wet, pyritic clay fill
 22
Conventional Form of Sulphate Attack
The following factors are essential for the conventional form of sulphate attack
to occur where expansive ettringite together with gypsum formed:
a) Source of sulphates, generally from sulphates or sulphides in the ground
b) The presence of mobile groundwater
c) Calcium hydroxide, calcium aluminate hydrate and calcium silicate hydrate
(for magnesium sulphate) in the cement matrix.
Mechanism of sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is characterised by the chemical reaction between sulphate
ions with the aluminate component, calcium and hydroxyl of hardened Portland
cement. The reaction leads to the formation of expansive ettringite and to a lesser
extent, gypsum. The reaction, providing there is enough water present, will cause
expansion leading to cracking. This in turn will allow further ingress of sulphates
and accelerate the degradation process. Sulphates will attack some or all of the
three main hydrate components of hardened concrete: Calcium hydroxide, calcium
aluminate hydrate, calcium silicate hydrate, depending on the type of sulphate in
solution involved.
Attack of Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (CaO.Al2O3.H2O) Components:
Sulphates will attack the calcium aluminate hydrate component, producing
calcium sulfoaluminate (ettringite), an expansive product and soluble hydroxides:
e.g.
2(3CaO.Al2O3.12H2O) + 3(Na2SO4.10H2O) 3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.31H2O + 2Al(OH)3 + 6NaOH + 17H2O

Ettringite soluble hydroxides

In the highly alkaline pore solution (pH>10) provided by the sodium,

potassium and calcium hydroxides liberated during the cement hydration
reactions, sulphate ions that have penetrated the hardened concrete react with
calcium aluminate hydrate to form calcium sulfoaluminate hydrate (ettringite,
CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.31H2O). The formation of this mineral can be destructively
expansive since it has a solid volume greater than the original constituents and it
grows as myriad acicular (needle-shaped) crystals that can collectively generate
high internal stresses in the concrete. Sulphates will attack the calcium hydroxide
component in an ‘acid’ type attack, producing crystalline calcium sulphates
(gypsum) and soluble hydroxide: e.g.
Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4.10H2O CaSO4.2H2O + 2NaOH + 8H2O
Gypsum soluble hydroxide
This reaction product also has a greater solid volume than the original
constituents and in some cases can contribute to degradation of the concrete.
 23
Attack of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CaO.SiO2.H2O) Components:
Certain sulphates such as magnesium sulphate will also attack the calcium
silicate hydrate as well as the calcium aluminate hydrate and calcium hydroxide,
producing very severe sulphate attack and expansive product and soluble
hydroxides: e.g.
[Link] + MgSO4.7H2O CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH)2 + SiO2
Low solubility hydroxide
The low solubility of the hydroxide means that the reaction proceeds until
completion resulting in complete destruction of C-S H. If magnesium ions
accompany the sulphates, they may also react with calcium hydroxide, producing
brucite (magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2) which, because of its low solubility
precipitates out of solution, also leading to increase in solid volume. Magnesium
ions may also attack calcium silicate hydrates, the principal bonding material in set
concrete. The first effect of the conventional form of sulphate attack is to increase
the strength and density of the concrete as the reaction products fill the pore space.
When it is filled, further ettringite formation induces expansive internal stresses in
the concrete which, if greater than the tensile strength of the concrete, will
expansively disrupt the affected region. This cracking together with white
crystalline accumulations is the characteristic signs of the conventional form of
sulphate attack.
2.7.5 Alkali Silica Reaction
The Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) is a reaction which occurs over time in
concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and reactive non-crystalline
silica, which is found in many common aggregates. This reaction causes the
expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a swelling gel of Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (CSH). This gel increases in volume with water and exerts an
expansive pressure inside the material, causing spalling and loss of strength of the
concrete, finally leading to its failure. So, ASR can cause serious expansion and
cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can even force
the demolition of a particular structure. The mechanism of ASR causing the
deterioration of concrete can be described in four steps as follows:
1. The alkaline solution attacks the siliceous aggregate to convert it to viscous
alkali silicate gel.
2. Consumption of alkali by the reaction induces the dissolution of Ca2+ ions
into the cement pore water. Calcium ions then react with the gel to convert it
to hard Calcium Silicate Hydrate.
3. The penetrated alkaline solution converts the remaining siliceous minerals
into bulky alkali silicate gel. The resultant expansive pressure is stored in
the aggregate.
4. The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding
cement paste when the pressure exceeds the tolerance of the aggregate.
 24
The Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR) is a general, but relatively vague,
expression which can lead to confusion. The Alkali-Silica Reaction is the most
common form of alkali-aggregate reaction. Two other types alkali-aggregate reaction
are:
 the alkali-silicate reaction, in which layer silicate minerals (Clay),
sometimes present as impurities, are attacked, and;
 the alkali-carbonate reaction which is an uncommon attack on certain
argillaceous limestones, likely involving the expansion of the mineral
Brucite (Mg(OH)2.
Following are the various factors that promote Alkali – aggregate reaction.
1. Reactive type of aggregate
2. High alkali content in Cement
3. Availability of Moisture
4. Optimum temperature conditions (Ideal temperature for promotion of
AAR is 10 – 38 degree centigrade)
2.7.6 Causes and Stages of Disintegration
The other causes like construction and / or design and detailing deficiencies,
material and workmanship deficiencies and the effect of environment may be the
reason for deterioration of structures. The deficiencies could be due to external or
internal contributory factors as given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Internal and External causes and stages of disintegration
Cause of distress Initial damage stage of RCC Accelerated damage stage of RCC
Construction deficiency: (INTERNAL) PHYSICAL:
1. High W/C ratio High capillary porosity in cement 1. Carbonation reaches reinforcement level
paste which allows the aggressive to depassivate steel a d initiate
chemicals from its environment to corrosion.
penetrate easily and allows the 2. Increased volume of corrosion product
concrete / reinforcement to get exerts pressure on surrounding concrete
affected at an accelerated rate and 3. Increased cracking of concrete allows
initiate the onset of corrosion. easy permeation of atmospheric.
4. Accelerated corrosion to cause increased
cracking, then spalling of concrete.
5. Corrosion reduces steel bar cross
section.
6. Corrosion product behind reinforcement
pushes bar outward to make it buckle
and fail in compression to cause
collapse.
2. Inadequate Curing - do - Same as above.
3. Poorly graded Porous concrete due to air voids and Same as above
aggregates allows the aggressive chemicals from its
 25

Cause of distress Initial damage stage of RCC Accelerated damage stage of RCC
environment to penetrate easily and
allows the concrete / reinforcement to
get affected at an accelerated rate and
initiate the onset of corrosion.
4. Inadequate compaction - do - Same as above
5. Shuttering joints not Honey combed concrete due to bleeding Same as above
slurry tight when cement paste is replaced by air
voids near surface and allows the
aggressive chemicals from its
environment to penetrate easily and
allows the concrete / reinforcement to
get affected at an accelerated rate and
initiate then onset of corrosion.
6. Cover thickness being Protective cover thickness against Same as above
lesser external/environment chemical attack
reduced and allows the concrete
reinforcement to get affected early.
7. Wrong placement of Cracking / crushing of concrete to cause Same as above
reinforcement macro-cracking form its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the concrete
/ reinforcement to get affected at
accelerated rate and initiate the onset of
corrosion.
CHEMICAL: Depassivation of steel reinforcement 1. Chloride ion acts as current carrier in
1. Chloride penetration locally and formation of galvanic cells presence of water and causes localized
either through construction to initiate corrosion of bar. corrosion of reinforcement.
water and / or aggregate.
2. Sulphate penetration Formation of C4A3S an expansive 2. Same as 2 – 6 of above.
either through construction product to cause disintegration due to
water or aggregate or bursting force within hardened concrete.
diffusion from adjacent (slow process)
environment.

3. Reactive aggregates Formation of expansive gel around 1. Bursting force n hardened concrete causes
containing amorphous silica aggregate particles of water and cracking and disintegration of concrete to make
or strained quartz to cause disintegration of concrete due to bursting it weak in strength and more permeable.
Alkali Silica Reaction(ASR). force in hardened concrete. (slow process) 2. Same as 2 – 6 of above
DESIGN DEFICIENCY Deflection, crushing / cracking of Same as 1 – 6 of above
1. Wrong assessment of structural member allows the aggressive
design loads chemicals from its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the concrete
/ reinforcement to get affected at an
accelerated rate and initiate the onset of
corrosion.
2. Factors like shrinkage, Disintegration of concrete, shrinkage Same as 1 – 6 of above
thermal movement, cracks allows the aggressive chemicals
 26

Cause of distress Initial damage stage of RCC Accelerated damage stage of RCC
structural behavior, etc not from its environment to penetrate easily
considered and allow the concrete/reinforcement to
get affected at an accelerated rate and
initiate the onset of corrosion.
ENVIROMNEMNTAL: (EXTERNAL) PHYSICAL:
1. Heating / cooling Surface disintegration and micro Same as 1 – 6 of above
cracking allows the aggressive
chemicals from its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the
concrete/reinforcement to get affected.
2. Wetting / drying Increase capillary porosity due to 2. Same as 2 – 6 of above
leaching away of water soluble salts
results in deletion of water soluble
calcium hydroxide reducing the alkalinity
which further allows the aggressive
chemicals from its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the
concrete/reinforcement to get affected.
3. Abrasion of surface Surface disintegration and reduced cover Same as 1 – 6 of above
thickness allows the aggressive
chemicals from its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the
concrete/reinforcement to get affected.
CHEMICAL EFFECT
1. Chloride attack from When chloride ions penetrate and reach Same as 1 – 6 of above
sullage of toilets, sea reinforcement level, cause local
water, atmospheric gases, depassivation of steel bars and
acids, etc. formation of galvanic cells locally and
initiate corrosion.
2. Sulhate attack from soil, React with calcium aluminate hydrate Same as 1 – 6 of above
sub-soil water, industrial (C-A-H) in cement paste, it forms 2. Same as 2 – 6 of above
waste / gases, acids, etc. expansive compound, which exerts
bursting pressure to cause disintegration 1. Bursting force in hardened concrete causes
and cracking of concrete up to depth of cracking and disintegration of concrete to make
permeation to allow the aggressive it weak in strength and more permeable.
chemicals from its environment to
penetrate easily and allows the [Link] as 2 – 6 of above
concrete/ reinforcement to get affected.
2.4 REVISION POINTS
Cracks, Micro Cracks, Macro Cracks.
2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How will you reduce cracks in concrete structure?
2. Mention the causes of concrete cracks.
3. What are the types of concerete cracks? Explain in detail.
4. What are called micro and macro cracks?
 27
2.6 SUMMARY
Causes, types and control of cracks are discussed in detail.
2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Acceptable crack ranges are _____ to ______.
2. Hardened concrete will shrink about ________ in ______ of length while
drying.
3. Reason for corrosion of reinforcing bar are (a)______ (b)________.
2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. [Link]
2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain about the following:
a) Carbonation b) Sulphates attack
c) Alkali Silice Reaction d) Alkali Aggregate Reaction
2.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Dhir, RK, Newlands, MD, ‘CE50017 Concrete Design for Durability –
Lecture notes’, University of Dundee
2. Comite Euro-International Du Beton, ‘Durable Concrete Structures –
Design Guide’, Thomas Telford Services Ltd, ISBN 0 7277 1620 4, pp. 1
3. Concrete Society Report, Permeability Testing of Site Concrete – A Review
of Methods and experience, Technical Report No. 31 (Concrete Society
London, August 1988)
4. BRE, ‘Concrete in Aggressive Ground – Special Digest 1:2005, part A, B, C,
D, Draft copy’.
5. Port Works Design Manual, Part 1; General Design Considerations for
Marine Works, Civil Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department, The
Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (first
published May 2002).
2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on (during pcp days)
1. Types of cracks in concrete
2. Corrosion of reinforcing bars
2.12 KEYWORDS
Cracks – shrinkage – Thermal – Corrosion – Micro, Macro cracks – carbonation
– chlorides – sulphates – ASR-AAR.

 28
LESSON – 3

CORROSION DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The existing RC structures such as bridges, offshore platforms and
multistoreyed buildings constructed in coastal regions are being affected by
corrosion of reinforcement. This reinforcement corrosion in concrete is regarded as
the predominant causal factor for the premature degradation of RC structures,
leading to ultimate structural failure. RC structures accumulate serious damage
within a relatively short period of time due to saline action and poor quality of
concrete. The corrosion deterioration accounts for a significant percentage of
annual expenditures on maintenance, repair or replacement.
3.2 OBJECTIVE
 To know about causes, effect and control of corrosion of reinforcement in
concrete.
3.3 CONTENTS
3.3.1 Effects of corrosion on reinforced concrete
3.3.2 Modeling of corrosion deterioration
3.3.3 Chemical Process of Corrosion
3.3.4 Causes of corrosion
3.3.5 Corbonation induced corrosion
3.3.6 Chloride induced corrosion
3.3.7 Experimental investigation
3.3.8 Corrosion control
3.3.1 Effects of Corrosion on Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced concrete is one of the most durable construction materials.
Corrosion of reinforcing steel affects structural response and is the major cause of
the deterioration of RC members. Damage resulting from corrosion of steel includes
delamination, reduction of steel areas, cracking, debonding between rebar and
concrete, and spalling. Thus, the loading capacity and stiffness of an RC
component may deteriorate or failure of an RC structure may occur. Figure 3.1
show the diagrammatic representation of cracking-corrosion-cracking cycles.

Figure 3.1 Diagrammatic representation of cracking – corrosion – cracking cycles

 29
3.3.2 Modeling of Corrosion Deterioration
Corrosion induced deterioration of reinforced concrete can b modeled in terms
of three component steps. (1) Time for corrosion initiation (Ti); (2) Time, subsequent
to corrosion initiation, for appearance of a crack on the external concrete surface
(Crack Propagation), (Tp); and (3) Time for surface cracks to progress into further
damage and develop into spalls,(Td), to the point where the functional service life,
Tf is reached. Figure 3.2 shows schematic plot of cumulative corrosion damage
versus time.

Tf
Ti
Cumulative Damage

Tp

Ti

Time
Figure 3.2 Modeling of cumulative corrosion damage versus time
3.3.3. Chemical Process of Corrosion
Corrosion of steel in concrete involves a complex series of reactions, the
proportions of which may vary with environmental exposure and material
characteristics. Generally, iron (Fe) atoms pass into solution as positively charged
(Fe2+) hydrated ions at the anodic site and the liberated electrons flow through the
metal to cathodic sites, where dissolved oxygen is available to consume them.
In a high pH environment, such as concrete, hydroxide (OH- ) is abundant in
solution. Hydroxide ions may react with ion at the steel surface to create ferrous
hydroxide, Fe(OH)2. In electrochemical terms, this is the anodic reaction.
Simultaneously, at an alternate location on the steel surface, dissolved oxygen (O2)
reacts with water (H2O) and electrons released by the anodic reaction to form
hydroxide ions (OH-). This is called the cathodic reaction. Together, the anodic
reaction and the cathodic reaction form a corrosion cell, and the reactions proceed
simultaneously. Further reaction of Fe(OH)2 with water and oxygen results in
transformation to the insoluble corrosion products, specifically hydrated iron oxide
compounds in solution, which accumulate in the small pores and the interfacial
zone around the steel. The iron oxides include ferric oxide (Fe 2O3, red-brown rust)
and magnetite (Fe 3O4, black rust) (Liu and Weyers, 1998). The associated corrosion
reactions are as follows:
 30
Anode: Fe Fe ++ + 2e - (3.1)
Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e - 4OH- (3.2)
Fe ++ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (3.3)
Fe(OH)2 + O2 Fe 2O3.H2O + 2H2O (Red-brown rust) (3.4)
6Fe(OH)2 + O2 2Fe3O4.H2O + 4 H2O (3.5)
Fe 3O4.H2O Fe3O4 + H2O (Black magnetite) (3.6)
3.3.4 Causes of Corrosion
The causes and effects of corrosion of reinforcement embedded in concrete are
shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Causes and effects of corrosion of reinforcement

The corrosion of steel in concrete mainly occurs due to the diffusion of carbon
dioxide (carbonation - induced corrosion) and chloride ions (chloride induced
corrosion) into the concrete. Generally, chloride-induced corrosion is more serious
than carbonation-induced corrosion. Figures 3.4 and 3.5 show typical symptoms of
distress due to corrosion of reinforcement in a RC slab and beam respectively.
Cracking along the bar can be an important indication that the reinforcements are
subjected to corrosion.
 31

Figure 3.4 Symptoms of corrosion in a reinforced concrete slab

Figure 3.5 Symptoms of corrosion in a reinforced concrete beam

3.3.5 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion
Carbonation of moderate to good quality concrete is a slow process, and
becomes significant in structures that are many decades of age, or exposed to
environments containing high concentrations of carbon dioxide, such as mass rapid
transit tunnels. Poor quality concretes with porous internal structure allow faster
diffusion of carbon dioxide from the air, and therefore are more susceptible to
carbonation. Carbonation occurs slowly in saturated concrete, but is accelerated in
concrete where internal relative humidity ranges from 50% to 70%. The reaction
product, calcium carbonate, has a pH of about 9.5, which is below the level
 32
necessary to sustain the passive layer. Thus, once the carbonation front reaches
the depth of reinforcement, so long as sufficient moisture and oxygen are present,
spontaneous corrosion may occur, especially at locations where passive layer may
be damaged. One method of testing a structure for carbonation is to drill a fresh
hole in the surface and then treat the cut surface with phenolphthalein indicator
solution. This solution will turn [pink] when in contact with alkaline concrete,
making it possible to see the depth of carbonation.
3.3.6 Chloride Induced Corrosion
In chloride induced corrosion, chloride ions that diffuse through liquid phases
in the concrete to the steel surface can disrupt the passive layer and induce
corrosion, even in a high pH environment. Chloride can get into the concrete at the
time of mixing or can penetrate into the hardened concrete later on. Chloride ions
react with iron compounds in the passive layer to create an iron - chloride complex.
The local active areas behave as anodes, while the remaining passive areas become
cathodes where reduction of dissolved oxygen takes place. The iron-chloride
subsequently reacts with hydroxide ions within the surrounding concrete to form
ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 and in turn corrosion cell forms.
The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to reduce the freezing point of
water, is probably one of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or
prestressed concrete bridge decks, roadways, and parking garages. The use of
epoxy-coated reinforcing bars and the application of cathodic protection has
mitigated this problem to some extent. Also FRP rebars are known to be less
susceptible to chlorides. Properly designed concrete mixtures that have been
allowed to cure properly are effectively impervious to the effects of deicers.
Another important source of chloride ions is from sea water. Sea water
contains by weight approximately 3.5 wt.% salts. These salts include sodium
chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, and bicarbonates. In water these
salts dissociate in free ions (Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-) and migrate with the water
into the capillaries of the concrete. Chloride ions are particularly aggressive for the
corrosion of the carbon steel reinforcement bars and make up about 50% of these
ions.
The chloride concentration is measured in terms of the mass of chloride per
unit volume of concrete. The chloride concentration necessary to initiate corrosion
in reinforced concrete is influenced by many factors including:
 concrete mix proportions
 cement type
 tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) content of the cement
 w/c ratio
 temperature
 relative humidity
 source of chloride penetration
 33
 Cover thickness
The unit volume of the final corrosion product is as large as six times of the
original iron volume. This expansion creates cracking and spalling of corrosion
products inside concrete, and finally destroys the integrity of the structural
concrete and causes failure of buildings and infrastructures.
3.3.7 Experimental Investigation
To study the corrosion effects in beams, small size specimens were cast. Using
M 30 grade of concrete, six numbers of beams of size 10 cm  10 cm  50 cm were
cast. Two numbers of 10 mm diameter and 8 mm diameter reinforcing bars each
were provided at bottom and top respectively. Three nos. of 6 mm diameter stirrups
were used. To make different degrees of corrosion such as 5.0 %, 7.5 % and 15 % in
the beams, a constant current of 0.5 A was applied. The time required for the
corrosion process was evaluated using the Faraday’s law. The corroded specimens
are shown in Figure 3.6. The specimens were tested in the loading frame of 100 kN
capacity and the test setup is shown in Figure 3.7. The specimen was placed in the
loading frame in such a way that the loads and the reactions were made to act
along a straight line through steel rods placed at the respective points of
application. A calibrated proving ring was used to indicate the loads applied. The
load was gradually applied and increased until the specimen failed. The maximum
load applied to the specimen was recorded. The load deflection (midspan) curves for
reference beams and corroded beams are shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure3.6 Corrosion damaged beams

Figure 3.7Corrosion damaged beams

 34

45
Figure 7. Loading frame test setup
40
35
30 SRB1
Load kN

25 SRB2
20 DB1
15 DB2
10 DB3
5 DB4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Midspan deflection mm

Figure 3.8 Load deflection curves

The average value of flexural strength in reference beams (SRB1 & SRB2) was
recorded as 43.26 kN and the maximum deflection at the mid span was observed as
3.32 mm. The percentages of loss of weight in steel, reduction in flexural strength and
reduction in deflection with respect to the reference beams are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Comparison of damaged beams with reference beam
With reference to reference beams
Serial Beam
designation % Weight loss % Reduction in % Reduction in
number
flexural strength deflection
1 DB1 5.0 10.36 32.60
2 DB2 5.0 11.84 33.70
3 DB3 7.5 19.20 35.24
4 DB4 15.0 36.29 48.80

Thus, the reduction in flexural strength and the deflection at the failure stage
of corroded beams with respect to degree of corrosion in reinforcements are clearly
seen from the Table 3.1. Further, at a particular load level, the deflection in beams
increased with respect to the increase in corrosion damage.
3.3.8 Corrosion Control
For most environments sufficient durability with respect to protection of
reinforcement can be gained by an adequate concrete cover. Most corrosion control
measures applied normally can be described as passive measures as they are
obtained by adopting proper design and quality control measures and incorporating
various types of chemical and mineral admixtures, inhibitors etc. In severe
corrosive conditions, active measures such as cathodic protection also need to be
provided in addition to the passive measures. For the majority of normal
environmental conditions sufficient corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete
structures can be achieved by adequate planning, design, composition of concrete,
 35
execution and curing of concrete. Various corrosion control measures commonly
used are briefed below:
1. Planning and Designing
The structural form and structural detailing should be so selected as to keep
concrete away from likely zones of wetting and drying. The design measures such
as adequate cover, minimum crack width etc. also needs to be adopted at the
planning state itself for ensuring corrosion resistance.
2. Concrete Composition
The type and the quantity of cement are the most influencing factors in the
corrosion resistance properties of concrete. In severe environmental conditions,
adequate amount of cement and w/c ratio of 0.4 to 0.5 and minimum cement
content of 300 kg/m3 is commonly recommended for outdoor conditions. Blended
cements have shown better corrosion resistance as compared to OPC.
3. Construction Practice
The concrete should be adequately workable for achieving sufficient
compaction especially in closely spaced reinforcement locations. Adequate moisture
curing is a key to achieving good impermeable concrete cover. The required period
of curing increases with increasing percentage of pozzolanic materials, decreasing
cement content, decreasing environmental humidity and increasing aggresivity of
environment. Depending on these parameters, the period of curing may vary from 2
to 28 days.
4. Coating of Rebars
After many years of use of different organic coating systems on reinforcement,
electrostatically applied powdered epoxy coatings have been proved to perform
better than other coating types. Adequate care needs to be taken while handling
and using epoxy coated rebar’s in construction as a slight damage or local defect in
coating may prove to be detrimental in the long run.
5. Coating of Concrete
Coatings or impregnation on concrete reduce or impede chloride ion
penetration, gas penetration (to decrease carbonation) or water penetration.
Coatings consist of continuous film applied on the concrete surface with a
thickness in the range of 100 to 300 micrometre. The coatings in the liquid form are
sprayed or brushed on the concrete surface. Different coatings/seater materials are
Acrylic, Butadiene, copolymer, chlorinated rubber, epoxy resins, polluter resins,
polyurethane, vinyl etc. The other types of materials used for treating the concrete
surface are poreliners which impregnate in the concrete pores and line them with
water repellent materials. Materials used in this category as hydrophobic liner are
silicons, siloranes and silanes. The third category of seaters is pore blockers which
penetrate into the pores and then react with calcium hydroxide and block the
pores. The materials available in this category are liquid silicates and silicofluoride.
 36
6. Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is a method based on the knowledge that the corrosion of
any metal is a result of an electrical current flowing from one part of the metal to
the other. Corrosion (i.e., metal loss through oxidation) occurs where current leaves
the steel. In the steel reinforced concrete corrosion process, the corrosion products,
or rust, can build up excessive stresses in the concrete, which eventually lead to
concrete cracking and delamination. In the corrosion circuit, those locations where
current leaves the rebar are called the anodes or anodic areas, as opposed to other
nearby areas on the rebar which receive current and are called the cathodes or
cathodic areas. The cathodic protection process applied to reinforced concrete
structures is almost always of an impressed current type and uses the application
of direct current to the rebar using an introduced anode material in sufficient
quantity to reverse or counteract the natural corrosion current. If this corrosion
current is eliminated, corrosion stops and the rebar is said to be under cathodic
protection. Where reinforced concrete structures are submerged in seawater than
galvanic cathodic protection systems are often employed.
7. Mineral Admixture as Corrosion Inhibitors
The use of fly ash to replace cement is known to have beneficial effect on
inhibiting sulphate attack, alkali aggregate reaction, reducing heat of hydration and
increasing denseness. The addition calcium nitrite extends the time to corrosion
initiation. The corrosion rate is also less with calcium nitrite.
8. Use of Stainless Steel Bars
Stainless steel containing a minimum of 12% chromium can be used instead
of conventional black rods. On contact with air, the chromium forms a thin oxide
film on the surface of the steel called passive layer and it resists corrosion. The
addition of other elements such as nickel and molybdenum enhances the passivity
and thus improves corrosion resistance.
9. Fibre Reinforced Plastic Bars
Non-ferrous reinforcement using manmade fibres such as glass, carbon and
aramid can be used as reinforcement in concrete. The fibres are used either in the
form of ropes or combined with suitable resins to form rods. Because of their
relatively low elastic modulus, they have been used for prestressing.
10. Improving the Concrete
Codes and standards aim to achieve good durability of reinforced and
prestressed structures in aggressive environments by specifying the following:
1. High cement content
2. Low water/cement ratio
3. Suitable minimum thickness of cover to the reinforcement
4. Use of mineral and chemical admixtures
Generally, codes and standards specify a number of different exposure
conditions with limiting quantities for the above, which vary depending on the
severity of the environment.
 37
3.4 REVISION POINTS
Corrosion deterioration, Carbonation, Chloride attacks, and Corrosion control.
3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Explain about chemical process of corrosion.
2. What are the causes of corrosion?
3. What are the control measures of corrosion of reinforcement?
3.6 SUMMARY
The causes, effects and control of corrosion in reinforcement are discussed in
this lesson.
3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Carbonation accelerated in concrete where internal relative humidity ranges
from _______.
2. Stainless steel containing a minimum of _______.
3. Concrete contain _______ and ______ cracks.
3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. http.// [Link],[Link]/pims/right_to_info/ [Link].
3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Experimental Investigation of corrosion
3.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
[Link], Repairs and Maintenance of houses, Estate Gazette(1999).
3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Group discussion on (during PCP days) Corrosion in RCC Structures.
3.12 KEYWORDS
Corrosion – causes – control – effects of corrosion.


 38
LESSON – 4

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing can be used in those situations as a preliminary to
subsequent coring. Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful
are, as follows:
 Quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ
 Removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material supplied
owing to apparent non-compliance with specification
 Confirming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship involved in
batching, mixing, placing, compacting or curing of concrete
 Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal,
cessation of curing, prestressing, load application or similar purpose
 Location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing
and similar defects within a concrete structure
 Determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core cutting,
load testing or other more expensive or disruptive tests
 Determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement
 Increasing the confidence level of a smaller number of destructive tests
 Determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in the
selection of sample locations representative of the quality to be assessed
 Confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete like corrosion
resulting from such factors as overloading, fatigue, external or internal
chemical attack or change, fire, explosion,
 Environmental effects
 Assessing the potential durability of the concrete
 Monitoring long term changes in concrete properties
 Providing information for any proposed change of use of a structure for
insurance or for change of ownership.
 Investigating the homogeneity of concrete mixing
 Finding the lack of grout in post tensioning ducts
 Determining the density and strength of concrete in a structure
 Determining the location of in-built wiring, piping, ducting, etc.
 Determining if there is a bond between epoxy bonded steel plates and
concrete members.
 39
4.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the composition, properties and tests on concrete.
 To study the various damage assessment procedure to assess the quality of
concrete structure.
4.3 CONTENTS
4.3.1 Types of concrete structures
[Link] Reinforced Concrete
[Link] Prestressed Contrete
4.3.2 Composition of concrete
[Link] Cement
[Link] Portland cement
[Link] Blended cement
[Link] Other cement
[Link] Mixing water
[Link] Aggregate and their proportion
[Link] Chemical admixture
4.3.3 Process of concrete menufacture
4.3.4 Preparation of concrete and their control
[Link] Plastic state concrete
[Link] Hardened concrete
[Link] Durability of concrete
[Link] Permeability of concrete
[Link] Absorption of concrete
[Link] Diffusion of concrete
4.3.5 Factors adversely affecting the durability of concrete
4.3.6 Testing of concrete
[Link] Quality Control tests
[Link] Slump tests
[Link] Compression test
4.3.7 Damage assement procedure
[Link] Visual observation
[Link] Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection
[Link] Half-cell potential survey
[Link] Four Probe Restistivity Test
[Link] Impact-Echo/ Resonance Frequency / Stress Wave test
 40
[Link] Rebound / Schmidt hammer test
[Link] Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
[Link] Acoustic Emission Test
[Link] Carbonation depth measurement test
[Link] Windsor Probe test
[Link] Cover Thickness Survey
[Link] Chloride Testing
[Link] Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
[Link] Core Sampling and testing
[Link] Pullout test
[Link] Pulloff test
[Link] Strength Tests – a comparative assessment
[Link] Damage Assessment by vibration technique
4.3.1 Types of Concrete Structures
Concrete is a mixture of stone and sand held together by a hardened paste of
cement and water. When the ingredients are thoroughly mixed they make a plastic
mass which can be cast or moulded into a predetermined size and shape. When the
cement paste hardens the concrete becomes very hard like a rock. It has great
durability and has the ability to carry high loads especially in compression. Since it
is initially plastic it can be used in various types of construction; however the forms
used to produce the final shape can not be removed until the concrete has
developed enough strength by hardening. Where tensile stresses are imposed on the
concrete, it must be reinforced with steel.
[Link] Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel. Alone concrete is
very strong in compression but very weak in tension. Since concrete bonds firmly to
steel reinforcement the combination acts as one material which offers high
compressive strength, high tensile strength and high shear strength. Reinforcement
in concrete also helps to control cracking such as shrinkage and surface cracking.
There are two main types of reinforcement: deformed bars (i.e. with grooves) and
mesh sheets, such as rectangular mesh, square mesh and trench mesh. The
position of reinforcement is always shown on drawings. Steel reinforcement must
be securely fixed in the right position. To ensure that the correct concrete cover
over the reinforcement is being achieved, plastic bar chairs or concrete blocks
should be used at the specified distance from the forms. Timber, bricks or stones
should not be used. Reinforcement may be bent, hooked or lapped to suit design
requirements and improve the bond between the steel and the concrete. The
reinforcement must be clean and free from grease, dirt or flaky rust. It is necessary
to have enough room to place and compact the concrete around the steel.
Congested reinforcement will make compaction using internal vibrators difficult
 41
and may result in voids. Reinforced concrete is used for concrete slabs, decks,
concrete pavements, columns, walls, concrete bridges, retaining walls etc.
[Link] Prestressed Concrete
The basic principle of prestressed concrete is that superimposing compressive
stresses eliminate tensile stresses in the concrete. This involves the installation of
high tensile strength steel as reinforcement, stretching the steel by applying a pre-
stressing force, and holding the tension. The pre-stressing force in the steel wire or
strand is transferred to the concrete, placing the concrete under compression. Pre-
stressing of beams is done either by pretensioning or post tensioning. In pre-
tensioning, the high strength steel wires or strands are tensioned against a fixed
external anchorage before the concrete is poured. The concrete is then poured into
the forms around the steel to develop bond: After the concrete has hardened, the
pre-stress is transferred to the concrete by releasing the steel wires from the
anchorage. In post tensioning, after the concrete has hardened, the high strength
steel tendons are passed through ducts cast into the concrete and then tensioned.
The tension is then transferred to the concrete putting it under compression. To
protect the steel tendons from corrosion, the ducts are filled with grout. The
location of pre-stressing tendons is sometimes required, as assurance that the
ducts have been properly grouted. One of the common defects in post tensioned
concrete bridges is the lack of grout in the post tensioning ducts. A lack of grout
may allow the ingress of water and possibly the initiation of corrosion. As the
failure mode of these bridges is “brittle” it is crucial to identify the ungrouted
sections. Possible NDT investigation procedures include:
 Radiography - this method requires a people exclusion zone to be
maintained during testing for safety reasons.
 Ground penetrating radar to locate the tendon ducts followed by careful
drilling to check
 whether the duct is fully grouted or a void exists. An endoscope can be
used to view any voids.
4.3.2 Composition of Concrete
The main ingredients of concrete are:
 cement
 coarse aggregate (i.e. screenings, gravel, etc.)
 fine aggregate (i.e. sand)
 chemical admixtures (if necessary)
 water
 Acceptable concretes usually have proportions within the following ranges
(by volume)
 water - 15% to 20%
 aggregate (coarse and fine) - 78% to 63%
 42
 paste (water + cement) - 22% to 37%
It should be noted that the aggregates in the concrete mix constitute by far the
bulk of the mass. The properties of the concrete produced depend upon the amount
and type of materials used, and the way they are mixed, handled, compacted,
finished and cured.
[Link] Cement
There are many types of cement available for making concrete. Some countries
have a national standard, which prescribes the requirement for any cement
manufactured or used in that country. In India, various types of Portland cements
available are:
 33 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement (IS:269)
 43 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement (IS:8112)
 53 Grades Ordinary Portland Cement (IS:12269)
 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (IS:8041)
 Portland Slag Cement (IS:455)
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (Fly Ash based) ( IS:1489 Pt-I)
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (Calcinated Clay based) ( IS:1489 Pt-II)
 Hydrophobic Cement ( IS:8043)
 Low Heat Portland Cement (IS:12600)
 Sulphate Resisting Cement ( IS:12330)
Each type of cement produced has a different chemical composition and
fineness and gives different properties to a concrete.
[Link] Portland Cement
There are four main types:
1. General purpose cement - the most common and the one used for the majority
of structures.
2. High Early strengths cement - gains strength quickly.
3. Low Heat cement - produces less heat than general purpose and high early
strength cement. It gains strength more slowly.
4. Sulphate Resisting cement - cement that resists sulphate attack.
[Link] Blended Cements
There are also two types of Blended Cements. These are mixtures of Portland
cement, and either fly ash (FA) or blast furnace slag (SA). Blended cement generally
has slower rate of strength gain, and less heat is generated during curing. However,
with adequate curing, impermeable and durable concrete with higher strength than
that of normal cement can be achieved.
[Link] Other Cements
Other cements include white and coloured cements, which are used for
decorative finishes.
 43
[Link] Mixing Water
Water, which is necessary for hydration, must be clean and fresh and not
contain any impurities since these may affect the concrete properties. It is generally
accepted that water, which is fit for drinking, is suitable for making concrete.
Seawater should not be used in making concrete, particularly reinforced concrete,
as it will corrode the steel reinforcement. Bore water must be analysed first.
Industrial, waste or brackish water should not be [Link] and detergents have
a retarding effect on the setting properties of concrete and, therefore, should not be
added to a concrete mix.
[Link] Aggregates and Their Properties
Coarse aggregates are stones that are more than 5 mm in diameter and are
either crushed rock generally from quarries, or gravels excavated from pits or
dredged from river beds. Fine aggregates consist of fine and coarse sands or
crushed rock finer than 5 mm. The aggregates used should cover a range of sizes.
They should be clean and free of any contaminating substances, which may
adversely affect the setting time, strength or durability of the concrete, or corrode
the steel reinforcement. Aggregates should not contain:
 weak substances such as pieces of wood, humus or coal
 dirt, clay dust or silt coatings. These reduce the bond between aggregates
and the cement paste
 water soluble salts such as sulphates or chlorides.
Aggregates should be strong, hard and durable in order to develop the full
strength of the cement paste and maximum wear resistance of the concrete.
Crumbly or flaky rocks like sandstone, slates or shales should not be used since
they lack strength. Chert aggregates should not be used to avoid alkali-silica
reaction. The shape of the aggregate particles is also important since the shape
affects both the workability and strength of the concrete. Smooth rounded
aggregates produce workable and easy to handle concrete. Angular materials tend
to give a stronger concrete but reduce workability. Flaky and elongated materials
promote segregation and reduce workability. They also require more sand and
cement. The use of these aggregates should be limited. There are certain types of
aggregates that can react with cement in the presence of moisture. Such reactions
result in expansive compounds, which crack and deteriorate the concrete. Suspect
aggregates should not be used.
[Link] Chemical Admixtures
Chemical (usually in liquid form) can be added to concrete to change its
properties. They usually affect the time it takes for concrete to harden and the
workability of freshly mixed concrete. The most common types of chemical
admixtures are:
1. Set-accelerating admixtures, which speed up concrete setting
2. Set-retarding admixtures, which slow down concrete setting
 44
3. Water reducing admixtures (or plasticizers), which help to improve the
workability of concrete
4. High range water reducing admixtures (super plasticizers) – these help
improve workability of concrete and its ability to flow into congested areas
of steel reinforcement
5. Air-entraining admixtures – these put air bubbles into the concrete and
make the concrete more workable and cohesive. They also reduce
segregation. They are very useful in cold weather where they improve
durability.
6. Super plasticizing admixtures
Admixtures should be used in a controlled manner as part of the overall
concrete mix design. Misuse can be detrimental to concrete’s properties.
4.3.4 Process of Concrete Manufacture
The process of concrete manufacture is simply:
Aggregates + Cement + Water + Chemical Admixtures = Concrete
However, the place of manufacture can either be at a construction site as a
small batch produced in a portable concrete mixer or at a large batching plant at
the construction site or transported by concrete mixing truck from a concrete plant
some distance from the construction site. In the latter case the concrete is called
ready mix concrete. If ready mix concrete is being ordered from a concrete plant the
manufacturer needs to know the
 intended use of it (i.e. kerb, slab, etc.)
 amount required in cubic meters
 strength required (i.e. Megapascals, MPa)
 slump in mm
 maximum size aggregate (i.e. 14 mm, 20 mm, etc.)
 method of placement (i.e. pump, off the chute, etc.), and any admixtures
required.
The concrete mix design used must take into account the required properties
of the concrete in the plastic state, the method of placement and the in-service
conditions of the concrete (i.e. traffic load, exposure conditions, chemicals, etc.
However, the first factors to be considered are the desired compressive strength and
slump since these are usually used to specify the concrete required. The
proportions of each material in the mixture affect the properties of the final
concrete, as follows:
 As the cement content increases both strength and durability increase.
 As the water content increases the concrete becomes weaker; hence, there
should just be enough water to make the mix workable.
 As the water/cement ratio increases, strength and durability decrease.
 45
 As the fine aggregate increases the mix becomes sticky and, after
compaction, the top few millimeters of concrete become very sandy.
 As the coarse aggregate increases the mix becomes bony and some of the
stones can protrude from the surface after compaction.
When concrete is placed in the formwork after thorough mixing, care must be
taken not to damage or move the formwork or the reinforcing steel. Also care must
be taken to ensure that the concrete does not segregate. For instance the concrete
should not be dropped from heights greater than 2.0 meters. The formwork is filled
by starting to place the concrete from the corners of the formwork, and from the
lowest level if the surface is sloping. Place each load of concrete into the face of the
previous plastic concrete, not away from it. Deposit the concrete in horizontal
layers and compact before the next layer is placed. Do not place the concrete if the
air temperature is below 5°C or above 35°C and never spread concrete with a poker
vibrator as segregation will occur. At all times avoid delays. The concrete is then
compacted by vibrating the concrete to force the air out and fill all the voids.
Concrete is compacted to make it dense, strong and durable. Both external and
internal vibration can be used. During external vibration a mechanical screed is
used to compact flat slabs. Two workers pull the screed along the top of the forms
and external vibrators are attached to the formwork. For internal vibration a poker
vibrator is placed in the concrete while the concrete is still in the plastic state. It is
kept vertical and taken out very slowly. This is to avoid making holes in the plastic
concrete. There are different sizes of poker vibrators. To prevent cold joints the
poker vibrator should be long enough to reach the previous layer of concrete. The
internal vibrator should not be vibrated at any point for more than 15 seconds.
Excessive vibration should be avoided. The formwork should not be touched with
the poker. Do not rest the poker vibrator on the reinforcement. Do not move the
concrete with the poker vibrator. Use a shovel if the concrete has to be moved. The
required appearance of the concrete is obtained by levelling and smoothing.
Levelling and smoothing are done by screeding, floating or trowelling. Initial
finishing takes place right after placing and vibrating. The concrete is screeded
(with a screed board) to the level of the formwork and bullfloated if necessary and
left to set.
As the concrete sets, bleed water comes to the surface. Final finishing can only
begin when this bleed water dries up, and the concrete can support finishers with
only a slight indentation (about 5 mm). Any area with free surface water should not
be finished since if the finishing is too early a weak surface and laitance will be
produced. Cement should not be used to dry up surface water since this will
produce a weak surface and cause cracking. Brooming, colouring or patterned
finishes can be applied. Final finishing involves floating, trowelling, edging and
jointing.
Floating is done using a wooden hand float or power float. Floating helps to
smooth irregularities, embed large aggregate and close minor cracks, which can
 46
occur as the surface dries out. Hand floats produce a rougher texture. Steel
trowelling is done after floating is finished. It provides a smooth, dense and hard
surface, which is also durable and easy to clean. This kind of surface is slippery
when wet. The surface should be trowelled at least twice. Trowelling can be done by
hand or power trowel. Slab edges are finished with a special edge tool. This gives a
neater and stronger edge. Joints are preplanned and cut into concrete during
finishing. Redo edges and joints after trowelling to maintain uniformity and fine
lines. During or after placing and finishing it may be necessary to protect concrete
from the weather. After the concrete has been finished it must be cured. Curing is
the process whereby the concrete is kept moist to maximize the concrete’s strength
and durability by maintaining the hydration reaction as long as possible to produce
more cement [Link] are two types of curing methods.
1. Methods that supply more moisture to the concrete, e.g. ponding,
sprinkling and wet coverings (i.e. hessian or sand). This prevents the
concrete from crazing or cracking due to drying.
2. Methods that stop the loss of moisture by sealing the surface, e.g. leaving
the forms in place, covering with plastic sheets or using spray-on
compounds.
Concrete should be cured for as long as practicable since concrete becomes
stronger and more durable with longer curing. It is preferable to cure concrete for at
least seven days. Both hot and cold temperatures can cause problems to concrete,
particularly in its plastic state and early curing period. Adverse weather conditions
also include dry, windy, low humidity or frost conditions. The main problems with
hot weather are associated with cracking since the concrete stiffens quickly (loses
its workability) and it is more difficult to place and finish. The shrinkage of the
concrete also increases, increasing the tendency for cracking of the concrete
surface (i.e. plastic shrinkage cracking). It also increases the danger of cold joints
forming. In cold weather concrete takes much longer to set, gain strength and
finish. Below freezing point the water in the concrete turns to ice which expands
and can cause cracking of concrete.
4.3.4 Preparation of Concrete and their Control
[Link] Plastic-State Concrete
The two most important properties of plastic state concrete are workability and
cohesiveness.
Workability describes the ease with which concrete is mixed, handled, placed,
compacted and finished. Concrete, which is stiff or dry, may be difficult to mix,
handle, place, compact and finish. Concrete, which is runny or wet, may be easy to
place but more difficult to handle and properly compact to a dense material. There
are many factors, which affect workability:
 The mix becomes harsher and less workable if the amount of cement is
reduced provided the amount of aggregate remains the same.
 47
 The mix becomes more workable if the amount of cement is increased
provided the amount of aggregate remains the same.
 However, an excessive amount of cement produces a very sticky and
unworkable mix. If the aggregate grading, size and shape are considered:
 Well-graded aggregates with different particle sizes (i.e. from large - about
20 mm, to small - about 14 to 10 mm) produce a more workable concrete.
Also, well graded aggregates that are smooth, round and as large as
possible improve workability.
 Rough, angular aggregates produce less workable concrete.
 Chemical admixtures increase the workability of concrete by lubricating
and dispersing the cement particles.
 Never make concrete more workable by just adding water. Increasing the
water content without an increase in cement content lowers the strength
and durability of concrete.
 To make a more workable mix, add more cement (paste), use well graded
aggregates and chemical admixtures.
 Cohesiveness measures how well the concrete holds together. Factors
affecting
Cohesiveness, are:
 A mix that has too much water will not be cohesive and may separate and
bleed. A dry mix can crumble, with the coarse aggregate segregating from
the cement paste and sand.
 A well graded aggregate gives a more cohesive mix. Less fine aggregate
(sand) gives a bony mix, which tends to segregate. Excess fine aggregate
makes the concrete cohesive, but sticky and difficult to work and place.
[Link] Hardened Concrete
The two most important properties of hardened concrete are durability and
strength. Durability is described as the ability of concrete to resist wear and tear
and other inservice conditions without breaking up. Concrete durability increases
with strength. Durable concrete is dense and watertight. Durability is very
important to protect steel in reinforced concrete.
Compressive Strength is a measure of concrete strength in the hardened state.
Concrete is very strong in compression. It is not strong in tension because it has a
low tensile strength.
Durability and strength increase with lower water content, higher cement
content, higher densities, extended moist curing and correct type of cement.
Therefore, if water-to-cement ratio is altered by raising water content, the concrete
will be less durable and weaker. Proper compaction will also give higher densities
and improve strength and durability. Curing time is also important. The longer the
concrete is cured and kept damp, the stronger and more impermeable and durable
 48
it will be a lower cement content means weaker and less durable concrete. Different
types of cement may gain strength quickly or slowly. They also have different
resistance to aggressive conditions.
[Link] Durability of Concrete
Durability can be defined as the ability of concrete to withstand the damaging
effects of the environment and of its service conditions until it reaches a minimum
level of performance. Durability is the performance of material against a complex
nature of environmental effects on structures. Although, concrete or materials can
be designed to be durable but in order to get true improved performances, a holistic
approach encompassing the elements of architectural and structural design,
processes of execution, inspection and maintenance procedures should be taken
into consideration. The principal elements of durability consist of the combined
transportation of moisture, chemical ions and heat, both within the concrete matrix
and the microclimate - the surroundings and the parameters which influences the
mechanism of transportation e.g. permeability, absorption and diffusion. Presence
of moisture in the concrete is the most important factor in terms of deterioration of
durability. As the moisture becomes the medium to carry chemicals, it needs an
interconnected pore distribution inside the concrete matrix in order to move
around. So the pore type, size, distribution and cracks including micro and macro
cracks are the contributing factors of moisture transportation and degradation of
concrete. Figure 4.1 shows illustration of permeability and porosity.

Figure 4.1 Illustration of permeability and porosity

Permeation and Transportation Mechanism:
Permeation of water and gasses can be divided into three distinct phenomena:
 Permeability
 Absorption
 Diffusion
Figure 4.2 has schematically illustrated the transportation mechanism or
permeation properties of gas and liquids through concrete.
 49

Figure 4.2 Illustration of permeation properties of concrete

[Link] Permeability of Concrete
Permeability is the property of concrete which quantitatively measure the ease
of flow under a pressure differential through the concrete mass. Permeability is a
function of the pressure gradient, capillary pore size and pore interconnections in
the concrete. Structures subject to water pressure such as dams, tunnel linings,
water retaining structures, port, harbour, off-shore oil platforms are subjected to
permeability. The factor influencing the permeability of concrete is shown in
Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Factors affecting permeability of concrete

 50
As deterioration process in concrete begins with penetration of various
aggressive agents, low permeability is the key to its durability. Concrete
permeability is controlled by factors like water-cement ratio, degree of hydration /
curing, air voids due to deficient compaction, micro cracks due to loading and
cyclic exposure to thermal variations. Apart from good quality materials,
satisfactory proportioning and good construction practice, the permeability of the
concrete is a direct function of the porosity and interconnection of pores of the
cement paste. Interconnected porosity is related to:
Capillary porosity - High w/c ratio
- Inadequate curing
Air voids - Improper compaction
Micro cracks - Loading effects
- Weathering
- Initial care
- After care
- Secondary effects
Macro cracks - Placement
- Hardening process Intrinsic chemical
attack Corrosion of reinforcement
[Link] Absorption of Concrete
Absorption is a process in which water will enter into the concrete through its
capillary pores due to capillary action. Absorption is directly dependent on the
moisture gradient, capillary pore size and pore interconnectivity of concrete.
Structures subject to cyclic wet and dry are affected by absorption. Figure 4.4
shows the factors affecting the absorption of concrete.

Figure 4.4 Factors affecting absorption of concrete

[Link] Diffusion of Concrete
Action of concentration gradient of vapour, gas or ions would lead them to
pass through concrete mass, which is diffusion. Beside concentration gradients,
other factors such as capillary pore size, pore interconnection, degree of reactivity
of concrete substrate are important factors to influence diffusion. Figure 4.5 shows
 51
the factors affecting the diffusion of concrete. Figure 4.6 shows the primary
transport mechanism of various exposure zone of a concrete off-shore structure.

Figure 4.5 Factors affecting diffusion of concrete

Figure 4.6 Primary transport mechanism of various exposure

zone of a concrete off-shore structure
4.3.5 Factors adversely affecting the durability of concrete
Concrete is vulnerable to the environmental conditions it is exposed to in terms
of chemical, physical and biological degradation. It is necessary to understand these
factors by the concrete designers and specifiers in order to combat the adverse effect
throughout the life cycle of structure.
A list of different category of the adverse factors affecting durability of concrete
has been given below.
1. Physical process in concrete
a) Cracking
b) Freeze thaw attack
c) Abrasion, erosion and cavitations
d) Heat or fire damage
2. Chemical process in concrete
a) Chemical attack
b) Acid attack
c) Sulphate attack
d) Alkali attack
 52
3. Biological process in concrete
4. Corrosion of reinforcement
a. Corrosion due to chloride ions
b. Corrosion due to carbonation
4.3.6 Testing of Concrete
[Link] Quality Control Tests
Two simple tests are used to control the quality of concrete: SLUMP TEST is
used when the concrete is in the plastic state. COMPRESSION TEST is used when
concrete is in the hardened state. Both tests are used for the quality control of
concrete during manufacture. The compression test can also be used to test a
structure, which has been in service for some time by drilling a core from the
structure and testing it in compression.
[Link] Slump Tests
Slump test assesses the consistency or workability of concrete. The acceptance
of a load of concrete may depend on the results of a slump test. The first step in
testing is to take a test sample from the batch of concrete within 20 minutes of the
concrete arriving on site. Normally a visual inspection is also undertaken prior to
placing, to estimate the slump and ensure consistency of the concrete. The sample
is taken in one of two ways:
 Sampling after 0.2 m³ of the load has been poured (the most common
method), or
 Sampling from three places in the load, at equal intervals and equal
portions, during the discharge.
The tools required to carry out the test are: standard slump cone (100 mm ×
200 mm × 300 mm), small scoop, bullet-nosed tamping rod (600 mm × 16 mm),
ruler, float and slump plate (500 mm × 500 mm). The test is performed by (a)
cleaning and moistening the cone, and (b) placing it on the flat slump plate. Fill the
cone one-third full with concrete and rod the layer exactly 25 times making sure
that the whole area is rodded uniformly. Rodding means pushing a steel rod in and
out of the concrete to compact it into a slump cone or a cylinder mould. Always rod
in a definite pattern, working from outside into the middle. The cone must be held
firmly by standing on the foot lugs while the concrete is being added during
rodding. After rodding the first layer fill the cone with a second layer until two-
thirds full and rod this layer uniformly 25 times just into the top of the first layer.
Then fill the cone until it slightly overflows and rod this top layer 25 times
uniformly just into the top of the second layer. The excess concrete is removed from
the top with a straight edge so that the cone is exactly filled and the spilled concrete
removed from around the bottom of the cone. The cone is then lifted straight up
very slowly. Without disturbing the concrete further turn the cone upside down and
place the rod across the up-turned cone. Measure the distance from the rod to the
top of the slumped concrete. If the top of the slump is irregular, do not measure the
high point or the low point. Try to get the average. If the slump is too high or too
 53
low compared to the specification, another must be taken. If this fails the
remainder of the batch should be rejected.
[Link] Compression Test
Compression test determines the strength of concrete under standard
conditions. Concrete cylinders or concrete cubes are used for the compression test.
The concrete test samples, whether cylinders or cubes, are made on site and tested
in a laboratory with a compression test machine. Moulding the test sample should
be completed within 20 minutes of obtaining the sample. The compressive strength
of the test samples determines the acceptability of the concrete represented.
First clean the cylinder mould and slump plate and coat the inside of the
mould and plate with a thin film of mineral oil to prevent adhesion of the concrete.
For the 100 mm × 200 mm cylinders the mould is then filled to one-half and the
concrete compacted by rodding with the tamping rod 25 times. The strokes should
be uniformly distributed over the crosssectional area. The mould is then overfilled
and compacted by rodding 25 times into the top of the first layer. If after
compaction the top is not completely filled, add more concrete and work into the
concrete surface. Each mould is tapped all around with a rubber mallet to remove
air bubbles and assist compaction of the concrete. If the 150 mm × 300 mm
cylinder mould are used the concrete is compacted in three equal layers instead of
two. Then (a) the top of the concrete is leveled off with the tamping rod and any
concrete around the mould is cleaned, (b) the surface of the concrete is smoothed
with a wooden float, (c) the cylinders are capped, (d) the moulds identified with a
code number and left in a cool dry place to set undisturbed for at least 24 h. The
mould is then removed and the concrete cylinder marked and sent to the laboratory
where it is cured for a specified period prior to testing in compression. All moulds
are cleaned and oiled after use to prevent rusting. The curing period depends on
the specification, although seven days and 28 days are commonly used.
4.3.7 Damage Assessment
The assessment of damage in an RC structure and the selection of repair
methods require a detailed investigation to determine the extent and causes of
damage. To prevent serious failure caused by corrosion and others, it is essential to
detect the damage level in existing buildings and infrastructures. Initially, visual
observation is made to examine the structural defects. Visual observation uses
direct inspection to detect obvious signs of deterioration, such as physical damage
in the form of spalling or cracking.
[Link] Visual Observation
Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests. It
can often provide valuable information to the well trained eye. Visual features may
be related to workmanship, structural serviceability, and material deterioration and
it is particularly important that the engineer is able to differentiate between the
various signs of distress which may be encountered. These include for instance,
cracks, pop-outs, spalling, disintegration, colour change, weathering, staining,
surface blemishes and lack of uniformity. Extensive information can be gathered
 54
from visual inspection to give a preliminary indication of the condition of the
structure and allow formulation of a subsequent testing programme. The visual
inspection however should not be confined only to the structure being investigated.
It should also include neighbouring structures, the surrounding environment and
the climatic condition. This is probably the most difficult aspect of the whole
structural investigation or any diagnostic works since what appears obvious to one
may not be so to another.
Tools and Equipment for Visual Inspection
An engineer carrying out a visual survey should be well equipped with tools to
facilitate the inspection. These involve a host of common accessories such as
measuring tapes or rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers and others.
Binoculars, telescopes, borescopes and endoscopes or the more expensive fibre
scopes may be useful where access is difficult. A crack width microscope or a crack
width gauge is useful, while a magnifying glass or portable microscope is handy for
close up examination. A good camera with the necessary zoom and micro lenses
and other accessories, such as polarized filters, facilitates pictorial documentation
of defects, and a portable colour chart is helpful in identifying variation in the
colour of the concrete. A complete set of relevant drawings showing plan views,
elevations and typical structural details allows recording of observations to be
made.
General Procedure of Visual Inspection
Before any visual test can be made, the engineer must peruse all relevant
structural drawings, plans and elevations to become familiar with the structure.
Available documents must also be examined and these include technical
specification, past reports of tests or inspection made, construction records, details
of materials used, methods and dates of construction, etc. The survey should be
carried out systematically and cover the defects present, the current and past use
of the structure, the condition of adjacent structures and environmental condition.
All defects must be identified, the degree classified, similar to those used for fire
damaged concrete and, where possible, the causes identified. The distribution and
extent of defects need to be clearly recognized. For example whether the defects are
random or appear in a specific pattern and whether the defect is confined to certain
locations of members or is present all over the structure. Visual comparison of
similar members is particularly valuable as a preliminary to testing to determine
the extent of the problems in such cases. A study of similar structures or other
structures in the local area constructed with similar materials can also be helpful
in providing ‘case study’ evidence, particularly if those other structures vary in age
from the one under investigation. There is a need to identify associated or
accompanying defects, especially which particular defect predominates.
Segregation or excessive bleeding at shutter joints may reflect problems with
the concrete mix, as might plastic shrinkage cracking, whereas honeycombing may
be an indication of a low standard of construction workmanship. Lack of structural
adequacy may show itself by excessive deflection or flexural cracking and this may
 55
frequently be the reason for an in situ assessment of a structure. Long term creep
defections, thermal movements or structural movements may cause distortion of
doorframes, cracking of windows, or cracking of a structure or its finishes. Material
deterioration is often indicated by surface cracking and spalling of the concrete and
examination of crack patterns may provide a preliminary indication of the cause.
Systematic crack mapping is a valuable diagnostic exercise when determining the
causes and progression of deterioration. Observation of concrete surface texture
and colour variations may be a useful guide to uniformity. Colour change is a
widely recognized indicator of the extent of fire damage.
Visual inspection is not confined to the surface but may also include
examination of bearings, expansion joints, drainage channels and similar features
of a structure. Any misuse of the structure can be identified when compared to the
original designed purpose of the structure. An assessment may also need to be
made of the particular environmental conditions to which each part of the structure
has been exposed. In particular the wetting and drying frequency and temperature
variation that an element is subjected to should be recorded because these factors
influence various mechanisms of deterioration in concrete. For example, in marine
structures it is important to identify the splash zone. Settlement of surrounding soil
or geotechnical failures need to be recorded. Account must also be taken of climatic
and other external environmental factors at the location, since factors such as
freeze thaw conditions may be of considerable importance when assessing the
causes of deterioration.
A careful and detailed record of all observations should be made as the
inspection proceeds. Drawings can be marked, coloured or shaded to indicate the
local severity of each feature. Defects that commonly need recording include:
 Cracking which can vary widely in nature and style depending on the
causative mechanism
 Surface pitting and spalling
 Surface staining
 Differential movements or displacements
 Variation in algal or vegetative growths
 Surface voids
 Honeycombing
 Bleed marks
 Constructional and lift joints
 Exudation of efflorescence.
[Link] Sketches of Typical Defects Found by Visual Inspection
Although experience is the best trainer, the following Figures.4.7–4.27 are
sketches of typical defects found in concrete structures.
 56

Figure 4.7 Sketch of surface appearance when concrete has been

mixed for too long or the time of transport has been too long

Figure 4.8 Sketch of crack due to concrete settling

Figure 4.9 Sketch of exposed aggregate

Figure 4.10 Unsuitable process at construction joint

 57

Figure 4.11 Sketch of cracking due to bowing of formwork

Figure 4.12 Sketch of cracking due to sinking of timbering

Figure 4.13 Sketch of severe rusting of reinforcing bars due to chemical action
 58

Figure 4.14 Sketch of effect of fire on concrete

Figure 4.15 Cracks due to differential settlement of central column

Shearing bending
Figure 4.16 Cracks due to bending and shear stresses
 59

Figure 4.17 Cracking in columns and beams due to an earthquake

Figure 4.18 Cracks due to insufficient reinforcing bars

Figure 4.19 Cracks due to abnormal set of cement

 60

Figure 4.20 Sinking of concrete

Figure 4.21 Rusting of reinforcing bars

Figure 4.22 Effect of heating and freezing cycles

 61

Figure 4.23 Effect of changing ground conditions:

low temperature or b) dryness

Figure 4.24 Effect of atmospheric conditions

Figure 4.25 Non-uniformity of admixture

 62

Figure 4.26 Pop-out due to reactive aggregate and high humidity

[Link] Half-cell Potential Survey
Half-cell potential measurements can be used to determine the probability of
corrosion activity taking place at the time of the reading. Usually, the corrosion
potential of the rebar is measured using a grid pattern over the concrete surface.
According to the test method of ASTM C876, if potentials measured using
Cu/CuSO4 electrode over an area are more positive than –0.2V, there is a 90%
probability that no corrosion is taking place in that area. If potential readings are
more negative than –0.35V, there is a 90% probability that active corrosion is
taking place. Potentials measured between –0.2V and –0.35V indicate a possible
breakdown of passivity at the steel surface and the possibility of future corrosion
activity. But this method is often inconclusive because the measurements depend
on moisture level, the amount of carbonation, and salt concentration.
General Procedure for Half Cell Potential Method
Measurements are made in either a grid or random pattern. The spacing
between measurements is generally chosen such that adjacent readings are less
than 150 mV with the minimum spacing so that there is at least 100 mV between
readings. An area with greater than 150 mV indicates an area of high corrosion
activity. A direct electrical connection is made to the reinforcing steel with a
compression clamp or by brazing or welding a protruding rod. To get a low electrical
resistance connection, the rod should be scraped or brushed before connecting it to
the reinforcing bar. It may be necessary to drill into the concrete to expose a
reinforcing bar. The bar is connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter. One
end of the lead wire is connected to the half-cell and the other end to the negative
terminal of the voltmeter. Under some circumstances the concrete surface has to be
pre-wetted with a wetting agent. This is necessary if the half-cell reading fluctuates
with time when it is placed in contact with the concrete. If fluctuation occurs either
the whole concrete surface is made wet with the wetting agent or only the spots
where the half-cell is to be placed. The electrical half-cell potentials are recorded to
the nearest 0.01 V correcting for temperature if the temperature is outside the
range 22.2 ± 5.5oC. The test setup of Half-cell potential measurement is shown in
Figure 4.27.
 63

Figure 4.27 Half-cell potential setup

Measurements can be presented either with a equipotential contour map
which provides a graphical delineation of areas in the member where corrosion
activity may be occurring or with a cumulative frequency diagram which provides
an indication of the magnitude of affected area of the concrete member.
Equipotential Contour Map
On a suitably scaled plan view of the member the locations of the half-cell
potential values are plotted and contours of equal potential drawn through the
points of equal or interpolated equal values. The maximum contour interval should
be 0.10 V. An example is shown in Figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28 Equipotential contour map

Applications
This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of
reinforced concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected. Reported
uses include the location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in marine
structures, bridge decks and abutments. Used in conjunction with other tests, it
has been found helpful when investigating concrete contaminated by salts.
Range and Limitations
The method has the advantage of being simple with equipment also simple.
This allows an almost non-destructive survey to be made to produce isopotential
 64
contour maps of thesurface of the concrete member. Zones of varying degrees of
corrosion risk may be identified from these maps. The limitation of the method is
that the method cannot indicate the actual corrosion rate. It may require to drill a
small hole to enable electrical contact with the reinforcement in the member under
examination, and surface preparation may also be required. It is important to
recognize that the use and interpretation of the results obtained from the test
require an experienced operator who will be aware of other limitations such as the
effect of protective or decorative coatings applied to the concrete.
[Link] Four-Probe Resistivity Test
Four-probe resistivity test is used to identify the quality of concrete up to a
shorter depth. In this test, a known current is applied between two outer probes
and the voltage drop between the inner two elements is read off allowing for direct
evaluation of resistance. The guidelines of resistivity values based on areas having
probable corrosion risk can be identified in concrete structures as given in
Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Corrosion risk from resistivity
Resistivity (ohm cm) Corrosion probability
Greater than 20,000 Negligible
10,000 – 20,000 Low
5,000 – 10,000 High
Less than 5,000 Very high
Fundamental Principles
There are many techniques used to assess the corrosion risk or activity of steel
in concrete. The most commonly used is the half cell potential measurement that
determines the risk of corrosion activity. Whilst the half cell potential measurement
is effective in locating regions of corrosion activity, it provides no indication of the
rate of corrosion. However, a low resistance path between anodic and cathodic sites
would normally be associated with a high rate of corrosion than a high resistance
path. Such resistivity measurements determine the current levels flowing between
anodic and cathodic portions, or the concrete conductivity over the test area, and
are usually used in conjunction with the half-cell potential technique. This is an
electrolytic process as a consequence of ionic movement in the aqueous pore
solution of the concrete matrix. An alternative technique to estimate the rate of
corrosion, which is becoming increasingly popular, is the linear polarization
resistance.
Equipment
Although other commercial devices like the less accurate two probe system are
also available, the Wenner four probe technique is generally adopted for resistivity
measurement of in situ concrete. The technique was first used by geologists to
investigate soil strata. The technique can be used to determine resistivities quickly
and with little or no damage to the concrete structures under study, Figure 4.29.
 65

Figure 4.29 Four-probe resistivity

The equipment consists of four electrodes (two outer current probes and two
inner voltage probes) which are placed in a straight line on or just below the
concrete surface at equal spacings. A low frequency alternating electrical current is
passed between the two outer electrodes whilst the voltage drop between the inner
electrodes is measured. The apparent resistivity (ρ) in “ohm-cm” may be expressed
as:
2aV

I
V is voltage drop,
I is applied current,
a is electrode spacing.
The calculation assumes the concrete to be homogeneous and the
inhomogeneity caused by the reinforcement network must be allowed for by
properly placing the probes to minimize its effect.
General Procedure
Resistivity measurement is a fast, simple and cheap in situ non-destructive
method to obtain information related to the corrosion hazard of embedded
reinforcement. The spacing of the four probes determines the regions of concrete
being measured. It is generally accepted that for practical purposes, the depth of
the concrete zone affecting the measurement will be equal to the electrode spacing.
If the spacing is too small, the presence or absence of individual aggregate particles,
usually having a very high resistivity, will lead to a high degree of scatter in the
measurement. Using a larger spacing may lead to inaccuracies due to the current
field being constricted by the edges of the structure being studied. In addition,
increased error can also be caused by the influence of the embedded steel when
larger spacings are employed. A spacing of 50 mm is commonly adopted, gives a
very small degree of scatter and allows concrete sections in excess of 200 mm thick
to be measured with acceptable accuracy.
 66
The efficiency of surface coupling is also important. In order to establish
satisfactory electrical contact between the probes and the concrete, limited damage
to the concrete surface sometimes can not be avoided. In some commercial devices,
wetting or conductive gel is applied when the probes are pushed against the
concrete surface to get better contact. Prewetting of the surface before
measurement is also advised. Small shallow holes may also be drilled into the
concrete which are filled with a conductive gel. The probes are then dipped into
each hole. However, this procedure is not practical for site use.
Applications
The ability of corrosion currents to flow through the concrete can be assessed
in terms of the electrolytic resistivity of the material. This resistivity can determine
the rate of corrosion once reinforcement is no longer passive. The presence of ions
such as chloride will also have an effect. At high resistivity, the rate of corrosion
can be very low even if the steel is not passive. For example, reinforcement in
carbonated concrete in an internal environment may not cause cracking or spalling
due to the very low corrosion currents flowing. The electrical resistivity of concrete
is known to be influenced by many factors including moisture, salt content,
temperature, water/cement ratio and mix proportions. In particular, the variations
of moisture condition have a major influence on in situ test readings. Fortunately,
in practice, the moisture content of external concrete does not vary sufficiently to
significantly affect the results. Nevertheless, precautions need to be taken when
comparing results of saturated concrete, e.g. those exposed to sea water or
measurements taken after rain showers, with those obtained on protected concrete
surfaces. Another important influence is the ambient temperature. Concrete has
electrolytic properties; hence, resistivity will increase as temperature decreases.
This is particularly critical when measurements are taken during the different
seasons, with markedly higher readings during the winter period than the summer
period.
[Link] Impact-Echo/Resonance Frequency/Stress Wave Test
A number of non-destructive test methods rely on the effect a structure has on
the propagation of stress waves. The most common techniques are pulse-echo,
impact-echo, impulse–response and spectral analysis of surface waves. The
methods differ in the way that the stress waves are generated and on the signal
processing techniques that are used.
Fundamental Principles
This is an effective method of locating large voids or delaminations in plate like
structures, e.g. pavements or bridge decks, where the defect is parallel to the test
surface. A mechanical impact produces stress waves of 1 to 60 kHz. The
wavelengths of from 50 mm to 2000 mm propagate as if in a homogeneous elastic
medium.
The mechanical impact on the surface generates compression, shear and
surface waves. Internal interfaces or external boundaries reflect the compression
and shear waves. When the waves return to the surface where the impact was
 67
generated, they can be used to generate displacements in a transducer and
subsequently a display on a digital oscilloscope. The resulting voltage-time signal is
digitized and transformed, in a computer, to amplitude vs. frequency plot. The
dominant frequencies appear as peaks on the frequency spectrum. The dominant
frequency is not necessarily the thickness signal. Using each of the frequencies
identified as peaks on the frequency spectrum, the distances to the reflecting
surfaces can be calculated from
V
d
2f
where
d is distance,
f is dominant frequency,
V is velocity of compression waves in the test material.
If the receiver is placed close to the impact point the reflected signals may not
be seen because the transducer is still ringing due to the impact. The type of
impact used has a significant influence on the success of the test. The shorter the
contact time, the higher the range of frequencies contained in the pulse. An
estimate of the maximum frequency excited is the inverse of the contact time:
1
f max  ,
tD
where
tD is the contact time,
fmax is the maximum frequency.
Sansalone and Street gave an estimate of the maximum frequency for a steel
ball bearing of diameter D:
291
f max (KHz )  mm
D
Thus the contact time determines the depth of the defect that can be detected
by impact echo testing. As the contact time decreases, the frequency increases and
the depth of defect, which can be detected, decreases. Also short duration impacts
are needed to detect defects close to the surface.
Equipment for Impact-Echo Testing
Examples of the equipment used for impact-echo testing are the systems
developed by Impact-Echo Instruments as illustrated in Figure 4.30. There are two
systems offered. Type A Test System comprising a Data Acquisition System, one
cylindrical hand held transducer unit, 200 replacement lead disks for the
transducer, Ten spherical impactors 3 mm to 19 mm in diameter (used to vary the
contact time), one 3.7 m cable and one 7.6 m cable. Type B Test System comprising
a Data Acquisition System, two cylindrical hand-held transducer units, 200
 68
replacement lead disks for the transducer, ten spherical impactors 3 mm to 19 mm
in diameter, one 3.7 m cable, one 7.6 m cable and a spacer bar to use with the two
transducers.

Figure 4.30 Schematic diagram showing how impact-echo works

General Procedure for Impact-Echo Testing
Using the Impact–Echo Instruments System A, the technique used is to vary
the diameter of the impactor until a clear dominant frequency is obtained. Typically
the diameter of the impactor has to increase as the thickness of the material being
tested increases to obtain reflections from the rear surface of the material being
tested.
Applications of and Examples of the use of the Impact-Echo Testing Method
The investigation of cracking in the deck of a reinforced concrete railway
bridge due to alkali-aggregate reaction resulted in horizontal cracking being
detected at mid depth over the entire span. The cracking was verified by taking
cores. The bridge was subsequently demolished. Another use has been in
measuring the thickness of concrete pavements. The accuracy of the thickness
measurement was found to vary depending on the sub base on which concrete is
laid. For example the uncertainty of the thickness measurement was within 1% for
a concrete pavement on lean concrete sub-base, 2% for pavement on an asphalt
sub-base and 3% for pavement on an aggregate sub-base. Voids have also been
located in grouted tendon ducts of a post-tensioned highway bridge. Areas of full or
partial voids were found in 3 of 14 girders tested.
Delaminations have also been found in 200 mm thick concrete bridge deck
with a 100 mm asphalt overlay. Extensive areas of delamination were detected at
the top layer of the reinforcing steel. The delamination was confirmed by taking
cores. The deck was subsequently repaired and a new asphalt overlay laid.
Cracking has also been detected in the beams and columns of parking garage.
Cracks were identified at flange to web intersections at certain T beam
configurations and the extent of cracking was determined in columns.
 69
Range and limitations of Impact-Echo Testing Method
In generic terms the impact-echo method is a commercial development of the
wellknown frequency response function method (Frf) and the theory of vibration
testing of piles. Further reading may be obtained in Ewens(1984) and Davis and
Dunn (1974). The user should beware of the claimed accuracy of detecting defects
or thickness in terms of an absolute measurement. It is better to think in terms of a
multiple of the wavelength:
Velocity = frequency × wavelength
V  f
where, λ is wavelength.
For impact test work, recent research has shown that the “near field” detection
capability of impact-echo (Martin, Hardy, Usmani and Forde, 1998) is:
minimum depth of detectable target = λ/2
Many test houses will deliberately or otherwise use the null hypothesis:
“If a defect is not identified – then none exists.”
In order to determine λ, one could assume the velocity through the good
concrete to be:
Velocity = 4,000 m/s.
[Link] Rebound / Schmidt Hammer Test
Rebound / Schmidt hammer test is conducted to assess the condition of cover
concrete particularly to identify the presence of any delamination (Figure 4.31).
This test is to be carried out by dividing the member into well-defined grids of
spacing 300 mm × 300 mm. The weak surface of concrete can be identified using
this rebound numbers and compressive strength of concrete can also be found. The
guidelines for qualitative interpretation of rebound hammer test results with
reference to corrosion are tabulated in Table 4.2.

Figure 4.31 Rebound / Schmidt hammer

Table 4.2 Quality of concrete cover form rebound numbers
Average rebound number Quality of concrete
> 40 Very good hard layer
30 to 40 Good layer
20 to 30 Fair
< 20 Poor concrete
0 Delaminated
 70
Equipment
The Schmidt rebound hammer is shown in Fig. 4.1. The hammer weighs about
1.8 kg and is suitable for use both in a laboratory and in the field. A schematic
cutaway view of the rebound hammer is shown in Fig. 4.2. The main components
include the outer body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the main spring. Other
features include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to the plunger
rod and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the hammer mass. The rebound
distance is measured on an arbitrary scale marked from 10 to 100. The rebound
distance is recorded as a “rebound number” corresponding to the position of the
rider on the scale.
General Procedure for Test
The method of using the hammer is explained using Figure 4.32. With the
hammer pushed hard against the concrete, the body is allowed to move away from
the concrete until the latch connects the hammer mass to the plunger, Figure
4.32a. The plunger is then held perpendicular to the concrete surface and the body
pushed towards the concrete, Figure 4.32b. This movement extends the spring
holding the mass to the body. When the maximum extension of the spring is
reached, the latch releases and the mass is pulled towards the surface by the
spring, Figure 4.32c. The mass hits the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds
because the rod is pushed hard against the concrete, Figure 4.32d. During rebound
the slide indicator travels with the hammer mass and stops at the maximum
distance the mass reaches after rebounding. A button on the side of the body is
pushed to lock the plunger into the retracted position and the rebound number is
read from a scale on the body.

Figure 4.32 A cutaway schematic view of the Schmidt rebound hammer

Range and limitations
Although the rebound hammer does provide a quick, inexpensive method of
checking the uniformity of concrete, it has some serious limitations. The results are
affected by:
 71
i) Smoothness of the Test Surface
Hammer has to be used against a smooth surface, preferably a formed one.
Open textured concrete cannot therefore be tested. If the surface is rough, e.g. a
trowelled surface, it should be rubbed smooth with a carborundum stone.
ii) Size, Shape and Rigidity of The Specimen
If the concrete does not form part of a large mass any movement caused by the
impact of the hammer will result in a reduction in the rebound number. In such
cases the member has to be rigidly held or backed up by a heavy mass.
iii) Age of the Specimen
For equal strengths, higher rebound numbers are obtained with a 7 day old
concrete than with a 28 day old. Therefore, when old concrete is to be tested in a
structure a direct correlation is necessary between the rebound numbers and
compressive strengths of cores taken from the structure. Rebound testing should
not be carried out on low strength concrete at early ages or when the concrete
strength is less than 7 MPa since the concrete surface could be damaged by the
hammer.
iv) Surface and Internal Moisture Conditions of Concrete
The rebound numbers are lower for well-cured air dried specimens than for
the same specimens tested after being soaked in water and tested in the saturated
surface dried conditions. Therefore, whenever the actual moisture condition of the
field concrete or specimen is unknown, the surface should be pre-saturated for
several hours before testing. A correlation curve for tests performed on saturated
surface dried specimens should then be used to estimate the compressive strength.
v) Type of Coarse Aggregate
Even though the same aggregate type is used in the concrete mix, the
correlation curves can be different if the source of the aggregate is different.
vi) Type of Cement
High alumina cement can have a compressive strength 100% higher than the
strength estimated using a correlation curve based on ordinary Portland cement.
Also, super sulphated cement concrete can have strength 50% lower than ordinary
Portland cement.
vii) Carbonation of the Concrete Surface
In older concrete the carbonation depth can be several millimeters thick and,
in extreme cases, up to 20 mm thick. In such cases the rebound numbers can be
up to 50% higher than those obtained on an uncarbonated concrete surface.
viii) Cement content
ix) Concrete compaction
x) Age, rate of hardening and curing type
[Link] Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test is used to assess the homogeneity and
integrity of concrete. It consists of transmitting the ultrasonic pulse of 50 – 54 kHz
frequency through a concrete medium and receiving at the other end(Figure 4.33).
 72
The time of travel of ultrasonic pulses is measured and the pulse velocity is
calculated by dividing the thickness of concrete member, which is the length of
travel, by measured time. The guidelines for qualitative assessment of concrete
based on UPV test results are shown in Table 4.3. These tests can identify the
quality at a particular point (local) in the member.

Figure 4.33 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test setup

Table 4.3 Quality of concrete based on UPV
Velocity Concrete quality
> 4.0 km/s Very good to excellent
3.5 to 4.0 km/s Good to very good, slight porosity may exist
3.0 to 3.5 km/s Satisfactory but loss of integrity is suspected
< 3.0 km/s Poor and loss of integrity exists
Fundamental Principle
A pulse of longitudinal vibrations is produced by an electro-acoustical
transducer, which is held in contact with one surface of the concrete under test.
When the pulse generated is transmitted into the concrete from the transducer
using a liquid coupling material such as grease or cellulose paste, it undergoes
multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within the
concrete. A complex system of stress waves develops, which include both
longitudinal and shear waves, and propagates through the concrete. The first waves
to reach the receiving transducer are the longitudinal waves, which are converted
into an electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic timing circuits enable
the transit time T of the pulse to be measured. Longitudinal pulse velocity (in km/s
or m/s) is given by:
T
V where
L
V is the longitudinal pulse velocity,
L is the path length,
T is the time taken by the pulse to traverse that length.
 73
Equipment for Pulse Velocity Test
The equipment consists essentially of an electrical pulse generator, a pair of
transducers, an amplifier and an electronic timing device for measuring the time
interval between the initiation of a pulse generated at the transmitting transducer
and its arrival at the receiving transducer. Two forms of electronic timing apparatus
and display are available, one of which uses a cathode ray tube on which the
received pulse is displayed in relation to a suitable time scale, the other uses an
interval timer with a direct reading digital display.
Applications
Measurement of the velocity of ultrasonic pulses of longitudinal vibrations
passing through concrete may be used for the following applications:
 Determination of the uniformity of concrete in and between members
measurement of changes occurring with time in the properties of concrete
 Determination of areas of deteriorated concrete and detection of cracks
 Correlation of pulse velocity and strength as a measure of concrete quality.
 Determination of the modulus of elasticity and dynamic poisson’s ratio of
the concrete.
Determination of pulse velocity
1. Transducer Arrangement
The receiving transducer detects the arrival of that component of the pulse,
which arrives earliest. This is generally the leading edge of the longitudinal
vibration. Although the direction in which the maximum energy is propagated is at
right angles to the face of the transmitting transducer, it is possible to detect
pulses, which have travelled through the concrete in some other direction. It is
possible, therefore, to make measurements of pulse velocity by placing the two
transducers on either:
 Opposite faces (direct transmission)
 Adjacent faces (semi-direct transmission): or
 The same face (indirect or surface transmission)
These three arrangements are shown in Figures 4.34(a), 4.34(b) and 4.34(c).

Figure 4.34 (a): Direct transmission Figure 4.34 (b): Semi-direct transmission
 74

T: Transmitter, R: Receiver
Figure 4.34(c): Indirect or surface transmission
Fig. 4.34(a) shows the transducers directly opposite to each other on opposite
faces of the concrete. However, it is sometimes necessary to place the transducers
on opposite faces but not directly opposite each other. Such an arrangement is
regarded as semi-direct transmission, Fig 4.34(b).
2. Determination of Pulse Velocity by Direct Transmission
Where possible the direct transmission arrangement should be used since the
transfer of energy between transducers is at its maximum and the accuracy of
velocity determination is therefore governed principally by the accuracy of the path
length measurement. The couplant used should be spread as thinly as possible to
avoid any end effects resulting from the different velocities in couplant and
concrete.
3. Determination of Pulse Velocity by Semi-Direct Transmission
The semi-direct transmission arrangement has a sensitivity intermediate
between those of the other two arrangements and, although there may be some
reduction in the accuracy of measurement of the path length, it is generally found
to be sufficiently accurate to take this as the distance measured from centre to
centre of the transducer faces. This arrangement is otherwise similar to direct
transmission.
Determination of Pulse Velocity by Indirect or Surface Transmission
Indirect transmission should be used when only one face of the concrete is
accessible, when the depth of a surface crack is to be determined or when the
quality of the surface concrete relative to the overall quality is of interest. It is the
least sensitive of the arrangements and, for a given path length, produces at the
receiving transducer a signal which has an amplitude of only about 2% or 3% of
that produced by direct transmission. Furthermore, this arrangement gives pulse
velocity measurements which are usually influenced by the concrete near the
surface. This region is often of different composition from that of the concrete
within the body of a unit and the test results may be unrepresentative of that
concrete. The indirect velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity on the
same concrete element. This difference may vary from 5% to 20% depending largely
on the quality of the concrete under test. Where practicable site measurements
should be made to determine this difference. With indirect transmission there is
some uncertainty regarding the exact length of the transmission path because of
the significant size of the areas of contact between the transducers and the
 75
concrete. It is therefore preferable to make a series of measurements with the
transducers at different distances apart to eliminate this uncertainty. To do this,
the transmitting transducer should be placed in contact with the concrete surface
at a fixed point x and the receiving transducer should be placed at fixed increments
xn along a chosen line on the surface. The transmission times recorded should be
plotted as points on a graph showing their relation to the distance separating the
transducers. An example of such a plot is shown as line (b) in Figure 11.2. The
slope of the best straight line drawn through the points should be measured and
recorded as the mean pulse velocity along the chosen line on the concrete surface.
Where the points measured and recorded in this way indicate a discontinuity, it is
likely that a surface crack or surface layer of inferior quality is present and a
velocity measured in such an instance is unreliable.
Factors Influencing Pulse Velocity Measurements
1. Moisture Content
The moisture content has two effects on the pulse velocity, one chemical the
other physical. These effects are important in the production of correlations for the
estimation of concrete strength. Between a properly cured standard cube and a
structural element made from the same concrete, there may be a significant pulse
velocity difference. Much of the difference is accounted for by the effect of different
curing conditions on the hydration of the cement while some of the difference is due
to the presence of free water in the voids. It is important that these effects are
carefully considered when estimating strength.
2. Temperature of The Concrete
Variations of the concrete temperature between 10ºC and 30ºC have been
found to cause no significant change without the occurrence of corresponding
changes in the strength or elastic properties. Corrections to pulse velocity
measurements should be made only for temperatures outside this range.
3. Path Length
The path length over which the pulse velocity is measured should be long
enough not to be significantly influenced by the heterogeneous nature of the
concrete. It is recommended that, the minimum path length should be 100 mm for
concrete where nominal maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm or less and 150 mm
for concrete where nominal maximum size of aggregate is between 20 mm and 40
mm. The pulse velocity is not generally influenced by changes in path length,
although the electronic timing apparatus may indicate a tendency for velocity to
reduce slightly with increasing path length. This is because the higher frequency
components of the pulse are attenuated more than the lower frequency components
and the shape of the onset of the pulse becomes more rounded with increased
distance traveled. Thus, the apparent reduction of pulse velocity arises from the
difficulty of defining exactly the onset of the pulse and this depends on the
particular method used for its definition. This apparent reduction in velocity is
usually small and well within the tolerance of time measurement accuracy for the
equipment.
 76
4. Shape and Size of Specimen
The velocity of short pulses of vibration is independent of the size and shape of
the specimen in which they travel, unless its least lateral dimension is less than a
certain minimum value. Below this value, the pulse velocity may be reduced
appreciably. The extent of this reduction depends mainly on the ratio of the
wavelength of the pulse vibrations to the least lateral dimension of the specimen
but it is insignificant if the ratio is less than unity. If the minimum lateral
dimension is less than the wavelength or if the indirect transmission arrangement
is used, the mode of propagation changes and therefore the measured velocity will
be different. This is particularly important in cases where concrete elements of
significantly different sizes are being compared.
5. Effect of Reinforcing Bars
The pulse velocity measured in reinforced concrete in the vicinity of reinforcing
bars is usually higher than in plain concrete of the same composition. This is
because the pulse velocity in steel may be up to twice the velocity in plain concrete
and, under certain conditions, the first pulse to arrive at the receiving transducer
travels partly in concrete and partly in steel. The apparent increase in pulse velocity
depends on the proximity of the measurements to the reinforcing bar, the diameter
and number of bars and their orientation with respect to the propagation path. The
frequency of the pulse and surface conditions of the bar may both also affect the
degree to which the steel influences the velocity measurements. Corrections to
measured values to allow for reinforcement will reduce the accuracy of estimated
pulse velocity in the concrete so that, wherever possible, measurements should be
made in such a way that steel does not lie in or close to the direct path between the
transducers.
6. Determination of Concrete Uniformity
Heterogeneities in the concrete within or between members cause variations in
pulse velocity, which in turn are related to variations in quality. Measurements of
pulse velocity provide a means of studying the homogeneity and for this purpose a
system of measuring points which covers uniformly the appropriate volume of
concrete in the structure has to be chosen.
4.8.8. Acoustic Emission Test
Acoustic emission technique is an effective method for early detection of rebars
corrosion in concrete. When corrosion products are formed on a corroding rebar,
they swell and apply pressure to the surrounding concrete. Mircocracks will be
formed and stress waves will be generated during the expansion process when the
pressure is high enough to break the interface layer. The growth of the microcracks
is directly related to the amount of corrosion product of a corroding rebar. The
degree of the corrosion can be interpreted by detecting the acoustic emission event
rate and their amplitude.
Acoustic Emissions (AE) are microseismic activities originating from within the
test specimen when subjected to an external load (Figure 4.35). Acoustic emissions
are caused by local disturbances such as microcracking, dislocation movement,
 77
intergranular friction, etc. An acoustic signal travels to a number of piezoelectric
transducers, which convert the acoustic signals (mechanical waveforms) to electric
signals. A digital oscilloscope captures the electric signals. The time of arrival of the
signal at each transducer depends on the distance of the transducer from the AE
source. The source, frequency and amplitude of the AE events have been used to
quantify the nature of microfracture in various materials. AE sources are
determined by calculating the difference in time taken for the wave to arrive at the
different transducers. The velocity of the waves in the specimen is determined using
the ultrasonic pulse velocity method.

Figure 4.35 Acoustic emission correlated with the presence of rebar corrosion
Some of the NDT equipments including Rebound hammer, UPV tester, and
acoustic emission device have been used to identify the localized quality of concrete
in a structure. The surface hardness obtained using these tests will give the
strength of concrete after making extensive calibration of the equipment. The
strength of concrete is related to modulus of elasticity, durability, resistance to
environmental attack, etc. But the strength obtained by conducting the above tests
are local in nature and hence the quantities like load carrying capacity derived out
of these properties are unreliable unless exhaustive measurements at close
intervals are conducted over the entire structure.
[Link] Carbonation Depth Measurement Test
Fundamental Principle
Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in
the presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce
carbonates, e.g. calcium carbonate. The carbonation process is also called
depassivation. Carbonation penetrates below the exposed surface of concrete
extremely slowly. The time required for carbonation can be estimated knowing the
concrete grade and using the following equation:

t  (d / k ) 2
where
t is the time for carbonation,
 78
d is the concrete cover,
k is the permeability.
Typical permeability values are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4. Permeability Values Versus Concrete Grade
Concrete Grade Permeability
15 17
25 6
35 4
20 10
30 5
40 3.5
The significance of carbonation is that the usual protection of the reinforcing
steel generally present in concrete due to the alkaline con ditions caused by
hydrated cement paste is neutralized by carbonation. Thus, if the entire concrete
cover over the reinforcing steel is carbonated, corrosion of the steel would occur if
moisture and oxygen could reach the steel.
Equipment
If there is a need to physically measure the extent of carbonation it can be
determined easily by spraying a freshly exposed surface of the concrete with a 1%
phenolphthalein solution. The calcium hydroxide is coloured pink while the
carbonated portion is uncoloured.
General Procedure
The 1% phenolthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolthalein in
90 cc of ethanol. The solution is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water.
On freshly extracted cores the core is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution, the
depth of the uncoloured layer (the carbonated layer) from the external surface is
measured to the nearest mm at 4 or 8 positions, and the average taken. If the test
is to be done in a drilled hole, the dust is first removed from the hole using an air
brush and again the depth of the uncoloured layer measured at 4 or 8 positions
and the average taken. If the concrete still retains its alkaline characteristic, the
colour of the concrete will change to purple. If carbonation has taken place the pH
will have changed to 7 (i.e. neutral condition) and there will be no colour change.
Another formula, which can be used to estimate the depth of carbonation, utilizes
the age of the building, the water-to-cement ratio and a constant, which varies
depending on the surface coating on the concrete.

7.2
y C2
R (6.4x  1.76)2
2

where
y is age of building in years,
x is water-to-cement ratio,
 79
C is carbonation depth,
R is a constant (R= αβ).
R varies depending on the surface coating on the concrete (β) and whether the
concrete has been in external or internal service (α). This formula is contained in
the Japanese Construction Ministry publication “Engineering for improving the
durability of reinforced concrete structures.” α is 1.7 for indoor concrete and 1.0 for
outdoor concrete. β values are shown in Table 4.5.
TABLE 4.5 Values of β
Finished Indoor Outdoor
condition
no layer 1.7 1.0
plaster 0.79
mortar + plaster 0.41
mortar 0.29 0.28
mortar + paint 0.15
tiles 0.21 0.07
paint 0.57 0.8

The carbonation depth is therefore given by:

Y ½ R (4.6x  1.76)
C 
(7.2)½
The phenolphthalein test is a simple and cheap method of determining the
depth of carbonation in concrete and provides information on the risk of
reinforcement corrosion taking place. The only limitation is the minor amount of
damage done to the concrete surface by drilling or coring.
[Link] Windsor Probe Test
The Windsor Probe test measures the compressive strength of concrete
accurately and effectively, on-site in the field. The Windsor Probe system rapidly
and accurately determines the concrete compressive strength of a structure by
driving a probe into the concrete with a known amount of force. Improved and
enhanced over thirty years, this modern system is capable of measuring concrete
with a maximum compressive strength of 17,000 PSI (110MPA). An electronic
measuring unit has been added to help ensure proper test results which can be
recorded for later review or uploading to a personal computer (Figure 4.36). Two
probe styles are available: one for lightweight, low density concrete with air filled
aggregate and the other probe for more standard mix designs. Also, two standard
power settings facilitate testing fresh concrete as well as mature mixes.
 80

Figure 4.36 Windsor Probe Apparatus

Equally accurate results are obtained on horizontal or vertical surfaces
provided that the probe is perpendicular or at right angles to the test surface. A
hardened steel alloy probe is propelled at high speed by an exactly measured
explosive charge into the concrete and its penetration measured. Each power load
is guaranteed to have an energy level to give an exit muzzle velocity tolerance within
±3%. The compressive strength of the concrete is directly related to the resistance
to penetration of the crushed aggregate and cement matrix: this is determined by
the distance required to absorb the specific amount of kinetic energy of the probe.
The compressive strength of the concrete is empirically related to the penetration
that varies with the hardness of the aggregate. This relationship is recognized by
determining the Moh’s scale of hardness of the aggregate and applying a correction
factor to the penetration.
For most accurate test results ASTM recommends so that a correlation be
developed for the particular mix design being tested. Exact duplication of cylinder
test results should not be expected. The probes measure the strength of the actual
concrete in a structure rather than that of a sample compacted and cured under
strict and somewhat artificial conditions which do not necessarily represent those
of the structure itself.
Applications
 Form Removal
 Structural Analysis
 Light-weight concrete strength determination
 Standard concrete strength determination
 High-strength concrete strength determination
 High-precision determination
Advanatages and Limitations
The advantages are:
 The test is relatively quick and the result is achieved immediately provided
an appropriate correlation curve is available.
 81
 The probe is simple to operate, requires little maintenance except cleaning
the barrel and
 is not sensitive to operator technique.
 Access is only needed to one surface.
 The correlation with concrete strength is affected by a relatively small
number of variables.
 The test result is likely to represent the concrete at a depth of from 25 mm
to 75 mm from the surface rather than just the property of the surface
layer as in the Schmidt rebound test.
The limitations are:
 The minimum acceptable distance from a test location to any edges of the
concrete member or between two test locations is of the order of 150 mm to
200 mm.
 The minimum thickness of the member, which can be tested, is about
three times the expected depth of probe penetration.
 The distance from reinforcement can also have an effect on the depth of
probe penetration especially when the distance is less than about 100 mm.
 The test is limited to <40 MPa and if two different powder levels are used in
an investigation to accommodate a larger range of concrete strengths, the
correlation procedure becomes complicated.
 The test leaves an 8 mm hole in the concrete where the probe penetrated
and, in older concrete, the area around the point of penetration is heavily
fractured.
 On an exposed face the probes have to be removed and the damaged area
repaired.
[Link] Cover Thickness Survey
A cover meter is an instrument to locate rebar and measure the exact concrete
cover (Figure 4.37). Rebar detectors are less sophisticated devices that can only
locate metallic objects below the surface. Due to the cost-effective design, the pulse-
induction method is one of the most commonly used solutions. The pulse-induction
method is based on electromagnetic pulse induction technology to detect rebars.
Coils in the probe are periodically charged by current pulses and thus generate a
magnetic field. On the surface of any electrically conductive material which is in the
magnetic field eddy currents are produced. They induce a magnetic field in opposite
directions. The resulting change in voltage can be utilized for the measurement.
Rebars that are closer to the probe or of larger size produce a stronger magnetic
field.
Advantages of this method are high accuracy, not influenced by moisture and
inhomogeneities of the concrete, unaffected by environmental influences and its low
 82
costs. Disadvantage of this method are limited detection range and minimum bar
spacing depends on cover depths.

Figure 4.37 Cover Meter

[Link] Chloride Testing
Chloride can be present in the concrete either as added calcium chloride used
to accelerate the setting time of the concrete or as a contaminant of the aggregate.
Post-construction contamination can come from chloride salts, used for de-icing,
that have dissolved in water and subsequently permeated the concrete or from a
marine environment. Chloride salts, in the presence of moisture, can cause the
accelerated corrosion of the reinforcing steel within the concrete, resulting in an
expansive rusting reaction of the reinforcement and subsequent spalling of the
concrete. The aim of the chloride testing is to establish the level of chlorides within
the concrete structure, either as an overall level or, via the taking of incremental
samples, as a profile through the depth of the structure. Chloride testing in
conjunction with a visual survey and a survey to establish depth of carbonation
and cover to reinforcement can give an indication of the condition of the structural
concrete within a building and the potential for future performance.
Testing for Chlorides in Concrete
Chloride content of concrete can be determined by collecting from core
samples. The test consists of powdering the sample, obtaining the water extracts
and conducting standard titration experiment for determining the water soluble
chloride content which is expressed by weight of concrete or by weight of cement if
the mix ratio is known. Rapid Chloride Test Kit is available and test is performed by
drilling and collecting samples from different depths, mixing the sample with a
special chloride extraction liquid, and measuring the electrical potential of the
liquid by chloride ion sensitive electrode. With the help of a calibration chart
relating electrical potential and chloride content, the chloride content of the sample
can be directly determined. Table 4.6 gives a qualitative guidelines for identification
of corrosion prone locations based on pH values and chloride content.
 83
Table 4.6 Guidelines for Identification of Corrosion Prone Locations Based on
Chemical Test
[Link]. Corrosion prone Corrosion prone
High pH values greater
1 than 11.5 and very low No corrosion
chloride content
High pH values and high
chloride content greater
2 than threshold values Corrosion prone
(0.4% - 0.6% by weight of
cement)
Low pH values and high
chloride content greater
3 Corrosion prone
than 0.4% - 0.6% by
weight of cement)
[Link] Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
(Rapid Chloride Permeability Test) Mechanisms of Chloride Ion Transport
Capillary absorption, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion are the means by
which chloride ions can penetrate concrete. The most familiar method is diffusion,
the movement of chloride ions under a concentration gradient. For this to occur,
the concrete must have a continuous liquid phase and there must be a chloride ion
concentration gradient.
A second mechanism for chloride ingress is permeation, driven by pressure
gradients. If there is an applied hydraulic head on one face of the concrete and
chlorides are present, they may permeate into the concrete. A situation where a
hydraulic head is maintained on a highway structure is rare, however. A more
common transport method is absorption. As a concrete surface is exposed to the
environment, it will undergo wetting and drying cycles. When water (possibly
containing chlorides) encounters a dry surface, it will be drawn into the pore
structure though capillary suction. Absorption is driven by moisture gradients.
Typically, the depth of drying is small, however, and this transport mechanism will
not, by itself, bring chlorides to the level of the reinforcing steel unless the concrete
is of extremely poor quality and the reinforcing steel is shallow. It does serve to
quickly bring chlorides to some depth in the concrete and reduce the distance that
they must diffuse to reach the rebar.
Of the three transport mechanisms described above that can bring chlorides
into the concrete to the level of the rebar, the principal method is that of diffusion.
It is rare for a significant hydraulic head to be exerted on the structure, and the
effect of absorption is typically limited to a shallow cover region. In the bulk of the
concrete, the pores remain saturated and chloride ion movement is controlled by
concentration gradients.
Test
In the ASTM C1202 test, a water-saturated, 50-mm thick, 100-mm diameter
concrete specimen is subjected to a 60 V applied DC voltage for 6 hours using the
 84
apparatus shown in Figure 38. In one reservoir is a 3.0 % NaCl solution and in the
other reservoir is a 0.3 M NaOH solution. The total charge passed is determined
and this is used to rate the concrete according to the criteria included as Table 4.7.
This test, originally developed by Whiting [1981], is commonly referred to as the
“Rapid Chloride Permeability Test” (RCPT) Figure 4.38. This name is inaccurate as
it is not the permeability that is being measured but ionic movement. In addition,
the movement of all ions, not just chloride ions, affects the test result (the total
charge passed). There have been a number of criticisms of this technique, although
this test has been adopted as a standard test, is widely used. The main criticisms
are: (i) the current passed is related to all ions in the pore solution not just chloride
ions, (ii) the measurements are made before steady-state migration is achieved, and
(iii) the high voltage applied leads to an increase in temperature, especially for low
quality concretes, which further increases the charge passed. Lower quality
concretes heat more as the temperature rise is related to the product of the current
and the voltage. The lower the quality of concrete, the greater the current at a given
voltage and thus the greater heat energy produced. This heating leads to a further
increase in the charge passed, over what would be experienced if the temperature
remained constant. Thus, poor quality concrete looks even worse than it would
otherwise.

Figure 4.38. RCPT test setup

Table 4.7 RCPT ratings (per ASTM C1202)
Charge Passed Chloride Ion
(coulombs) Penetrability
> 4,000 High
2,000-4,000 Moderate
1,000-2,000 Low
100-1,000 Very Low
< 100 Negligible
 85
[Link] Core Sampling and Testing
Condition of concrete in the structure after construction can be assessed
directly by core drilling at required location or at suspected location. The core
samples obtained are then taken for visual inspection and compression test to
determine maximum compressive strength. The core drilling and compression
testing shall be done in accordance with ASTM Method C 42-87. The extracted
cores can be subjected to a series of tests and serve multiple functions such as:
 Confirming the findings of the non-destructive test
 Identifying the presence of deleterious matter in the concrete
 Ascertaining the strength of the concrete for design purposes
 Predicting the potential durability of the concrete
 Confirming the mix composition of the concrete for dispute resolution
 Determining specific properties of the concrete not attainable by non-
destructive methods such as intrinsic permeability.
Equipments and Apparatus
1. Core drilling machine, rotary drilling type
2. Diamond coring bit, single-tube core barrel type
3. Compression machine
Applications
The core samples can also be used for the following:
1. Standard and density determination
2. Depth of carbonation of concrete
3. Chemical analysis
4. Water/gas permeability
5. Petrographic analysis
6. Chloride permeability test
Precautions Observed in Core Drilling:
1. Test a minimum of 3 cores for each section n of questionable concrete
2. Obtain 85mm minimum diameter cores. Obtain larger cores for concrete
with 25mm size aggregate.
3. Try to obtain a length at least 1 ½ times the diameter (L/D ratio)
4. Trim to remove steel provided the minimum 1 ½ L / D ratio can be
maintained
5. Trim ends square with an automatic feed diamond saw
6. When testing, keep can thickness under 3mm
7. Use high strength capping material; neoprene pad caps should not be
used.
8. Check planeness of caps and bearing blocks
 86
9. Do not drill cores from the top layers of columns, slabs, walls, or footings,
which will be 10 to 20% weaker than cores from the mid or lower portions
10. Test cores after drying for 7 days if the structure is dry in service;
otherwise soak cores 40 hours prior to testing.
7.13.4 Significance and Use
This test method provides standardized procedures for obtaining and testing
specimens to determine the compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strength of
in-place concrete. Generally, test specimens are obtained when doubt exists about
the in-place concrete quality due either to low strength test results during
construction or signs of distress in the structure. Another use of this method is to
provide strength information on older structures. Concrete strength is affected by
the location of the concrete in a structural element, with the concrete at the bottom
tending to be stronger than the concrete at the top. Core strength is also affected by
core orientation relative to the horizontal plane of the concrete as placed, with
strength tending to be lower when measured parallel to the horizontal plane. These
factors shall be considered in planning the locations for obtaining concrete samples
and in comparing strength test results. The strength of concrete measured by tests
of cores is affected by the amount and distribution of moisture in the specimen at
the time of test. There is no standard procedure to condition a specimen that will
ensure that, at the time of test, it will be in the identical moisture condition as
concrete in the structure. The moisture conditioning procedures in this test method
are intended to provide reproducible moisture conditions that minimize within-
laboratory and between-laboratory variations and to reduce the effects of moisture
introduced during specimen preparation.
There is no universal relationship between the compressive strength of a core
and the corresponding compressive strength of standard-cured moulded cylinders.
The relationship is affected by many factors such as the strength level of the
concrete, the in-place temperature and moisture history, and the strength gain
characteristics of the concrete. Historically, it has been assumed that core
strengths are generally 85 % of the corresponding standard-cured cylinder
strengths, but this is not applicable to all situations. ACI 318 provides core
strength acceptance criteria for new construction.
[Link] Pullout Test
There are two options for the pullout test:
 DANISH LOK TEST which requires that the head be cast into the concrete
at the time of construction. This test gives a good indication of near surface
compressive strength.
 Building Research Establishment, UK (BRE) PULLOUT involves drilling a
hole and inserting a “fixing” which is pulled out. The advantage of this test
is that it does not require a head to be cast into the concrete during
construction. The disadvantage is that the test really measures tensile
strength and is then calibrated to compressive strength.
 87
The pullout test is a test that falls in the transition area between a destructive
test and a non-destructive test. It is destructive in the sense that a relatively large
volume of the concrete is damaged but non-destructive because the damaged can
be repaired. The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded
metal insert with an enlarged head from a concrete specimen or a structure. The
insert is pulled by a loading ram seated on a bearing ring that is concentric with
the insert shaft. The bearing ring transmits the reaction force to the concrete.
Frustum geometry is controlled by the inner diameter of the bearing ring (D), the
diameter of the insert head (d), and the embedment depth (h). The apex angle (2α)
of the idealized frustum is given by:
2α2 tan-1[( D-d ) / 2h]
The pullout test is widely used during construction to estimate the in-place
strength of concrete to help decide whether critical activities such as form removal,
application of post tensioning, or termination of cold weather protection can
proceed. Since the compressive strength is usually required to evaluate structural
safety, the ultimate pullout load measured during the in-place test is converted to
an equivalent compressive strength by means of a previously established
correlation relationship.
As the insert is pulled out, a conical shaped fragment of concrete is extracted
from the concrete mass. The idealized shape of the extracted conic frustum is
shown in Figure 4.39.

Figure 4.39 Schematic of the pullout test

Unlike some other tests that used to estimate the in-place strength of concrete,
the pullout test subjects the concrete to a slowly applied load and measures an
actual strength property of the concrete. However, the concrete is subjected to a
complex three dimensional state of stress, and the pullout strength is not likely to
be related simply to uniaxial strength properties. Nevertheless, by use of correlation
curves the pullout test can be used to make reliable estimates of in-place strength.
An important step in implementing the method is choosing the locations and
 88
number of pullout tests in a given placement of concrete. The inserts should be
located in the most critical portions of the structure and there should be a
sufficient number of tests to provide statistically significant results. Additional
inserts are recommended in the event that testing begins too soon, and the concrete
has not attained the required strength. The use of maturity meters along with the
pullout tests is encouraged to assist in selecting the correct testing times and in
interpreting possible low strength results. The BRE pullout test was developed to
permit testing in an existing construction by drilling a hole and inserting some type
of expansion anchor. The results of these tests are difficult to interpret if a
correlation curve does not exist for the concrete used in the construction.
[Link] Pulloff Test
This test involves attaching a plate to the concrete using epoxy resin and, after
curing has taken place, measuring the force required to pull the plate off. This test
scars the concrete but gives a measure of the near surface tensile strength which
can be converted to the compressive strength provided a correlation exists between
the compressive strength and tensile strength for the concrete mix being
investigated.
4.8.17 Strength Tests- a Comparative Assessment
Reliability of
Speed of Damage to
Test Method Cost Representativeness Strength
Operation Concerete
Prediction

Cores Moderate to Slow Moderate Good Good

High

Rebound Very Low Fast Nil Surface only Poor to Fair

Hammer

Ultrasonic Low Fast Nil Good to Moderate Fair toGood

Pullout Moderate Fast Minor Near surface Moderate

Breakoff/ Moderate Slow Moderate Moderate to Good Moderate

Pulloff

Lok Test Moderate Moderate to Moderate Moderate Good to Moderate

Fast

Capo Test Moderate Slow Moderate Moderate to Good Good to Moderate

Penetrateion Moderate Fast Minor Near Surface Moderate

[Link] Damage Assessment by Vibration Technique

A state of damage can be detected by a reduction in dynamic stiffness and an
increase in damping. This damage might be localized, as in a crack, or distributed
through the bulk of specimen as in many microcracks. Changes of stiffness lead to
changes in the natural frequencies of the structure. The measurement of dynamic
characteristics such as natural frequencies and damping of a structure is
potentially a very attractive method of non-destructive testing, since these
properties can be measured at one point of the structure and are independent of
the position chosen (Adams et al., 1975).
 89
The results obtained from dynamic tests at a low level of excitation are mainly
natural frequencies, modal damping, and mode shape components. These are used
to identify any decrease in stiffness of the structural elements and to get
information that is sometimes considered sufficient to verify the occurrence of
damage. For many civil and industrial engineering structures, damage to structural
element is similar to those produced by a local reduction in stiffness. The
monitoring of structures consists of comparing these results of test carried out at
various intervals, following the evolution of damage (Capecci and Vestroni, 1999).
Vibration testing of structures provides a potential for a global technique for
detecting damages based on vibration characteristics. The other conventional
methods of diagnostic evaluation are local methods, as they require one to look
directly at locations of suspected faults. A whole structure or a large component of
a structure may be tested by imparting vibration causing driving force to the
structure at one or more pre - selected points and these need not be the locations of
suspected fault (Biswas et al., 1994).
Wu et al. (1992) developed some automatic monitoring methods for detection
of structural damage by the use of the self – organization and learning capabilities
of neural networks in structural damage assessment. Durgaprasad et al. (1996)
studied the applicability of artificial neural networks for damage assessment of
structures. Zhao et al. (1998) studied the neural network to locate structural
damage for a beam, a frame, and support movements of a beam in its axial
direction. Flood et al. (2001) demonstrated the viability of using neural networks to
predict deflection in externally reinforced concrete beams. Akkurt et al. (2004)
developed a fuzzy logic prediction model for 28 days compressive strength of cement
mortar under standard curing conditions.
The existing damage assessment methods are used to investigate the quality
and to ascertain the degree of damage in the structures. It is not conclusively
concentrated on the residual strength and ultimate load carrying capacity of
concrete structures involving damage parameters such as peak load effects,
deficiencies in materials and environmental effects.
4.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Damage assessment
2. Destructive Testing
3. Non Destructive Testing
4.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand the term ‘durability of concrete’? Explain in detail.
2. Explain any one of the test on concrete.
3. Explain any one of the NDT procedure to assess the quality of concrete.
4.6 SUMMARY
The composition and properties and testing of concrete are discussed in detail.
The various demage assessment procedures are explained in detail.
 90
4.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Acceptable concretes usually have proportions within the ranges by values
are ________, _______, _______.
2. Do not place the concrete if the air temeperature is below ______, (or) above
_______.
3. Depth if carbonation can be calculated by _______.
4.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. http: // [Link]/Green Mark / others /existing [Link]
4.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. write about ‘where non destructive’ Testing.
2. Write about ‘Additive” and ‘Admixture’
4.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Building Material Technology Jagadish.K.S,Ready, [Link] rama &
Rao.K.S
4.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on (during pcp days)
1. Durability of Concrete
2. Concrete Manufacture
4.12 KEYWORDS
Composition – properties – tests on concrete – durability – damage assessment
procedures.


 91
LESSON – 5

METHODS OF SURVEY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineers or building surveyors may be asked to carry out an inspection
of a concrete structure to assess its condition. The request may be caused by
doubts about the safety of the structure, because of damage to the structure or age
of the structure. On other occasions there may be a proposal to carry out
alterations to the structure, for instance by making new doorways or windows in a
building, or extending the building. In such situations it is necessary to tackle the
inspection of the structure in a planned manner. It is usual in such inspections to
begin by gathering as much information about the structure as possible and then
by visually inspecting the structure. This is followed if considered necessary, by
further investigation of any areas of severe deterioration. This investigation focuses
on the extent of carbonation of the structure, the extent of corrosion of the
reinforcement and theoretical remaining concrete life. The final investigation, again
if considered necessary, examines in greater detail the extent of any cracking in the
structure, the compressive strength of the concrete, extent of corrosion, etc. Finally
an assessment can be made of the condition of the building and whether repair is
an option.
5.2 OBJECTIVE
 To assess the strength of structures, surveys to be conducted are studied.
5.3 CONTENTS
5.3.1 Methods and inspection techniques required
[Link] First Survey
[Link] Second Survey
5.3.2 Carbonation test
5.3.3 Corrosion of reinforcing bars
5.3.4 Assessment of cracks
5.3.5 Assessment of evidence of water leakage
5.3.6 Deterioration of concrete strength
5.3.7 Assessment of a large deflection
5.3.8 Assessment of surface deterioration
5.3.9 Third Survey
[Link] Corrosion of beam
[Link] Cracking
[Link] Water leckage
[Link] Large deflection
[Link] Surface deterioration
 92
5.3.1 Methods And Inspection Techniques Required
[Link] First Survey (Regular Inspection)
It is important to find out as much information as possible about the
structure. A typical list of information, which should be gathered as follows:
 date of survey
 name and address of building
 building’s use
 date of construction
 no. of floors
 area of each floor
 type of construction
 span between beams
 kind of foundation
 designer
 building supervisor
 builder
 name of maintenance personnel
 environmental conditions (tropical, temperate etc}
 presence of vibration
 presence of chemicals
 presence of air conditioning
 distance from sea
 prevailing wind direction
 side of building closest to the sea
 average wind speed
 history of building use
 extensions or rebuilding carried out
 any repairs necessary
 any accident
 type of concrete used( cement, sand, aggregate, use of admixture)
 design strength
 fabrication method.
Armed with this information the building can then be visually inspected. This
may require the use of binoculars to view more inaccessible parts of the building.
The visual inspection needs to concentrate on those areas that are most likely to
show damage, namely column, beam and floor areas, and particularly those areas
where tension occurs. This is the corner areas if the floor is inspected from above
and the centre of the floor if the floor is inspected from below. Any cracks identified
during this process are recorded. At the end of this assessment one can give a
rough estimate of the condition of the building. If cracks, lifting, exfoliation,
deteriorated surface and water leaking are found it may be necessary to carry out a
 93
second more detailed survey. This decision is usually made by grading the degree of
deterioration. The degree of deterioration criteria given is shown in Table-5.1.
[Link] Second Survey (Specific/Particular Inspection)
A second survey is carried out if the degree of deterioration reaches Grade III.
This survey determines the depth of carbonation of the concrete, extent of corrosion
of the reinforcing bars, extent of any cracking, severity of water leakage, any
deterioration of concrete strength, identification of any areas of excessive deflection
and the identification of any areas of surface deterioration.
5.3.2 Carbonation Test
Using the carbonation test, the depth of carbonation is determined at 4 or 8
points and classified, see Table 5.2, where D is distance from surface to first layer
of reinforcing bars and MCD is the measured carbonation depth. As shown in
Section 5 theoretical carbonation depth (TCD) can be calculated, as follows:
Y ½ R( 4.6 x  1.76)
TCD 
(7.2)½
A classification of the theoretical depth of carbonation is shown in Table 5.3.
The degree of deterioration due to carbonation can then be classified as shown in
Table 5.4.
TABLE 5.1 Criteria for Assessment of Degree of Deterioration
Unit for
Kind of deterioration Grade I Grade II Grade III
classification
Cracks along main No. of 1 m crack 0 1-2 3 and over
bars lengths per 100m2
Cracks along No. of 1 m crack 0-2 3-4 5 and over
supplementary bars lengths per 100m2
Cracks around Number of cracks 0-2 3-4 5 and over
openings for 10 openings
Mesh cracks Area of meshed less than 5-10% 10% and over
cracks as a % 5%
Other cracks No. of 1m crack 0-4 5-9 10% and over
Lengths/100m2
Exfoliation - only on (Exfoliated 0% 0-1% 1% and over
finished layer area/area
of side) %
No explosion of bars Number per 100m2 0 0 1% and over
Explosion of bars Number per 100m2 0 0 1% and over
Deteriorated surface
 stain on surface no. per 100 m2 0 Less than 2 and over
 efflorescence no. per 100 m2 0 2 4 and over
 pop out no. per 100 m2 0 1 and over
 weakened surface % of weakened less than 3% and over
 other stain 1% 5% and over
% of weakened less than
1%
Water leaking no no yes
Abnormal structural no no yes
Movement or
deflection
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Table 5.2 Classification Table for Measured Carbonation Depth
Classification of Outdoors or contact
Indoors
carbonation with soil
A1 MCD<0.5D MCD<0.7D
A2 0.5D<MCD>D 0.7D<MCD<D + 20mm
A3 D<MCD D+20mm<MCD
Table 5.3 Classification of the Theoretical Depth of Carbonation for the
Purpose of a Second Survey
Classification Depth of Classification Depth of
carbonation carbonation
B1 MCD<0.5TCD
B2 0.5TCD<MCD<1.5TCD
B3 MCD>1.5TCD
Table 5.4 Classification of Degree of Deterioration Due to Carbonation
Degree of deterioration Classification
I-Minor A1 and B1, A2 and B1, A1 and B2
II-Mild A1 and B3, A2 and B2
III-Severe A2 and B3, A3 and B1, A3 and B2, A3
and B3
5.3.3 Corrosion of Reinforcing Bars
An assessment of the extent of corrosion of the reinforcing bars is carried out
by selecting a number of representative areas to survey. The intent of the survey is
to determine the amount of concrete cover over the bar at the positions selected,
establishing the type, diameter and direction of the reinforcing bar, assessing the
condition of the reinforcing bar and checking the depth of carbonation and surface
condition. The corrosion of the bars can be classified as in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Classification of Corrosion of the Bars
Classification Points Condition of bar
I 0 Surface with mill scale, slightly rusted without
stain on concrete
II 1 Bar has begun to rust, mill scale has begun to
flake and there is some pitting
III 3 Whole bar surface has rusted and flaked
IV 6 There is a reduction of bar area.

Table 6 shows a method of assessing the degree of deterioration based on the

points calculated.
 95
Table 5.6 Method of Assessing Degree of Deterioration Based on the Points
Calculated
Degree of deterioration Points calculated
I (good) 0<1
II (slight) 1< 3
III (medium) 3 < 4.5
IV (serious) 4.5 < 6

Table 5.7 gives guidance on whether the corrosion of the bars needs to be
repaired and whether a third survey is required.

Table 5.7 Guidance to Determine the Need to Repair the Bars or

Conduct a Third Survey
Degree of deterioration Needs repair Third survey required
I (good) No No
II (slight) No If necessary
III (medium) Yes If necessary
IV (serious) Yes If necessary
5.3.4 Assessment of Cracks
If cracks have been classified as Grade III during the first survey, a second
survey is required to determine the pattern, width and depth of the cracks and their
cause. A hammer is used to sound the area around the crack. Dense concrete will
produce a different sound from concrete containing a void underneath. If the crack
is only in the coating on top of the concrete no further assessment is required.
However, if the crack runs into the concrete and is not just a surface crack, the
crack width is measured. If necessary, evidence of the location of the crack can be
recorded on a photograph. The grade of the crack can be assessed using Table 5.8.
Table 5.8 Guide to Assess Grade of Crack
Crack width in mm Crack width in mm
Crack severity
Outdoor crack Indoor crack
I <0.05 <0.2
II 0.05~0.5 0.2~1.0
III >0.5 >1.0
The need to repair the crack or the requirement to proceed to a third survey
depends upon the degree of its severity as indicated in Table 5.9.
 96
Table 5.9 Guide to determine need to repair crack and conduct third survey
Degree of Characteristics of Need to repair Need for third
deterioration crack survey
I crack not growing no no
crack growing yes
II crack not growing yes no
crack growing yes
III crack not growing yes no
crack growing yes
5.3.5 Assessment of Evidence of Water Leakage
The second survey of water leakage requires the surface coating to be removed
and the area containing the watermark to be measured. The area is then inspected
both on a wet day and a fine day to establish the cause of the watermark. The
degree of deterioration due to water leakages is classified as sown in Table 5.10.
Furthermore, the decision whether repair is required or a third survey is necessary
depends on the degree of deterioration as indicated in Table 5.11.
Table 5.10 Classification of deterioration due to water leakage
Exposed
Degree of Inside room Inside room
Outdoor area outdoor area
deterioration (water used in (no water used
(under cover) (no scaffolding
area) in area)
requested)
I (good) - - Mark dried -
II (slight) Mark dried Mark dried - Mark dried
III (medium) Mark wet Mark wet Mark wet Mark wet
IV (serious) Water leaking Water leaking Water leaking Water leaking
Table 5.11 Guide to determine if water leakage areas need to be repaired and third
survey required
Need for repair
Inside Inside
Exposed
Degree of Outd oor room room Need for
outdoor area
deterioration area(under (water (no water third
(no scaffolding
cover) used used in survey
requested)
in area) area)
I (good) - - no - No
II (slight) no no - yes No
III(medium) yes yes yes yes yes
IV (serious) yes yes yes yes yes
 97
5.3.6 Deterioration of Concrete Strength
NDT is used during the second survey to assess the deterioration of concrete
strength. The areas surveyed are those assessed during the first survey as being
suspect. For comparison some sound areas are also selected. Three NDT techniques
are used:
 rebound hammer test
 pulse velocity measurement
 pullout test.
Rebound Hammer Test
The surface layer on the area to be checked is first removed then the concrete
is smoothed using a carborundum whetstone. About 20 points are marked in the
test area with a minimum of 25 mm spacing. No point should be marked any closer
than 30 mm from a corner and the test area should be greater than 100 mm × 100
mm. The average of all 20 test points is taken and any reading greater than ± 20%
of the average is discarded. The test is repeated until all 20 tests are less than ±
20% of the average.
Pulse Velocity Measurement
UPV test is performed to assess the homogeneity and integrity of concrete
(Sec.4.8.7).
Pullout Test Procedure
Drill the area to be tested using a 15 mm diameter drill and 35mm depth.
Install the plug. The pullout strength and compressive strength of the concrete is
estimated using the following formula:
P
FP  (kg / cm 2 )
A
where,
Fp is pullout strength,
P is proof stress of pullout,
A is side area of hole.
Concrete can be graded based on its compressive strength as shown in Table
5.12.
Table 5.12 Grade of Concrete Based on its Compressive Strength
Degree of deterioration % of the design strength
I (no deterioration) 100 and over
II ( deteriorated) 75-100
III (severe deterioration) Less than 75%
Assessment on whether repair is necessary and whether a third survey is
necessary is shown in Table 5.13.
 98
Table 5.13 Guide to assess the need for repair and a third survey
Degree of deterioration Need for repair Need for third survey
I No Depends on necessity
II Yes Yes
III Yes Yes
5.3.7 Assessment of a Large Deflection
To assess an apparent large deflection it is necessary to quantify the
deflection. This is done by measuring the bend in a beam or floor by determining
the difference in level between either end of beam (or edge of the floor) and centre of
the beam (or floor). This can be done with a surveying instrument (or a string line)
and a measuring tape, or a straight edge and a measuring tape. The length of span
of the beam or floor slab is also measured. If cracking is present in the beam or
slab, the width of crack is measured with a suitable scale. The length of crack is
also measured and recorded. If possible the time when cracking was first noticed
should be obtained from people familiar with the building. This should be combined
with questions about the building’s loading history to determine whether the
building has ever been overloaded. Also, the building’s current loading should be
estimated to assess whether it exceeds the design parameters. The result of the
deflection survey can be classified as shown in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14 Degree of Deterioration Due to Deflection and Crack
Width (mm) and total length
Degree of deterioration Deflection/span
of crack (m)
I (good) Less than 1/300 <0.5mm and <6m
II (slight) 1/300 to less than 1/200 <1.5mm and <15m
III (medium) 1/200 to less than 1/100 <3mm and <20m
IV (serious) 1/100 and over >3mm and >20m
In using Table 5.14 it is important to note that if a beam is being assessed, the
width of the crack is the most important aspect and, if a slab is being assessed, the
total length of crack is the most important aspect. In a situation where there is a
difference in the assessed degree of deterioration between the rating with
deflection/span and either the crack width or the crack length, the deflection/span
ratio is the more important parameter. Further course of action depends upon the
severity of defect as graded in Table 5.15.
Table 5.15 Guide to determine need for repair and a third survey
Degree of deterioration Need for repair Need for third survey
I (good) No No
II (slight) Yes No
III (medium) Yes Depends on necessity
IV (serious) Yes Yes
 99
5.9 Assessment of Surface Deterioration
The second survey of surface deterioration is carried out by selecting a few
representative areas of each kind of deterioration present. These include:
 efflorescence
 stains (water and rust)
 lifting, separation and exfoliation
 rub off
 pop out
 weakness including disintegration.
By visually assessing the selected areas, a record is made of the area, depth
and degree of deterioration. A classification of the deterioration is shown in Table
5.16, whereas the need to repair or for a third survey depends on its grade as
indicated in Table 5.17.
Table 5.16 Classification of Deterioration
Degree of deterioration Description
I (good) Deterioration is noticeable but it is only a small
area and there is no danger of the area falling.
II (medium) Area of deterioration is large, however, in only some
areas is the depth of penetration up to 20 mm.
III (serious) Loss of cross-sectional area is large with the depth
of deterioration reaching the reinforcing bars. Rate
of progress of deterioration is estimated to be fast.
Table 5.17 Guide to Determine Need For Repair or Third Survey
Assessment of future
Grade
progress of Need for repair Need for third survey
deterioration
I Dormant – will not No, except if required No
progress furth to improve appearance
I Will progress further Yes Depends on
necessity
II - do - Yes - do -
III - do - Yes - do -
5.3.9 Third Survey
A third survey is necessary if the damage of concrete condition is very severe.
[Link] Corrosion of Bars
If it is decided after the second survey that a third survey of the corrosion of
reinforcing bars is necessary a selection is made of areas of normal concrete as well
as defective areas containing cracks, construction joints, cold joints,
honeycombing, rust staining and exfoliation. Ten positions are selected for each
condition or four to six bars in an area of about 500 mm × 500 mm are surveyed.
As for the second survey the following are assessed using the same tables for
corroded bar: classification of deterioration, presumption of cause, remaining life
and need for repair. In addition, salt content of the concrete is measured.
 100
[Link] Cracking
Areas are selected containing large growing cracks discovered during the
second survey stage. Investigation involved the following:
 width and growing status of the cracks are checked at intervals of 6
months to 1 year
 degree of corrosion of the bars in the cracked area is established using the
same tables as for the second survey
 extent of carbonation is determined
 depth of the crack is established using an ultrasonic technique or by
extracting a core from the cracked area.
A core is extracted from an area where Schmidt Hammer tests have been
carried out to establish the compressive strength of the concrete. The core is
analysed to establish as much information as possible about the concrete used, e.g.
aggregate type, mix proportions, degree of compaction, etc. A proof load test is
applied on the floor slab and the width of the crack monitored during the test. The
structure is checked for differential settlement by checking the floor, windows etc.
5.10.3 Water Leakage
If the second survey into water leakage showed that a third survey was
necessary or if it was not possible to reach the area where water leakage is
occurring without scaffolding, the third survey is carried out. This may require
scaffolding to be erected if previous access was not possible. Essentially the third
survey requires the design drawings to be checked for the possible source of the
water. From a practical point of view it may be possible to detect the source of the
water by colouring the water in the possible sources. The concrete in the area of the
leakage can also be removed to determine if the reinforcing is being corroded. Once
the reason for the leakage is determined the concrete can be repaired.
5.10.4 Large Deflection
In this case the third survey is carried out to either
 determine the percentage of residual deflection, or
 determine the ratio of measured to calculated frequency of vibration of the
member.
If the percentage of residual deflection is to be measured, the deflection of the
member in the existing condition is first measured. The member is then put under
tension by loading with for instance a known load. When the load is removed the
deflection is again measured and the residual additional deflection established. A
core needs to be taken from the member before the load test to determine the
compressive strength of the concrete. If the ratio of measured to calculated
frequency of vibration of the member is to be established, free vibration wave is
measured by generating a shock wave and using a vibrometer to determine
frequency. Knowing the dynamic force applied and the dimensions of the member
the theoretical frequency of vibration can be calculated. The result of those
 101
investigations can be assessed using Table 5.18. Whether the results justify repair
or not can be judged using Table 5.19.
Table 5.18 Guide to Assess the Result of Investigations
Ratio = frequency
Degree of
measured/frequency % of residual deflection
deterioration
calculated
I 0.90 and over Less than 15
II 0.75 and over 15 and over
III Less than 0.75 ,,
Table 5.19 Guide to Determine if Results Justify Repair
Degree of
Need for structural analysis Need for repair
deterioration
I No No
II Yes Yes
III Yes Yes
[Link] Surface Deterioration
If the need for a third survey has been established, additional information is
required
 On the weakness of the surface of the concrete
 On any deterioration of the compressive strength of the concrete
 On the depth of carbonation of the concrete
 On the depth of deterioration.
Assessment of the deterioration after further investigation can be obtained
using the Table 5.20.
Table 5.20 Guide to Assess Deterioration After Further Investigation
Degree of
Description
deterioration
I (good) Deterioration is noticeable but it is only a small area and
the depth is 10 mm or less.
Area of deterioration is large, however, depth of
II (medium)
penetration up to 20mm is true only in some areas.
Loss of cross-sectional area is large with the depth of
deterioration reaching the reinforcing bars or else the
III (serious) depth of penetration is 20 mm or less. However, the
reason for deterioration is unknown or the progress of
deterioration estimated to be fast and is progressing
quickly.
5.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Strength of structures survey.
2. Methods of Inspection Techniques
5.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the informations to be collected during survey / impaction of
structure?
2. How will you find the deterioration process of concrete structure?
 102
3. Explain about the third survey to be conducted to assess the quality of
structure.
5.6 SUMMARY
Most important parameters that determine the safety of a building is its
strength. In all cases, if the investigation finds the strength of concrete is less than
the design strength, the result needs to be presented to the engineer in charge (civil
engineer/structural engineer) who must make a decision based on the results
presented as well as other considerations.
5.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Pull out Test strength and Compressive strength of the concrete is estimated
using the formula ______.
2. What is MCD and TCD.
5.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. [Link] /PDF/Safety/earthquake/[Link]
5.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Write about ‘method and Inspection technique required to assess the
strength of concrete survey.
5.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
[Link], Learning from Failures, Dhaopatrai & Sons (2008) New Delhi
5.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion o (during PCP days)
1. Method of Inspection
5.12 KEYWORDS
Survey – assessment – detoriation – concrete structure.


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LESSON – 6

REPAIR METHODS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Action taken to reinstate to an acceptable level the current functionality of a
structure or its components which are defective or deteriorated, degraded or
damaged in some way is called repair. The action may not be intended to bring the
structure or its components so treated back to its original level or functionality or
durability. The work may be intended simply to reduce the rate of deterioration or
degradation without significantly enhancing the current level of functionality.
The main purpose of repairs is to bring back the architectural shape of the
building so that all services start working and the functioning of building is
resumed quickly. Repair does not pretend to improve the structural strength of the
building and can be very deceptive for meeting the strength requirements of the
next earthquake. The actions will include the following:
i. Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster
ii. Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes
iii. Checking and repairing electric wiring
iv. Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and plumbing services
v. Re-building non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, boundary walls, etc.
vi. Re-plastering of walls as required
vii. Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles
viii. Relaying cracked flooring at ground level
ix. Redecoration, whitewashing, painting, etc.
The architectural repairs as stated above do not restore the original structural
strength of cracked walls or columns and may sometimes be very illusive, since the
redecorates building will hide all the weaknesses and the building will suffer even
more severe damage if shaken again by an equal shock since the original energy
absorbing capacity will not be available.
6.2 OBJECTIVE
 To study the different repair methods used in structures.
6.3 CONTENTS
6.3.1 Rehabilitation
6.3.2 Retrofitting
6.3.3 Repair materials
[Link] Criteria for selection of repair materials
[Link] Methodology for selection of repair materials
[Link] Material properties
[Link] Compatibility
 104
6.3.4 Factors affecting the selection of a repair material
6.3.5 Essential parameters for repair materials
6.3.6 Classification of repair materials
6.3.7 Patch repairing
[Link] Cement patching mortar and concrete
[Link] Polymer concrete and mortar
[Link] Epoxy resin mortar and concrete
6.3.8 Polyester resins
6.3.9 Acrylic concrete and mortar
6.3.10 Quick setting compounds
6.3.11 Bituminuous materials
6.3.12 Ferrocement
6.3.13 SIFLON
6.3.14 SIMCON
6.3.15 Grouts
6.3.16 Shotcrete
6.3.17 Bonding agents
6.3.18 Polymer Latex Emulsion
6.3.19 Epoxy Latex
6.3.20 Epoxy Bonding Agents
6.3.21 Surface Coatings
6.3.22 Sealents
6.3.1 Rehabilitation
It is the process of bringing the structure to its original level of function
including durability and strength. The main purpose of restoration is to carry out
structural repairs to load bearing elements. It may involve cutting portions of the
elements and rebuilding them or simply adding more structural material so that the
original strength is more or less restored. The process may involve inserting
temporary supports, underpinning, etc. Some of the approaches are stated below:
 Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding
them in richer mortar. Use of nonshrinking mortar will be preferable.
 Addition of reinforcing mesh on both -faces of the cracked wall, holding it
to the wall through spikes or bolts and then covering it suitably. Several
alternatives have been used.
 Injecting epoxy like material, which is strong in tension, into the cracks in
walls, columns, beams, etc.
 105
Where structural repairs are considered necessary, these should be carried out
prior to or simultaneously with the architectural repairs so that total planning of
work could be done in a coordinated manner and wastage is avoided.
6.3.2 Retrofitting
Action to modify the functionality of a structure and to improve future
performance in terms of load carrying capacity is called retrofitting. It relates to the
strengthening of a structure against additional loading such as earthquake, etc.
Commonly, strengthening procedures should aim at one or more of the following
objectives:
(i) Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions, by reinforcement or
by increasing wall areas or the number of walls and columns.
(ii) Giving unity to the structure by providing a proper connection between its
resisting elements, in such a way that inertia forces generated by the vibration of
the building can be transmitted to the members that have the ability to resist them.
Typical important aspects are the connections between roofs or floors and walls,
between intersecting walls and between walls and foundations.
(iii) Eliminating features that are sources of weakness or that produce
concentrations of stresses in some members. Asymmetrical plan distribution of
resisting members, abrupt changes of stiffness from one floor to the other,
concentration of large masses, large openings in walls without a proper peripheral
reinforcement are examples of defect of this kind.
(iv) Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by proper reinforcement
and connection of resisting members. Since its cost may go to as high as 50 to 60%
of the cost of rebuilding, the justification of such strengthening must be fully
considered.
The effects of the above three operations on strength and deformation capacity
can be shown in Figure 6.1.
Retrofitting

Original /
Rehabilitation
Load

Repair

Damaged

Deflection

Figure 6.1 Effects of repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting

Repair of concrete structures is decided upon depending on factors such as
the cause of damage, type, shape and function of the structure, the type and extent
of damage, the capabilities and facilities available with builders, the availability of
 106
repair materials. The repair of concrete structures will involve treating the
deteriorated material for extended durability, and / or strengthening of weak
structural members to restore the load carrying capacity.
6.3.2 Repair Materials
[Link] Criteria for Selection of Repair Materials
A careful selection of repair material is necessary for the following reasons
(Shan Somayaji, 1995 and ACI. 1980)
 Almost every repair job has unique condition and special requirements
 The composition and properties of repair materials have a profound effect
and cured on the performance and durability of a repair.
 The repair materials perform adequately only if they are prepared, applied
and cured as per the specified procedures, which may necessitate the use
of appropriate tools and considerable skill.
 Repair materials, being generally proprietary in nature, are very costly.
[Link] Methodology for the Selection of Repair Materials
The basic emphasis of the selection methodology is to maximize the
performance of a repair material and ensure durability. The step-by-step procedure
for selection of repair materials for chemical process industry is given below
(Baaza, 1996):
Definition of service condition: Identification of major and minor chemicals,
traces, spillage, cleaning chemicals, slurries and abrasives, their characteristics
and their interaction with the environment under stagnant conditions, operating
temperature range, dilute conditions, alternate wetting and drying effect.
Determination of appropriate application condition: Viscosity, flow
characteristics, pot life, curing requirements, coverage, film/layer thickness and
size of repair.
 Tools and equipments required: Pump, sprayer, injecting/grouting
machine, dryer, mixer, batching plant, heater, etc.
 Repair and maintenance schedule: Anticipated durability of repair,
maintenance requirements, and replacement/renewal/reinforcement
requirements.
 Product performance record/history: durability, functionality, environment
friendliness.
 Material testing and assessment for quality assurance and quality control
 Selection of applicator/contractor
 Material and job specifications
[Link] Material Properties
These differences in the mechanical properties of repair material and concrete
substrate can be categorized as follows:
 107
 Curing shrinkage of repair material relative to drying shrinkage of the
concrete substrate.
 Differential thermal expansion/contraction between the repair material and
concrete substrate.
 Differences in stiffness and Poisson’s ratio causing unequal load sharing
and strains resulting in interface stresses.
 Creep of repair material under sustained load as compared with that of the
concrete.
 Relative fatigue performance of the components in the composite steel-
concrete repair structures.
Such differences in properties may result in either initial tensile strains
induced in the repair or cracking at or adjacent to the repair substrate interface.
Both of these may reduce long-term structural capacity. Stresses that may be
generated by relative volume changes between the repair material and the existing
concrete substrate and service loads carried by the repair are shown in Figure 6.2.
During service, incompatibilities in the form of differing elastic moduli and
differential thermal movement between repair and substrate can cause problems.

Figure 6.2 Possible loads acting on a repair

Also, creep of the repair material under sustained stress may render the repair
less effective with time. The effects of carrying out repairs while the existing
structure is under load and the influence of cyclic and impact loading may also be
significant and failure to support some of the load temporarily before and during
the repair process will result in stresses being transferred to undamaged parts of
the member. Little load will be subsequently transmitted through repaired areas
making the repair nonstructural. Figure 6.3 shows how load relief during the repair
operation may enable the repair material to carry its share of stress.
Pre-repair considerations are as important as the repairs and consequently
proper materials selection and surface preparation are essential to high quality,
durable, and functional repair. Materials selected for use in concrete repair must
 108
meet specification requirements for the particular application or intended use.
Engineers therefore need to know the mechanical and physical characteristics of
available products and their proposed substrates before an assessment of
structural compatibility can be made and suitable repair systems chosen.

Figure 6.3 Repair in Tension and Compression Zones

[Link] Compatibility
Compatibility for a structural repair may be defined as that combination of
properties and dimensions which ensures that interface bond strength is not
exceeded and that the repair material carries its design load. This definition
involves knowledge of repair dimensions in conjunction with a variety of material
properties of both the repair material and substrate and as well, knowledge of the
environmental influences and applied structural loads and resulting deformation.
Table 6.1 suggests the properties generally required of repair materials as
compared with the concrete substrate, to produce long-term structurally efficient
repairs.
Table 6.1 General Requirements of Patch Repair Materials for Structural
Compatibility
Relationship of repair mortar
Property
(R) to concrete substrate (C)

Strength in compression, tension and R>C

flexure Modulus in compression, tension
R~C
and flexure
 109
Relationship of repair mortar
Property
(R) to concrete substrate (C)
Poisson’s ratio Dependent on modulus and type
of repair
Coefficient of thermal expansion
R~C
Adhesion in tension and shear
R>C
Curing and long term shrinkage
R<C
Strain capacity
R>C
Creep
Dependent on whether creep
causes desirable
Fatigue performance
or undesirable effects
Chemical reactivity
R>C
Should not promote alk/agg
reaction,
Electrochemical stability sulphate attack or corrosion of
embedments
in substrate
Dependent on permeability of
patch material
and Chloride ion content of
substrate

Repair materials can be formulated to provide a very wide range of properties

from brittle to ductile and impermeable to porous. A wide variety of combinations of
these properties is possible, with values selected to meet specific requirements of
the application at hand. Many products particularly polymer-based materials are
influenced by environmental conditions in service. In the repair situation
environmental conditions can range from freezing to refractory temperatures and
from very dry to full saturation. While cement-based materials are slightly affected
by these conditions, the polymer-based materials are significantly affected.
Therefore, the selection of the appropriate material is imperative to the intended
purpose.
To understand how various factors affect the performance of repair systems it
is necessary to consider the repair and substrate as components of a composite
system, which includes dissimilar materials. The meaning of compatibility in such a
system relates to a balance of physical, chemical and electrochemical properties
and dimensions between repair materials and substrates. These ensure that a
repair withstands stresses induced by volume changes, chemical and
electrochemical effects without distress and deterioration in a specified
environment over a designated period of time.
 110
6.3.4 Factors Affecting the Selection of a Repair Material
Figure 6.4 presents the various factors affecting the selection of repair
materials and these are discussed in detail below.

Figure 6.4 Various factors affecting the compatibility of repair materials

(i) Dimensional Stability
Dimensional incompatibility adversely affects the load carrying capacity of
structural repairs. It may lead to the inability to carry the expected portion of the
load and overstressing in the existing structure. The two volume-change properties
that affect dimensional compatibility are drying shrinkage and thermal expansion.
When making large thick patches or when placing an overlay, it is important to
closely match the coefficient of thermal expansion of the repair material with the
concrete being repaired. The differences in volume change that arise when a
composite of two materials with quite different thermal coefficients undergo a
significant temperature change, often cause failure at the bond interface or within
the section of lower strength material.
(ii) Modulus of Elasticity
When materials with widely differing moduli are in contact with each other, the
significant difference in deformability will cause problems under specific loading
conditions. For example when the external load is perpendicular to the bond line
(Figure 6.5-a) as in the case of pavement repair, a difference in modulus of elasticity
between the repair material and concrete is usually not a problem. In repairs where
the service load is parallel to the bond line however, the deformation of the lower
modulus materials transfers the load to the higher modulus material which may
then fracture. (Figure 6.5-b). Not all failures of bonded materials with widely
differing modulus of elasticity are caused by external loads. Shrinkage or thermal
expansion and contraction can cause loss of bond unless the modulus of the repair
material is low enough to permit movement without excessive stress at the bond
line.
 111

Figure 6.5 Materials with low modulus of elasticity deform more under given unit load
(iii) Chemical Reactivity
The reactivity of the patching material to steel reinforcement and other
embedded metals, to the aggregate in the concrete or specific sealers or protective
coatings applied over the patch must also be considered. Patching materials with
low to moderate pH provide little protection to concrete while highly alkaline
material may attack potentially reactive aggregates in the concrete. Therefore
reactivity of patching materials with both the substrate and the surface protection
product should be checked.
(iv) Electrochemical Compatibility
The resistivity of the patching material may also affect the durability of the
patch and the concrete in the members undergoing repair. Materials that are highly
resistive or non conductive have a tendency to isolate the repaired area from the
adjacent undamaged areas.
Consequently, if there is a large permeability or chloride content differential
between the patched area and the rest of the concrete, the corrosion current
becomes concentrated in a restricted area and the rate of corrosion may then be
accelerated, causing premature failure in either the patch or adjoining concrete.
Figure 6.6 highlights the critical factors that largely govern the effectiveness and
durability of concrete repairs in practice and must be considered in the design and
specification process.
Compatibility cannot however, be tackled purely in material terms. It must
factor in aspects of design detailing and construction. Several interrelated items
such as surface preparation, method of application and inspection need to be
considered to ensure long-term performance.
 112

Figure 6.6 Factors affecting durability of concrete repair systems

6.6 Essential Parameters for Repair Materials
Besides being of compatible properties, repair materials for cement concrete /
mortar shall also be easy to apply and require no attention after the repair has been
applied. The essential parameters for deciding upon a repair material for concrete
are as follows:
 Low shrinkage properties
 Requisite setting / hardening properties
 Workability
 Good bond strength with existing sub-strate
 Compatible coefficient of thermal expansion
 Compatible mechanical properties and strength to that of the sub-strate
 Should allow relative movement, if expected, particularly in case of sealing
of cracks or dealing with expansion joints
 Minimal or no curing requirement
 Alkaline character
 Low air and water permeability
 Aesthetics to match with surroundings
 Cost
 Durable, non degradable or non-biodegradable due to various forms of
energy, life, UV rays, heat, etc.
 Non-hazardous / non – polluting
6.7 Classification of Repair Materials
The materials used for concrete repairs on the basis of type of application
into following groups(Allen & Edwards, 1987 and ACI.1980):
 113
(i) Patch Repair Materials
 Cementitious mortar/concrete
 Polymer modified cementitious mortar/concrete
 Polymer mortar/concrete
 Quick setting compounds
 High alumina cement based
 Calcium sulphate based
 Magnesium phosphates
 Sulphur concrete
(ii) Injection Grouts
 Cementitious grouts (with or without fibres)
 Gas forming grouts
 Sulpho-aluminate grouts
 Polymer grouts
(iii) Bonding Aids
 Polymer emulsion type
 Polymer resin type
(iv) Resurfacing Materials
 Protective coatings and membranes
 Impregnants and hydrophobic sealers
 Toppings/screeds
 Overlays
 Gunite/shotcrete
(v) Other Repair Materials
 Corrosion inhibitors
 Rebar protective coatings
 Cathodic protection
 Re-alkalization
 Materials for surface preparation
 Chemical rust removers for corroded reinforcement
 Joint sealers
 Surface coatings for protection of RCC
Products available in the market are generally in pre-proportioned and in pre-
weighed packs together with accompanying instructions regarding mixing
procedure, pot life, dosage and application procedure, etc. It is desirable that the
manufacturer indicates the generic name and proportion of the components in the
 114
products on the packs. Table 6.2 shows the various types of deterioration in
concrete, repair techniques and materials.
Table 6.2 Various Types of Deterioration in Concrete, Repair
Techniques and Materials
Concrete
[Link]. Repair technique Repair materials
damage
1. Alkali- Coatings Bituminous Coatings
Aggregate
2. Expansion Concrete replacement Epoxies
Jacketing Jacketing materials
Total replacement Latex-modified concrete
Linseed oil
Portland cement concrete
3. Cavitation Coatings Bituminous Coatings
Concrete replacement Epoxies
Pneumatically applied mortar Jacketing materials
Prepacked concrete Latex-modified concrete
Portland cement concrete
Portland cement mortar
4. Cracks-Active Caulking, Jacketing Elastic sealants
Stitching, Stressing Jacketing materials
5. Cracks- Acid etching Dry pack
Dormant Caulking Epoxies
Coatings High-speed setting
Concrete replacement materials
Dry pack Latex-modified concrete
Grinding Portland cement concrete
Grouting Portland cement grout
Jacketing Portland cement mortar
Pneumatically applied mortar
Thin bonded or unbounded
resurfacing
Sand blasting, Stressing
6. Crazing Coatings Epoxies
Grinding High-speed setting
Pneumatically applied mortar materials
Thin bonded or unbounded Latex-modified concrete
resurfacing Linseed oil
Sack rub Portland cement concrete
Sand blasting Portland cement grout
Portland cement mortar
7. Dusting Acid etching Bituminous Coatings
Coatings Epoxies
Grinding High-speed setting
Jacketing materials
Thin bonded or unbounded Jacketing materials
resurfacing Latex-modified concrete
Total replacement Linseed oil
Special floor aggregates
Surface hardeners
 115
Concrete
[Link]. Repair technique Repair materials
damage
8. Fire damage Acid etching Dry pack
Caulking Elastic sealents
Coatings Epoxies
Concrete replacement Expanding mortars
Dry pack Latex-modified concrete
Grinding Portland cement concrete
Grouting Portland cement grout
Jacketing Portland cement mortar
Mortar replacement
Pneumatically applied mortar
Prepacked concrete
Thin bonded or unbounded
resurfacing
Sand blasting
Stitching, Stressing
Total replacement
9. Foam Scabbing Coatings Dry pack
Concrete replacement Epoxies
Dry pack Expanding mortars
Mortar replacement Latex-modified concrete
Pneumatically applied mortar Portland cement concrete
Thin bonded or unbounded Portland cement grout
resurfacing Portland cement mortar
Total replacement
6.3.7 Patch Repairing
Once the deterioration process is initiated, repair is an important factor in
extending the life span of structures. . The replacement of defective and spalled
concrete to reintroduce a protective and durable environment around reinforcement
is great importance. Therefore, deteriorated, reinforced concrete should be repaired
with impermeable, highly alkaline cement-based materials, closely matched in
properties to the parent concrete. Patch repair consists of removal of the damaged
concrete, cleaning of rust, and restitution of the original geometry with a patch
material. Patch repairing is one of the common concrete repair technologies,
especially when a localized corrosion occurs
The repair material has the tendency to shrink after placement and hence the
bond to substrate creates problem again. The following are the requirements of a
good patching material:
1. Durable as the surrounding material
2. Require minimum site preparation
3. Resist wide range of temperature and moisture content
4. Chemically compatible with the substrate
5. Possess a similar colour and surface texture to the surrounding material.
The three major types of patch materials available in the market are Cement
mortars and concretes, Polymer mortar and concrete and Epoxy-resin mortar and
concrete. The plain cement mortar repairing is not suitable for structural repair
 116
works because of their dimensional instability, weak adhesion, and durability. The
resin mortars including acrylics, polyurethanes, polyesters, and epoxies have
superior properties as repair mortars. But the use of these mortars is restricted
because of their cost and incompatibility with most of the substrate concretes. The
cement-polymer mortar has better adhesive properties, crack resistibility and
compatibility. Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) latex is being effectively used to
modify cement mortar to be used as a repair system in practical application. Some
additional reinforcements are added partially or totally to restore the original area
of bars.
[Link] Cement patching mortars and concretes
A variety of cements such as ordinary Portland, rapid hardening, sulphate
resistant and high alumina type can be used to produce mortar and concrete.
Mortar can be used for small cavities up to 40mm depth while the concrete is often
used for complete replacement of sections of deep cavities extending beyond
reinforcing bars. The expansion agents such as aluminum powder, coke powder,
anhydrous calcium sulfoaluminate, calcium oxide can be added in cement and
causes the mortar and concrete to expand either in plastic state or after it has
hardened. The expansion produced in the plastic stage creates an intimate contact
with the substrate before it hardens, thus completely filling in space and promoting
a good bond.
It is very popular repair material because of its advantages such as easy to
use, cheaper in cost, similar appearance, readily available and familiarity. But it
requires careful curing to prevent drying shrinkage. Chemical admixtures can be
added to enhance the density and workability, accelerate hardening, control
shrinkage and prevent aggregate reaction.
(i) Pre-packed concrete: Now-a-days, factory blended and packed cement
concrete mixes incorporating chemical admixtures are readily available. For
relatively large areas of repair, particularly on arches, soffits, etc., repair by sprayed
concrete technique is the most effective. Dry guniting involving blowing of pre-
blended and carefully graded cement and sand into a nozzle and spraying on to the
surface under pressure after gauging with water is a very common and effective
technique for thickness more than 40mm.
(ii) Preplaced concrete: It is technique in which the aggregates are placed first
and then cemented together by introduction of intruded grout (cement –sand grout).
It requires some special skills to carry out effectively. Pre-placed aggregate concrete
(PAC) is concrete that is made by forcing into the voids of a mass of clean, graded
coarse aggregate densely pre-packed in formwork (Figure 6.7). PAC is used where
placing conventional concrete is extremely difficult, such as where massive
reinforcement steel and embedded items are present, in underwater repairs,
concrete and masonry repairs, or where shrinkage of concrete must be kept to a
minimum.
 117

Figure 6.7(a) Pre-Placed Aggregate Concrete Repair to Concrete Wall

Figure 6.7(b) Preplaced Aggregate Concrete

For the purpose of this repair method, grout typically consists of sand, cement,
pozzolana, plasticizer/super-plasticizer and air entraining agents (for anticipated
freeze and thaw problem, if required). The pozzolana and the plasticizer/super-
plasticizer are used to impart flowability to the grout. The coarse aggregate is
washed to remove all fines and screened just prior to placement. Grout is then
injected through forms to provide the cementing matrix. Grouting is begun at the
bottom of the pre-placed aggregates.
Characteristics of the grout are affected by the water content, sand grading,
cement, pozzolana and the types and amount of admixtures. For each design of
grout mixture, there are optimum amounts of fillers and admixtures to produce the
best pumpability or consistency. Proper proportioning of the structural grout mix
 118
components is necessary to get the required strength and durability of the finished
pre-placed aggregate concrete. Trial mix design is necessary for each job.
In underwater repair, injection of grout at the bottom of the PAC displaces
water, leaving a homogeneous mass of concrete with minimum of paste wash out.
In such applications, addition of anti-wash admixtures minimizes the paste wash
out. For underwater PAC, the quality of underwater should also be tested to
determine its influence on PAC over a period of time for taking appropriate
corrective action.
(iv) Dry Pack: Dry pack mortar is a stiff sand-cement mortar that is typically
used to repair small areas that are deeper than they are wide. Dry pack mortar
contains (by dry volume or weight) one part cement, 2½ parts sand, and enough
water to produce a mortar that will just stick together while being molded into a
ball with the hands (Figure 6.8). The ball should neither slump when placed on a
flat surface, nor crumble due to lack of moisture. Place dry pack mortar
immediately after mixing it. Compact the mortar in the hole by striking a hardwood
dowel or stick with a hammer. The sticks are usually about eight to 12 inches long
and no more than one inch in diameter. Use a wooden stick instead of a metal one
because metal tends to polish the surface of the mortar, making bonding less
certain and filling less uniform. Place and pack the mortar in layers to a compacted
thickness of about 3/8 inch. Direct the tamping at a slight angle toward the sides
of the hole to ensure maximum compaction in these areas. Overfill the hole slightly,
then place the flat side of a hardwood piece against the hole and strike it several
times with a hammer. If necessary, a few light strokes with a rag may improve its
appearance.

Figure 6.8 Dry Pack mortar

In the market, the factory batched product is readily available to use and only
requires the addition of water on site. The incorporation of shrinkage compensating
additives ensures that the placed mortar maintains contact within the filled section.
Dry Pack can be used for placing in horizontal and vertical gaps and may be
rammed into place within gaps of 5mm to 100mm. Curing of exposed surfaces
should be undertaken in accordance with good concrete practice. Suitable methods
 119
of curing include water spray, polythene sheeting and spray applied concrete curing
membrane such as Polycure.
Dry Pack is alkaline when mixed with water and should not come into contact
with skin or eyes.
Avoid inhalation of dust during mixing and wear safety glasses, dust mask and
gloves. If skin contact occurs wash thoroughly with clean water. Should eye contact
occur rinse immediately with plenty of clean water and seek medical advice.
(v) Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC): FRC is a concrete containing small
embedded reinforcements called fibres which ensures the concrete to delay the
formation and propagation of internal micro cracks. Fibres include steel fibres,
glass fibres, synthetic and natural fibres.
Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to both plastic
shrinkage and drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and
thus reduce bleeding of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact,
abrasion and shatter resistance in concrete. Generally fibers do not increase the
flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace moment resisting or structural
steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the strength of concrete.
The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the
total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers), termed volume fraction (V f). Vf
typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber
length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an
equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of
the fiber is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar), they help to carry the load
by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect ratio of the
fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However,
fibers which are too long tend to “ball” in the mix and create workability problems.
Polypropylene and Nylon fibers can:
 Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances
 Improve freeze-thaw resistance
 Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
 Improve impact resistance
 Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing
Steel Fibers Can
 Improve structural strength
 Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
 Improve ductility
 Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly thus improve
durability
 Improve impact & abrasion resistance
 Improve freeze-thaw resistance
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Blends of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction
projects in order to combine the benefits of both products; structural improvements
provided by steel fibers and the resistance to explosive spalling and plastic
shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric fibers.
In certain specific circumstances, steel fiber can entirely replace traditional
steel reinforcement bar in reinforced concrete. This is most common in industrial
flooring but also in some other precasting applications. FRC is effectively used in
tunneling projects, overlays on roads and runways using precast lining segments
reinforced only with steel fibers.
6.8.2 Polymer Concrete and Mortar
Although its physical properties and relatively low cost make it the most widely
used construction material, conventional Portland cement concrete has a number
of limitations, such as low flexural strength, low failure strain, susceptibility to frost
damage and low resistance to chemicals. These drawbacks are well recognized by
the engineer and can usually be allowed for in most applications. In certain
situations, these problems can be solved by using materials which contain an
organic polymer or resin (commercial polymer) instead of or in conjunction with
Portland cement. These relatively new materials offer the advantages of higher
strength, improved durability, good resistance to corrosion, reduced water
permeability and greater resistance to damage from freeze-thaw cycles. Polymer
concrete is part of group of concretes that use polymers to supplement or replace
cement as a binder. The types include polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer
concrete, and polymer-Portland-cement concrete.
There are three principal classes of composite materials containing polymers:
polymer impregnated concrete; polymer cement concrete and polymer concrete. The
first is produced by impregnation of precast hardened Portland cement concrete
with a monomer that is subsequently converted to solid polymer. To produce the
second, part of the cement binder of the concrete mix is replaced by polymer (often
in latex form).
Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
Polymer impregnated concrete is made by impregnation of precast hardened
Portland cement concrete with low viscosity monomers (in either liquid or gaseous
form) that are converted to solid polymer under the influence of physical agents
(ultraviolet radiation or heat) or chemical agents (catalysts). It is produced by drying
conventional concrete; displacing the air from the open pores (by vacuum or
monomer displacement and pressure); saturating the open pore structure by
diffusion of low viscosity monomers or a prepolymer-monomer mixture and in-situ
polymerization of the monomer or prepolymer-monomer mixture. The important
feature of this material is that a large proportion of the void volume is filled with
polymer, which forms a continuous reinforcing network. The concrete structure
may be impregnated to varying depths or in the surface layer only, depending on
whether increased strength and/or durability is sought. The main disadvantages of
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polymer impregnated concrete products are their relatively high cost, as the
monomers used in impregnation are expensive and the fabrication process is more
complicated than for unmodified concrete.
Impregnation of concrete results in a remarkable improvement in tensile,
compressive and impact strength, enhanced durability and reduced permeability to
water and aqueous salt solutions such as sulfates and chlorides. The compressive
strength can be increased from 35 MPa to 140 MPa, the water sorption can be
reduced significantly. and the freeze-thaw resistance is considerably enhanced. The
greatest strength can be achieved by impregnation of auto-claved concrete. This
material can have a compressive-strength-to-density ratio nearly three times that of
steel. Although its modulus of elasticity is only moderately greater than that of non-
autoclaved polymer impregnated concrete, the maximum strain at break is
significantly higher.
The monomers most widely used in the impregnation of concrete are the vinyl
type, such as methyl methacrylate (MMA), styrene, acrylonitrile, t-butyl styrene and
vinyl acetate. Acrylic monomer systems such as methyl methacrylate or its
mixtures with acrylonitrile are the preferred impregnating materials, because they
have low viscosity, good wetting properties, high reactivity, relatively low cost and
result in products with superior properties. By using appropriate bifunctional or
polyfunctional monomers (cross-linking agents) in conjunction with MMA, a cross-
linked network is formed within the pores, resulting in products with greatly
increased mechanical strength and higher thermal and chemical resistance.
Improvement of these properties will depend on the degree of cross-linking. A cross-
linking agent commonly used with vinyl monomers such as MMA and styrene is
trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate.
Thermosetting monomers and prepolymers are also used to produce polymer
impregnated concrete with greatly increased thermal stability (i.e. resistance to
deterioration by heat). These include epoxy prepolymers and unsaturated polyester-
styrene. These monomers and prepolymers are relatively viscous and, therefore,
their use results in reduced impregnation. Their viscosity can be reduced by mixing
them with low-viscosity monomers such as MMA.
Applications of polymer concrete impregnated include structural floors, high
performance structures, food processing buildings, sewer pipes, storage tanks for
seawater, desalination plants and distilled water plants, marine structures, wall
panels, tunnel liners, prefabricated tunnel sections and swimming pools. Partially
impregnated concrete is used for the protection of bridges and concrete structures
against deterioration and repair of deteriorated building structures, such as ceiling
slabs, underground garage decks and bridge decks.
Polymer Modified Cement Concrete (PMC)
Polymer cement concrete is a modified concrete in which part (10 to 15% by
weight) of the cement binder is replaced by a synthetic organic polymer. It is
produced by incorporating a monomer, prepolymer-monomer mixture, or a
dispersed polymer (latex) into a cement-concrete mix. To effect the polymerization of
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the monomer or prepolymer-monomer, a catalyst is added to the mixture. The
process technology used is very similar to that of conventional concrete. Therefore,
polymer cement concrete can be cast-in-place in field applications, whereas
polymer impregnated concrete has to be used as a precast structure.
The properties of polymer cement concrete produced by modifying concrete
with various polymers range from poor to quite favorable. Poor properties of certain
products have been attributed to the incompatibility of most organic polymers and
monomers with some of the concrete mix ingredients. Better properties are
produced by using prepolymers, such as unsaturated polyester cross-linked with
styrene or epoxies. To achieve a substantial improvement over unmodified concrete,
fairly large proportions of these polymers are required. The improvement does not
always justify the additional cost.
Modification of concrete with a polymer latex (colloidal dispersion of polymer
particles in water) results in greatly improved properties, at a reasonable cost.
Therefore, a great variety of latexes is now available for use in polymer cement
concrete products and mortars. The most common latexes are based on poly
(methyl methacrylate) also called acrylic latex, poly (vinyl acetate), vinyl chloride
copolymers, poly (vinylidene chloride), (styrene-butadiene) copolymer, nitrile rubber
and natural rubber. Each polymer produces characteristic physical properties. The
acrylic latex provides a very good water-resistant bond between the modifying
polymer and the concrete components, whereas use of latexes of styrene-based
polymers results in a high compressive strength.
Curing of latex polymer cement concrete is different from that of conventional
concrete, because the polymer forms a film on the surface of the product retaining
some of the internal moisture needed for continuous cement hydration. Because of
the film-forming feature, moist curing of the latex product is generally shorter than
for conventional concrete.
Generally, polymer cement concrete made with polymer latex exhibits excellent
bonding to steel reinforcement and to old concrete, good ductility, resistance to
penetration of water and aqueous salt solutions, and resistance to freeze-thaw
damage. Its flexural strength and toughness are usually higher than those of
unmodified concrete.
The drying shrinkage of polymer cement concrete is generally lower than that
of conventional concrete; the amount of shrinkage depends on the water-to-cement
ratio, cement content, polymer content and curing conditions. It is more susceptible
to higher temperatures than ordinary cement concrete. For example, creep
increases with temperature to a greater extent than in ordinary cement concrete,
whereas flexural strength, flexural modulus and modulus of elasticity decrease.
These effects are greater in materials made with elastomeric latex (e.g., styrene-
butadiene rubber) than in those made with thermoplastic polymers (e.g., acrylic).
The main application of latex-containing polymer cement concrete is in floor
surfacing, as it is non-dusting and relatively cheap. Because of lower shrinkage,
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good resistance to permeation by various liquids such as water and salt solutions,
and good bonding properties to old concrete, it is particularly suitable for thin (25
mm) floor toppings, concrete bridge deck overlays, anti-corrosive overlays, concrete
repairs and patching.
Polymer Concrete (PC)
Polymer concrete (PC) is a composite material formed by combining mineral
aggregates such as sand or gravel with a monomer. Cement and water are
completely eliminated in this of concrete. Due to its rapid setting, high strength
properties and ability to withstand a corrosive environment, PC is increasingly
being used as an alternate to cement concrete in many applications, construction
and repair of structures, highway pavements, bridge decks, waste water pipes and
even structural and decorative construction panels.
There are three classes of polyester polyester used in polymer concrete
mixtures Class I resins, resist mild corrodents and non oxidizing mineral acids.
Class II resins, isophthalic type, are more resistant as compared to class I. Class III
resins are based on bisphenol-A and have the best overall resistance to corrosive
solutions. Increasing polymer content, resulted in increasing flexural strength and
flexural modulus while the compressive strength decreased. In general, the lowest
polymer content at which compressive strength/modulus was maximum
represented the optimum polymer content for polymer concrete.
Aggregates used must be usually dry and free of dirt to get the best bond
between aggregates and resin. Blasting sand aggregate systems showed an increase
in the flexural modulus with the increase in the polymer content. Different types of
carbon, glass and steel fibers can also be used to increase in compressive, flexural
and impact strengths.
Table 6.3 gives the comparison of different polymer concretes and Portland
cement concrete. Table 6.4 gives the general applications of polymer impregnated
concrete and polymer cement concrete.
Table 6.3. Typical Properties of Polymer Concrete and Portland Cement Concrete
Freeze-thaw
Tensile Modulus of Compressive Shear Bond Water
Resistance, Acid
Material Strength, Elasticity, Strength, Strength, Sorption,
No. of Cycles / Resistance
MPa GPa MPa KPa %
% Wt. Loss
Polymer
impregnated 10.5 42 140 - 0.6 3,500/2 10
concrete
Polymer
impregnated 14.7 49 273 - ≤ 0.6 - ≥10
concrete*
Polymer
cement 5.6 14 38 ≥4,550 - - 4
concrete
Portland
cement 2.5 24.5 35 875 5.5 700/25 -
concrete
* Concrete autoclaved before impregnation
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Table 6.4 General Characteristics and Applications of Polymer-Modified Concretes
Material General Characteristics Principal Applications Remarks
Polymer Consists generally of a Principal applications The disadvantage is
impregnated precast concrete, which has include use in the relatively high
concrete been dried(and evacuated) structural steel floors, cost, as the
then impregnated with a food processing polymer is more
low viscosity monomer(or buildings, sewer expensive than
mixture of monomers) that pipes, storage tanks cement and the
polymerizes in situ to form for seawater, production process
a network within the pores. desalination plants is more
Impregnation results in and distilled water complicated.
markedly improved plants, wall panels,
strength and durability tunnel liners and
(e.g., resistance to freeze- swimming pools.
thaw damage and
corrosion) in comparison
with conventional concrete.
Polymer Products made with Major applications The mixing and
cement thermosetting(cross-linked) are in floors, bridge handling are
concrete polymers and polymer latex decks, road surfacing similar to Portland
have greater mechanical and compounds for cement concrete.
strength, markedly better repair of concrete However, in the
resistance to penetration by structures,(e.g. production process,
water and salt, and greater parking garage air entrainment
resistance to freeze-thaw decks). Because of occurs without the
damage than Portland good adhesive use of an
cement concrete; excellent properties, latex admixture, and
bonding to steel reinforcing modified mortar is prolonged moist
and to old concrete used for laying bricks, curing is not
in prefabricated required.
panels and in stone
and ceramic tiles.
Advantages of polymer concrete include the following:
 Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
 High tensile, flexural, and compressive strength
 Good adhesion to most surfaces
 Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
 Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
 Good chemical resistance
 Good resistance against corrosion
 Lightweight
 May be used in regular wood and steel formwork
 May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
 Allows use of regular form-release agents
 Dielectric
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[Link] Epoxy-resin mortar and concrete
Epoxies also come in the category of polymer but in the case the of epoxies,
the polymerization process take place when tow materials called the epoxy resin
and hardener come in contact by thoroughly mixing in specified proportion. The
epoxy resin materials have good mechanical strength, chemical resistance and ease
of working. These are being used in civil engineering structures for high
performance coatings, adhesives, injection grouting, high performance systems,
industrial flooring, etc. Epoxy patching materials are superior than cementitious
materials because of their rapid cure and faster rate of strength development, high
resistance to aggressive chemicals, high bond strength, good resistance and
longterm durability. Epoxies are available as two-part systems consisting of a resin
and a curing agent or hardener. When the two products combine together, it
changes from a liquid to solid. The process of setting together is shown in
Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 Process of setting

Field of Applications
Anti corrosive and water proofing coatings: Fusion bonded epoxy powder
(FBEP) coatings are being used for protection of reinforcing bars against corrosion
in RC structures located in highly aggressive areas. FBEP process provides a tough
film, which can withstand bar bending without cracking.
Bond coats and grouts: Epoxies are used as bond coats and grouts due to their
excellent adhesive qualities on cementitious as well as metallic surface. An epoxy
film is brushed or sprayed onto the surface of the cleaned substrate and the new
concrete is placed as the epoxy becomes tacky but before it hardens.
Structural repair to concrete: Due to their excellent mechanical properties and
bond characteristics with most of the materials, epoxy mortars / concretes are used
to make up the damaged or lost cover concrete, etc.
Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are excellent binding agents with high tensile strength. There are
chemical preparations the compositions of which can be changed as per
requirements. The epoxy components are mixed just prior to application. The
product is of low viscosity and can be injected in small cracks too. The higher
viscosity epoxy resin can be used for surface coating or filling larger cracks or
holes. The epoxy mixture strength is dependent upon the temperature of curing
(lower strength for higher temperature) and method of application.
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Epoxy Mortar
For larger void spaces, it is possible to combine epoxy resins of either low
viscosity or higher viscosity, with sand aggregate to form epoxy mortar. Epoxy
mortar mixture has higher compressive strength, higher tensile strength and a
lower modulus of elasticity than Portland cement concrete. Thus the mortar is not a
stiff material for replacing reinforced concrete. It is also reported that epoxy is a
combustible material. Therefore it is not used alone. The sand aggregate mixed to
form the epoxy mortar provides a heat sink for heat generated and it provides
increased modulus of elasticity too.
Reasons of Concrete Floors Cracks
1. The sub-base wasn’t properly compacted and the concrete settled in one
area causing the floor to sink and crack.
2. The concrete floor isn’t heated in the winter and the dirt under the
concrete freezes causing it to expand and lift, or heave, the concrete. This
upward pressure will make the concrete crack.
3. Newly poured concrete shrinks when it dries. If no expansion joints are cut
into the concrete floor then shrinkage cracks will appear at some point in
the future. These are quite common.
There are some other reasons like; pouring the concrete too wet, or too much
calcium chloride was added to the mix and it dried too fast, or the concrete wasn’t
properly cured. All these will lead to shrinkage cracking at some point.
If you determine the concrete floor cracks are due to settling or heaving, then
that is a sub-base issue and the concrete may have to be removed to correct that
problem. Repairing these cracks will only be temporary if the concrete continues to
move up or down.
If you think the concrete floor is done moving, you can repair those cracks and
the shrinkage cracks with an epoxy concrete repair material you inject into the
crack and add silica sand for filler. This will weld the crack together creating an
excellent concrete floor repair.
Step by step procedure of epoxy concrete repair:
Step 1. Clean out the crack with a vacuum, remove any loose cement or
aggregates.
Step 2. Inject the concrete crack repair resin into the crack to wet it, it will
soon get tacky (Figure 6.10).
Step 3. Push the dry silica sand into the crack to fill it.
Step 4. Thoroughly saturate the sand with the concrete floor crack repair resin
and fill it to the surface. A typical mortar mix consists of 1 part of mixed epoxy
resin and hardener to 3 parts of sand.
Step 5. In 10 - 15 minutes scrape the surface level with a putty knife.
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Step 6. Sand the surface smooth or lightly grind it with a hand grinder for a
neat appearance.

Figure 6.10 Epoxy concrete repair

Use the moist material you just scraped off with the putty knife to patch any
holes or chips in the concrete floor.
Hairline cracks can be done without the sand. Wide cracks can first be filled
partially with the sand then start with step 2. This epoxy crack repair material sets
up very quickly, only do 10 - 15 feet at one time.
6.3.8 Polyester Resins
A two-part polyester resin (unsaturated polyester such as
methylmethacrylates) based material suitable for the repair, surfacing, jointing and
bedding of concrete, brickwork and masonry. Available in summer and winter
grades, the mixed mortar will harden to give rapid strength gain and can be placed
in section thicknesses of 5mm to 50mm in single layers. Thicker sections can be
achieved by placing multiple layers. The bond strength developed is stronger than
the tensile strength of most construction materials. Typical uses include bedding
and fixing of precast concrete units, fixing of concrete barrier units, patch repairs to
concrete floors, bedding of coping stones and infills where rapid service use is
required.
Polyester patches cure faster than epoxy materials and are less sensitive to
lower temperatures. The shrinkage that occurs on curing is significantly larger than
that observed with epoxies. Therefore, the patch size is limited to thin sections and
small areas. Vinyl ester patching compositions combine resiliency, impact
resistance, and excellent chemical resistance.
6.3.9 Acrylic Concrete and Mortar
In this type, aggregates are mixed together with acrylic polymer to make
concrete/mortar. Methylmethacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight
methacrylate (HMWM) monomers are used to make concrete. All components of the
product can be mixed together and placed over a patch area filled with preplaced
aggregates. Due to its rapid strength gain and high ultimate strength, it is widely
used in bridge slabs, parking garage decks, industrial warehouse floors and tanks.
6.3.10 Quick Setting Compounds
Repairs in heavy trafficked areas are possible using faster setting and curing
materials such as high alumina cement containing compounds, magnesium
phosphates, molten sulfur and calcium sulphate based materials.
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6.3.10 Bituminuous Materials
Hot mixed, densely graded asphalt concrete is widely used for patch repair
works. It is cheaper material and easy to apply. Care should be taken against the
poorly graded aggregate and unconsolidated patches that are prone to water pick
up, which accelerate deterioration of surrounding concrete.
6.3.12 Ferrocement
Ferrocement is a technical term, not to be confused with ordinary reinforced
concrete. It might be defined as a composite material consisting of a matrix made
from hydraulic cement mortar and a number of layers of continuous steel mesh
reinforcement distributed throughout the matrix. It is relatively cheap, strong and
durable, and the basic technique is easily acquired. The basic parameters which
characterise ferrocement are the specific surface area of reinforcement, the volume
fraction of the reinforcement, the surface cover of the mortar over the reinforcement
and the relatively high quality of the mortar. The thickness of ferrocement is in the
range between 12 to 30mm. The wire mesh is mechanically connected to the parent
surface by U shaped nails fixed with suitable epoxy bonding system.
Ferrocement behaves like reinforced concrete in its load bearing
characteristics, with the essential difference being that crack development is
retarded by the dispersion of the reinforcement in fine form through the mortar.
The main advantages of ferrocement are low cost, the low level of skills required for
hull construction, and reduced maintenance with increased resistance to rot and
corrosion when compared to wood and steel. Very high cracking resistance
ductility, flexibility and fatigue resistance are obtained using Ferrocement.
Ferrocement is impermeable, light and tough. It can be easily cast. It is ideally
suited for repair of large pop outs, craters and for laying of overlays, especially in
view of the simplicity of technique involved.
6.3.13 Slurry Infiltrated Fibrous Concrete (SIFCON)
Slurry-infiltrated fibrous concrete (SIFCON) can be considered as a special
type of fiber concrete with high fiber content. It is also sometimes termed as ‘high-
volume fibrous concrete’. The matrix usually consists of cement slurry or flowing
mortar. SIFCON has excellent potential for application in areas where high ductility
and resistance to impact are needed.
While in conventional steel fibre reinforced concrete, the steel fibre content
usually varies from 1 to 3 percent by volume, it varies from 4 to 20 percent in
SIFCON depending on the geometry of the fibres and the type of application. The
process of making SIFCON is also different, because of its high steel fibre content.
While in SFRC, the steel fibres are mixed intimately with the wet or dry mix of
concrete, prior to the mix being poured into the forms, SIFCON is made by
infiltrating a low-viscosity cement slurry into a bed of steel fibres ‘pre-packed’ in
forms/moulds (Figure 6.11). The matrix in SIFCON has no coarse aggregates, but a
high cementitious content. However, it may contain fine or coarse sand and
additives such as fly ash, micro silica and latex emulsions. The matrix fineness
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must be designed so as to properly penetrate (infiltrate) the fibre network placed in
the moulds, since otherwise, large pores may form leading to a substantial
reduction in properties. A controlled quantity of high-range water-reducing
admixture (super plasticizer) may be used for improving the flowing characteristics
of SIFCON. All types of steel fibres, namely, straight, hooked, or crimped can be
used.
Proportions of cement and sand generally used for making SIFCON are 1: 1,
1:1.5, or 1:2. Cement slurry alone can also be used for some applications.
Generally, fly ash or silica fume equal to 10 to 15% by weight of cement is used in
the mix. The water-cement ratio varies between 0.3 and 0.4, while the percentage of
the super plasticizer varies from 2 to 5% by weight of cement. The percentage of
fibres by volume can be varying from 4 to 20%, even though the current practical
range ranges only from 4 to 12%.

(i) Mould filled with fibres (ii) Fibre pack well rammed (iii) Pouring of slurry
Figure 6.11 Making of SIFCON
Applications of SIFCON
 Pavement rehabilitation and precast concrete products
 Overlays, bridge decks and protective revetments
 Seismic and explosive-resistant structures
 Security concrete applications (safety vaults, strong rooms etc)
 Refractory applications (soak-pit covers, furnace lintels, saddle piers)
 Military applications such as anti-missile hangers, under-ground shelters
 Sea-protective works
 Primary nuclear containment shielding
 Aerospace launching platforms
 Repair, rehabilitation and strengthening of structures
 Rapid air-field repair work
 Concrete mega-structures like offshore and long-span structures, solar
towers etc.
6.3.14 Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON)
SIMCON can also be considered a pre-placed fibre concrete, similar to
SIFCON. However, in the making of SIMCON, the fibres are placed in a “mat form”
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rather than as discrete fibres. The advantage of using steel fibre mats over a large
volume of discrete fibres is that the mat configuration provides inherent strength
and utilizes the fibres contained in it with very much higher aspect ratios. The fibre
volume can, hence, be substantially less than that required for making of SIFCON,
still achieving identical flexural strength and energy absorbing toughness.
SIMCON is made using a non-woven “steel fibre mats” that are infiltrated with a
concrete slurry. Steel fibres produced directly from molten metal using a chilled
wheel concept are interwoven into a 0.5 to 2 inches thick mat. This mat is then
rolled and coiled into weights and sizes convenient to a customer’s application
(normally up to 120 cm wide and weighing around 200 kg). Since the mat is already
in a preformed shape, handling problems are significantly minimised resulting in
savings in labour cost. Besides this, “balling” of fibres does not become a factor at
all in the production of SIMCON. A reinforcement level in SIMCON of only 25% of
that of conventional SIFCON is found to provide as much as 75% of the latter’s
ultimate flexural strength. SIMCON offers the designer a premium building material
to meet the specialised niche applications, such as military structures or industrial
applications requiring high strength and ductility.
6.3.15 Grouts
Grout is a type of mortar used to fill joints, cracks, and cavities in tiles,
masonry, and brickwork. It typically consists of water, cement, and sand; or cement
and water. Used in semi-liquid form, it may be pumped, spread, or poured into
cavities and allowed to harden, creating a tight, water-resistant seal.
The three main types of grout are epoxy, Portland cement - based, and furan
resin. The epoxy type is strong and water resistant. It is available in 100 percent
epoxy resin and modified epoxy emulsion form. Epoxy grout is generally more
expensive than other types and can be difficult to find. However, it considered
highly effective when a high level of water and stain resistance is desired. Portland
cement-based grout is available in sanded, unsanded, pre-mixed, or powdered
form. Furan resin grout is available in sanded or unsanded form. Instead of water,
the furan resin type contains alcohol. This type of grout is considered extremely
resistant to chemicals. It is best used when working with strong acids.
Grouting formulations are comprised of three basic elements: binder (clay
types and properties, lime, synthetic), aggregate (sand, synthetic materials) and
dispersant (water). Occasionally, additional elements such us additives (organic,
inorganic) or thickeners are necessary. The formulation of a grout is a balancing of
these elements in the correct proportions to achieve the desirable properties as
established by the context and the critical performance properties. The following
properties essential in better defining the grout composition and predicting its
future performance:
 Viscosity
 Fluidity
 Penetration/Injectability
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 Set time (initial and final)
 Stability
 Shrinkage
 Dilation
 Cohesion
 Bonding
 Crack formation within grout
 Compatibility (similar material if possible)
 Durability
6.3.16 Shotcrete [GUNITE]
Shotcrete is a method of applying a combination of sand and Portland cement
which mixed pneumatically and conveyed in dry state to the nozzle of a pressure
gun, where water is mixed and hydration takes place just prior to expulsion. A
maximum coarse aggregate size of 10mm is used. It can be applied by either a ‘dry
mix’ or ‘wet mix’ process.
The dry process involves premixing of the cement and sand, and transfer
through a hose in a stream of compressed air (Figure 6.12). The end of the hose is
equipped with a suitable nozzle at which point water is injected and mixed with the
material as it exists at high velocity. The water can be adjusted at the nozzle and is
restricted to approximately that required for proper hydration. Set accelerating
admixtures in powder form are introduced into the premix, whereas a liquid
accelerator is added to the water at the discharge nozzle, or as a separate injection
at the nozzle. The material bonds perfectly to properly prepared surface of masonry
and steel. The high impact force, at which the material is applied compacts it to
form a dense concrete possessing very high bond strength. This process is
particularly suited to restoration work that requires the replacement of concrete
that has been lost or cut away and to insure against future damage by adding a
further layer of concrete. Since low water-cement ratios are used, the no-slump
characteristic affords it to be placed in layers of limited thickness on vertical and
overhead surfaces.
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Figure 6.12 Dry mix Shotcrete

 The dry process involves the following steps:
 Thoroughly mixing the dry materials
 Feeding of these materials into mechanical feeder or gun
 Carrying the materials by compressed air through a hose to a special
nozzle
 Introducing water at nozzle point and intimately mixing it with other
ingredients at the nozzle
 Jetting the mixture from the nozzle at high velocity on to the surface to
receive the shotcrete
In the wet process, a predetermined ratio of cement, aggregate and water is
batched, mixed and transferred to a pump (Figure 6.13). The concrete is pumped
along a flexible hose to a discharge nozzle from where it is projected at high velocity
on to the surface to be coated. A rapid setting admixture like sodium aluminate or
metasilicate solution is commonly added at the nozzle to enable buildup of thick
layers. The wet process is similar to the use of mix design procedure suited for
pumping. The cement content and aggregate to cement ratio, maximum aggregate
size and grading is limited to what will give a pumpable mix with the equipment
used. A higher water cement ratio than in dry process is usually necessary to
provide pumpable mixes. It is more suited to the application of large quantities of
material, typically in new construction. It is less suited for restoration works.
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Figure 6.13 Wet mix Shotcrete

The wet process involves the following steps:
 Thoroughly mixing all the materials except accelerating agents (if used)
 Feeding of these materials into the delivery equipment
 Delivering the mixture by positive displacement or compressed air through
a nozzle
 Jetting the mixture from the nozzle at high velocity on to the surface to
receive the shotcrete
Moist curing is essential for shotcrete and protection from freezing or quick
drying must be provided. In versatility of application to curved or irregular surfaces,
its high strength after application and good physical characteristics, make for an
ideal means to achieve added structural capability in walls and other elements.
There are some minor restrictions of clearance, thickness, direction of application,
etc. It requires specially trained workers to achieve better results.
6.3.17 Bonding Agents
When applying conventional concrete, sprayed concrete, cement mortar,
polymer modified mortar or epoxy mortar, bonding of repair material to the existing
concrete is often a problem. Bonding agents are usually used to make perfect bond
of new concrete to old concrete. Two of the critical factors affecting the bonding
between new and old concrete are (i) the strength and integrity of the old surface
and (ii) the cleanliness of the old surface. The use of epoxy resin or polymer latex
bonding agent can assist in achieving a reliable bond.
6.3.18 Polymer Latex Emulsions
The latex emulsions generally used in cementitious compositions are of the oil-
in-water type, and sometimes contain more than 50% water. They are generally
stable in the cement/water system. However, not all emulsions are compatible with
cement, and the selection of an appropriate product for a given application requires
an understanding of its chemistry or, alternatively, consultation with the
manufacturer.
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Three methods can be used to modify a latex to make it a useful bonding
agent:
(i) Prepare a neat cement slurry utilizing the latex as part of the mixing water;
(ii) Use a 1:1 water : latex diluted material;
(iii) Use re-emulsifiable latex, which can be softened and re-tackified upon
contact with water.
The use of method (ii) is now discouraged because of the lack of bonding
encountered in field applications. The use of the latex without any cement in the
mix produces a failure plane because of the lack of film formation at the bond
interface.
Styrene Butadiene (SBR) latex, which is compatible with cementitious
compounds, is a copolymer. This type of latex shows good stability and is
unaffected by the addition of relatively large amounts of electrolytes. SBR latex may
coagulate if subjected to high temperatures, freezing temperatures, or severe
mechanical action for prolonged periods of time.
Polyvinyl Acetate Latex (PVA)
Two main types of PVAs are used in repair: non-re-emulsifiable and
emulsifiable. Non-re-emulsifiable PVA forms a film that offers good water
resistance, ultraviolet stability, and aging characteristics. Because of its
compatibility with cement, it is widely used as a bonding agent and as a binder for
cementitious water-based paints and waterproofing coatings. Emulsifiable PVA
produces a film that can be softened and re-tackified with water. This type of latex
permits the application of a film to a surface long before the subsequent application
of a water-based overlay. Its use is limited to specific applications where the
possible infiltration of moisture to the bond line is precluded. It is most widely used
as a bonding agent for plaster, and to bond finisher base-coat gypsum, or Portland
cement plaster, to interior surfaces of cured cast in- place concrete.
Acrylic latex
Acrylic ester resins are polymers and copolymers of the esters of acrylic and
methacrylic acids. Their physical properties range from soft elastomers to hard
plastics. This type of emulsion is used in cementitious compounds in much the
same manner as SBR latex.
6.3.19 Epoxy latex
Epoxy emulsions are produced from liquid epoxy resin mixed with the curing
agent. In addition to serving as an emulsifying agent, the curing agent also serves
as a wetting agent. From the time of mixing until gellation occurs, the emulsions
are stable and can be diluted with water. Pot life can be varied from 1 to 6 hours
depending on the curing agent selected and on the amount of water added. Most
epoxy emulsions are prepared on the job site just before use because phase
separation occurs in prepackaged emulsions. Equal parts of epoxy and curing agent
are mixed, then blended for 2 to 5 minutes and allowed to set for 15 minutes to
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enable polymerization to begin. While the mixture is being mechanically agitated,
water is added slowly to form the emulsion.
6.3.20 Epoxy Bonding Agents
Various epoxy products are available for the bonding of freshly placed concrete
to cured concrete and of concrete to steel. Most products contain resins that are
100% solids. In severe drying conditions, the open time for bonding coats may be
too short to ensure a good bond and such situations epoxy resin bonding is
preferable. They may or may not contain fillers, such as calcium carbonate or silica
flour, and other additives to enhance a particular property or reduce cost.
6.3.21 Surface Coatings
The protective coatings of concrete surface generally improve the durability
and greatly help to protect concrete deterioration due to environment effects. The
protective coatings over concrete should possess the following properties:
1. Possess excellent bond to substrate
2. Be durable with a long useful life normally 5 years
3. Little or no colour change with time
4. Little or no chalking
5. Should have maximum permeability to allow water vapour escape from
concrete substrate
6. Should sufficient impermeability against the passage of oxygen and carbon
dioxide from air to concrete
7. Should be available in a reasoning range of attractive colours.
8. The properties of concrete which affect the successful application and
performance of a coating are (i) porosity (ii) moisture content (iii) presence
of contaminants on the surface. Most of the protective coatings used are (i)
Bituminous coatings and mastics (ii) Polyesters and Vinylesters (iii)
Urethanes (iv) Epoxies (v) Neoprene (vi) Coal Tar Epoxy (vii) Acrylics.
Resin based toppings are used to protect the industrial floors subjected to
heavy loadings. It consists of three components such as resin, curing agent
(hardener) and aggregate fillers. Epoxies, polyurethane, polyester, polyacrylate and
phenolic materials are used as resins. Epoxy mortar and glass fibre reinforced
multicoat can also be used as toppings.
Surface Hardeners and Overlays: These are used to upgrade the floor’s wear
resistance, reduce dusting and increase chemical resistance.
Application fields: (i) Pavements of garages, parking, shopping malls, sport
installations, schools, hospitals, subjected to moderate or medium traffic. (ii) Dock
slabs in warehouses, industries, fuel stations with moderate erosion.
Advantages:
i. Increases the durability of the pavement
ii. Reduction of formation of superficial dust
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iii. Improves the resistance against impacts
iv. Provides colour to pavement
v. It bonds structurally into the surface becoming part of the slab
vi. Easy application by powdering over the fresh concrete
vii. Low installation costs. Without maintenance
viii. Easily cleaning of the treated surface
Surface Hardener: Surface hardeners are used to repair and upgrading of
industrial floors. Two types of surface hardeners are generally used. One is shake
hardener and the other is liquid hardener. In shake hardener, high aggregate
(mineral and metallic aggregates) to cement ratio (2:1) are used. In liquid hardener,
sodium silicate or silicofluorides are used. Recently, dilute solutions of both solvent
and water based emulsions of resins such as epoxies, urethanes and
methylmethacrylates are used for this purpose. Three to four coats applied on
successive days.
Overlays: It is applied as a second stage of construction on a new floor or
deck, as preventive maintenance on a deck that has been open to traffic for a short
time. The commonly used materials are (i) High early strength OPC concretes and
mortars using superplasticizers (ii) Polymer latex concrete (iii) Epoxy mortars (iv)
Fibre reinforced concrete incorporating steel or polypropylene fibres (v) Silica fume
concrete.
Thin Polymer Overlays: These are used to improve the abrasion resistance
and for creating waterproofing barriers on the surface and act as protective
coatings. These are applied in less than 10mm thickness. It is quite suitable for
improving surface characteristics and also it acts as protective coatings. It
comprises of one coat of primer and one or more coats of sealent. The primer coat
shall consist of the same material as in the primer but with the addition of silica
filler, titanium dioxide pigment and carbon black pigment.
Thin Epoxy Overlays: These are used to improve the abrasion resistance of
surface and for creating waterproofing / protective coating. Thin epoxy overlays are
applied in 2 to 3 mm thickness. It consists of resin and hardener. The strength gain
is much faster than polymer overlays. There are several types for epoxy overlays
available to suite different performance requirement. Epoxy overlays require
protective coating in exposed locations subjected to ultra violet exposure.
6.3.22 Sealants
Sealants are used to seal the concrete surfaces and joints to prevent the
ingress of moisture, solid matters such as dust and sand into the structures.
Concrete sealers are finish coatings used to protect the concrete and to
accommodate joint movements. Sealers act to prevent damage from traffic, water
and chemical agents. Sealers reduce the porosity of concrete and prevent water and
dirt from getting into the concrete.
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Types of Sealers
Film Formers
It creates a barrier on the concrete’s surface. It is used for enhancing exposed
aggregate colored concrete since they are shiny.
Penetrates
These sealers penetrate into the concrete (Figure 6.14). They get 1 to 4
millimeters into the concrete to increase water repellency. Unlike the film formers,
they do not leave a sheen or gloss.

Figure 6.14 Application of penetrate

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Which Type of Sealer to Use?
It depends on: (i) Surface finish and (ii) Type of maintenance
film formers glossy finish
penetrate matte finish OR slip-free surface
Examples on sealers
 Acrylic
 Silicone
 Mastics
 Latex
 Urethane
 silane
 siloxane
 Epoxy Resin
 wax forms
Sealer Application
 Surface Prepration:
 clean the concrete surface before sealing.
 coat the floor for 10 to 15 minutes.
Apply Sealer
Clean Up
Wash up with warm soap and water immediately.
6.4 REVISION POINTS
Repair, Rehabilation, Retorting.
6.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting.
2. What are the factors affecting the selection of repair materials?
3. Explain the technique called “Grouting”.
4. Explain about Polymer Concerete.
5. Explain the difference between SIFCON and SIMCON.
6.6 SUMMARY
Different methods of repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting are studied. The
quality of repair materials is also discussed.
6.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Relationship of repair mortar (R) to concrete substancetue (S) for strength in
compression, tension and flucture is _______.
2. Dry pack can be used for placing in horizontal and vertical gaps and may be
rammed into place within gaps of _______.
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6.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. http:// [Link]/pims/right_to_into/[Link].
6.9 ASSIGNMENTS:
1. Write about classification of repair materials’.
2. Tabulate varoius types of deterioration in concrete repair, techniques and
method.
6.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. J.A. Mason, “Applications in Polymer Concrete”. ACI Publication SP-69,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1981.
2. J.T. Dikeou, “Polymers in Concrete: New Construction Achievements on the
Horizon”. Proceedings, Second International Congress on Polymers in
Concrete, Austin, Texas, October 1978.
3. M. Steinberg et al., “Concrete-Polymer Materials”, First Topical Report,
Brooklyn National Laboratory, BLN 50134 (T-509), 1968; U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, USBR General Rept. 41, 1968.
4. C.D. Pomeroy and J.H. Brown, “An Assessment of some Polymer (PMMA)
Modified Concretes”. Proceedings, First International Congress on Polymers in
Concretes, London, U.K., May 1975.
5. J. Pietrzykowski, “Polymer-Concrete Composites”. IASBE Proceedings P-38/81,
1981.
6. Vipulanandan, C., “Characterization of Polyester Polymer and Polymer
Concrete”, Journal Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, February,
1993.
7. Vipulanandan, C.; Dharmarajan, N., “Influence of Aggregate on the Fracture
Properties of Polyester Polymer Concrete”, American Concrete Institute, pp. 83-
94, October 1989.
8. Parameswaran, V.S., “Steel Fibre Concrete Composites for Special
Applications”, NBM construction information.
6.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on (during PCP days)
1. Repair
2. Rehabilation
3. Retrofit
6.12 KEYWORDS
Repair – Rehabilitation – Retrofitting – Grout – Shotcrete – SIFCON – SIMCON
– Ferrocement – Polymer – Epoxy


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LESSON – 7

STRENGTHENING OF RC MEMBERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The strengthening of reinforced concrete members is a task that should be
carried out by a structural engineer according to calculations. Only a few
suggestions are included to illustrate the ways in which the strengthening could be
done.
7.2 OBJECTIVE
 To study the strengthening techniques for RC elements using different
methods.
7.3 CONTENTS
7.3.1 Crack injection repair to concrete structures
[Link] Epoxy resins
[Link] Polyurethane resins
7.3.2 Jacketing
7.3.3 Plate bonding
7.3.4 Strengthening of foundation
7.3.5 Techniques to restore original strength
[Link] Columns
[Link] Beam
[Link] Slabs
7.3.6 Stitching
7.3.7 Repair procedure for corrosion damaged elements
7.3.8 Treatment of distressed floor in Toilets/ketchen
7.3.9 Strengthening solution using FRP Plates
7.3.1 Crack Injection Repair to Concrete Structures
Resin Injection — Resin injection is used to repair concrete that is cracked or
delaminated and to seal cracks in concrete to water leakage. Two basic types of
resin and injection techniques are used to repair Reclamation concrete.
[Link] Epoxy Resins – Epoxy resins cure to form solids with high strength and
relatively high moduli of elasticity. These materials bond readily to concrete and are
capable, when properly applied, of restoring the original structural strength to
cracked concrete. The high modulus of elasticity causes epoxy resin systems to be
unsuitable for rebonding cracked concrete that will undergo subsequent movement.
Epoxy resin has been used to seal cracks in concrete to waterflow. The epoxies,
however, do not cure very quickly, particularly at low temperatures, and using
them to stop large flows of water may not be practical. Cracks to be injected with
epoxy resins should be between 0.005 inch and 0.25 inch in width. It is difficult or
impossible to inject resin into cracks less than 0.005 inch in width, while it is very
 141
difficult to retain injected epoxy resin in cracks greater than 0.25 inch in width,
although high viscosity epoxies have been used with some success.
Epoxy resins cure to form relatively brittle materials with bond strengths
exceeding the shear or tensile strength of the concrete. If these materials are used
to rebond cracked concrete that is subsequently exposed to loads exceeding the
tensile or shear strength of the concrete, it should be expected that the cracks will
recur adjacent to the epoxy bond line. In other words, epoxy resin should not be
used to rebond “working” cracks. Epoxy resins will bond with varying degrees of
success to wet concrete, and there are a number of special techniques that have
been developed and used to rebond and seal water leaking cracks with epoxy
resins. These special techniques and procedures are highly technical and, in most
cases, are proprietary in nature. They may have application on Reclamation
projects, but only after a thorough analysis has been performed to ensure that the
more standard repair procedures will not be successful or cost effective.
[Link] Polyurethane Resins—Polyurethane resins are used to seal and
eliminate or reduce water leakage from concrete cracks and joints. They can also be
injected into cracks that experience some small degree of movement. Such systems,
with the exception of the two-part solid polyurethanes, have relatively low strengths
and should not be used to structurally rebond cracked concrete. Cracks to be
injected with polyurethane resin should not be less than 0.005 inch in width. No
upper limit on crack width has been established for the polyurethane resins at the
time this is being written. Polyurethane resins are available with substantial
variation in their physical properties. Some of the polyurethanes cure into flexible
foams. Other polyurethane systems cure to semiflexible, high density solids that
can be used to rebond concrete cracks subject to movement. Most of the foaming
polyurethane resins require some form of water to initiate the curing reaction and
are, thus, a natural selection for use in repairing concrete exposed to water or in
wet environments.
(a) Preparation—Cracks, joints, or lift lines to be injected with resin should be
cleaned to remove all the contained debris and organic matter possible. Several
techniques have been used, with varying degrees of success, for cleaning such
cracks. Once injection holes have been drilled, repeated cycles of alternately
injecting compressed air followed by water have been very useful in flushing and
cleaning cracks subject to water leakage. The successful use of soaps in the
flushing water has been reported by some practitioners. Complete removal of such
materials once injected into cracks is troublesome and may create more problems
than it is worth. The use of acids to flush and clean cracks is not allowed by
Reclamation. Cracks subject to epoxy injection for purposes of structural rebonding
should not normally be injected with water. The epoxy resins will bond to wet
concrete, but they develop higher bond strength when bonding to dry concrete.
(b) Materials—Epoxy resin used for crack injection should be a 100-percent
solids resin meeting the requirements of specification ASTM C-881 for type I or IV,
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grade 1, class B or C. If the purpose of injection is to restore the concrete to its
original design load bearing capabilities, a type IV epoxy should be specified and
used. If the purpose does not involve restoration of load bearing capabilities, a type
I epoxy is sufficient. Polyurethane resin used for crack injection should be a two-
part system composed of 100-percent polyurethane resin as one part and water as
the second part. The polyurethane resin, when mixed with water, should be capable
of forming either a closed cell flexible foam or a cured gel, dependent on the water
to resin mixing ratio.
(c) Injection Equipment—Resins can be injected with several types of
equipment. A commercial polyurethane injection pump is shown in figure 7.1.
Small repair jobs employing epoxy resin can use any system that will successfully
deposit the epoxy in the required zones. Such systems could use a prebatch
arrangement in which the two components of the epoxy are batched together prior
to initiating the injection phase with equipment such as small paint pressure pots.
The relatively short pot life of the epoxy makes this technique rather critical as far
as timing is concerned.

Figure 7.1 Commercial polyurethane injection pump

(d) Application—The success of resin injection repair projects is directly related
to the experience and knowledge of the injection contractor. Reclamation requires
that an injection contractor have a minimum of 3 years’ experience in performing
injection work similar to that being contracted for and that a minimum of five
projects be included in that experience.
1. Application of Epoxy Resin by Pressure Injection—The objective of epoxy
resin injection is to completely fill the crack or delamination being injected and
retain the resin in the filled voids until cure is complete. The first step in the resin
injection process is to thoroughly clean the concrete surface in the vicinity of the
cracks of all loose or deteriorated concrete and debris. The area of injection is then
inspected and the injection port location pattern established. Several different types
of injection patterns can be used:
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7.3.2 Jacketing
(i) RC columns can best be strengthened by jacketing, and by providing
additional cage of longitudinal and lateral tie reinforcement around the columns
and casting a concrete ring, Figure 7.2, the desired strength and ductility can thus
be built-up. It is necessary to ensure perfect bond between the old and new
concrete by providing shear keys (Figure 7.2a) and effective bond coat with the use
of epoxy of polymer modified cement slurry giving strength not less than that of new
concrete.
(ii) Jacketing a reinforced concrete beam can also be done in the above
manner. For holding the stirrup in this case, holes will have to be drilled through
the slab, Figure 7.3.
(iii) Similar technique could tie used for strengthening RC shear walls.
(iv) Inadequate sections of RC column and beams can also be strengthened by
removing the cover to old steel, welding new steel to old steel and replacing the
cover. In all cases of adding new concrete to old concrete, the original surface
should be roughened, groves made in the appropriate direction for providing shear
transfer. The ends of the additional steel are to be anchored in the adjacent beams
or columns as the case may be.
(v) RC beams can also be strengthened by applying prestress to it so that
opposite moments are caused to those applied. The wires will run on both sides of
the web outside and anchored against the end of the beam through a steel plate.

Figure 7.2 Jacketing a concrete column

 144

Note: Shear key shall be provided in

location where it is to function as such ie.
Side of columns and beams etc. They
shall not be provided in the soffit of the
beams or ceiling of slab

Figure 7.2(a) Jacketing a concrete column

Figure 7.3 Increasing the section and reinforcement of existing beams

7.3.3 Plate Bonding
Plate bonding is an inexpensive, and versatile and advanced technique for
rehabilitation, up gradation of concrete structures by mechanically connecting MS
plates by bolting and gluing to their surfaces with epoxy as shown in Figure 7.4.
Plate bonding can substantially increase strength, stiffness, ductility and stability
of the reinforced concrete elements and can be used effectively for seismic
retrofitting. The bolts, which are first used to hold plates in position during
construction, act as permanent shear connectors and integral restraints. The bolts
are also designed to resist interface forces assuming the epoxy glue used as non-
existent assuming it as destroyed by fire, chemical break down, rusting or simply
bad workmanship. Since epoxy is prone to premature debonding, use of mechanical
anchorage along with epoxy binding is considered more reliable.
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Figure 7.4 Increasing the section and reinforcement of existing beams

7.3.4 Strengthening of Foundations
Seismic strengthening of foundations before or after the earthquake is the
most involved task since it may require careful underpinning operations. Some
alternatives are discussed for preliminary consideration of the strengthening
scheme.
i. Introducing new load bearing members including foundations to relieve the
already loaded members. Jacking operations may be needed in this
process.
ii. Improving the drainage of the area to prevent saturation of foundation soil
to obviate any problems of liquefaction which may occur because of poor
drainage.
iii. Providing apron around the building to prevent soaking of foundation
directly and draining off the water.
iv. Adding strong elements in the form of reinforced concrete strips attached
to the existing foundation part of the building. These will also bind the
various wall footings and may be provided on both sides of the wall,
Figure 7.5. To avoid digging the floor inside the building, the extra width
could be provided only on the outside of external walls. The extra width
may be provided above the existing footing or at the level of the existing
footing. In any case the reinforced concrete strips and the walls have to be
linked by a number of keys, inserted into the existing footing.
Note: To avoid disturbance to the integrity of the existing wall during the
foundation strengthening process, proper investigation and design is called
for.
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Figure 7.5 Improving a foundation by inserting lateral concrete

beams strengthening existing walls
The lateral strength of buildings can be improved by increasing the strength
and stiffness of existing individual walls whether they are cracked or uncracked.
This can be achieved (a) by grouting; (b) by addition of vertical reinforced concrete
coverings on the two sides of the wall (c) by pre-stressing walls.
(a) Grouting: A number of holes are drilled in the wall. First water is injected in
order to wash the wall inside and to improve the cohesion between the grouted
mixture and the wall elements. Secondly a cement water mixture (1:1) is grouted at
low pressure (0.1 to 0.25 MPa) in the holes starting from the lower holes and going
up. Alternatively, polymeric mortars may be used for grouting. The increase of
shear strength which can be achieved in this way is considerable. However grouting
cannot be relied on as far as the improving or connection between orthogonal walls
is concerned. Note that pressure needed for grouting can be obtained by gravity
flow from super-elevated tanks.
(b) Strengthening with wire mesh two steel meshes (welded wire fabric with an
elementary mesh) are placed on the two sides of the wall, they are connected by
passing steel each 500 to 750 mm apart. A 20 to 40 mm thick cement mortar or
microconcrete layer is then applied on the two networks thus giving rise to two
interconnected vertical plates. This system can also be used to improve connection
of orthogonal walls.
(c) Connection between existing stone walls In stone buildings of historic
importance consisting of fully dressed stone masonry in good mortar effective
 147
sewing of perpendicular walls can be done by drilling inclined holes through them,
inserting steel rods and injecting cement grout.
(d) Prestressing: A Horizontal compression state induced by horizontal tendons
can be used to increase the shear strength of walls. Moreover this will also improve
considerably the connections of orthogonal walls, Figure 7.6. The easiest way of
affecting the precompression is to place two steel rods on the two sides of the wall
and strengthening them by turnbuckles. Note that good effects can be obtained by
slight horizontal prestressing (about 0.1 MPa) on the vertical section of the wall.
Prestressing is also useful to strengthen spandrel beam between two rows of
openings in the case no rigid stab exists.

1. Steel rod for prestressing 2. Anchor plates 1. Wire mesh with width > 400mm
Fig. 7.6 Strengthening of walls by prestressing Fig. 7.7 Splint and bandage
strengthening
External Binding
Opposite parallel walls can be held to internal cross walls by prestressing bars
as illustrated above, the anchoring being done against horizontal steel channels
instead of small steel plates. The steel channels running from one cross wall to the
other will hold the walls together and improve the integral box like action of the
walls. The technique of covering the wall with steel mesh and mortar or micro-
concrete may be used only on the outside surface of external walls but maintaining
continuity of steel at the corners. This would strengthen the walls as well as bind
them together. As a variation and for economy in the use of materials, the covering
may be in the form of vertical splints between openings and horizontal bandages
over spandrel walls at suitable number of points only, Figure 7.7.
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Other Points
(i) Masonry arches: If the walls have large arched openings in them, it will be
necessary to install tie rods across them at springing levels or slightly above it by
drilling holes on both sides and grouting steel rods in them, Figure 7.8(a).
Alternatively, a lintel consisting of steel channels or I shapes, could be inserted just
above the arch to take the load and relieve the arch as shown at Figure 7.8(b). In
jack-arch roofs, flat iron bars or rods may be provided to connect the bottom
flanges of I-beams, connected by bolting or welding.
(ii) Random rubble masonry walls are most vulnerable to complete collapse
and must be strengthened by internal impregnation by rich cement mortar grout in
the ratio of 1:1 or better still covered with steel mesh and mortar. Damaged
portions of the wall, if any, should be reconstructed using richer mortar.
(iii) For bracing the longitudinal walls of long barrack type buildings, a portal
type framework can be inserted transverse to the walls and connected to them.
Alternatively, masonry buttresses or, pillasters may be added externally as shown
in Figure 7.9.
(iv) In framed buildings, the lateral resistance can be improved by inserting
knee braces or full diagonal braces or inserting infill walls.

Figure 7.8 Strengthening an arched opening in masonry wall

 149

[Link] wall 2. Buttress of plaster 3. Key stone 4. Foundation

Figure 7.9 Strengthening of long walls by buttresses
7.3.5 Techniques to Restore Original Strength
While considering restoration work, it is important to realize that even fine
cracks in load bearing members which are unreinforced, like masonry and plain
concrete reduce their resistance very largely. Therefore all cracks must be located
and marked carefully and the critical ones fully repaired either by injecting strong
cement or chemical grout or by providing external bandage. The techniques are
described below along with other restoration measures.
Small Cracks
If the cracks are reasonably small (opening width = 0.075 cm), the technique
to restore the original tensile strength of the cracked element is by pressure
injection of epoxy. The external surfaces are cleaned of non-structural materials
and plastic injection ports are placed along the surface of the cracks on both sides
of the member and are secured in place with an epoxy sealant. The centre to centre
spacing of these ports may be approximately equal to the thickness of the element.
After the sealant has cured, a low viscosity epoxy resin is injected into one port at a
time, beginning at the lowest part of the crack in case it is vertical or at one end of
the crack in case it is horizontal. The resin is injected till it is seen flowing from the
opposite sides of the member at the corresponding port or from the next higher port
on the same side of member. The injection port should be closed at this stage and
injection equipment moved to the next port and so on. The smaller the crack,
higher is the pressure or more closely spaced should be the ports so as to obtain
complete penetration of the epoxy material throughout the depth and width of
member. Larger cracks will permit larger port spacing, depending upon width of the
member. This technique is appropriate for all types of structural elements, beams,
columns, walls and floor units in masonry as well as concrete structures. Two
items should however be taken care of in such type of repair:
(i) In the case of loss of bond between reinforcing bar and concrete, if the
concrete adjacent to the bar has been pulverised to a very fine powder, this powder
will dam the epoxy from saturating the region. So it should be cleaned properly by
air or water pressure prior to injection of epoxy.
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(ii) It has been stated that cracks smaller than about 0.75 mm may be difficult
to pressure inject. So cracks smaller than this should not be repaired by this
method.
Large Cracks and Crushed Concrete
For cracks wider than about 6 mm or for regions in which the concrete or
masonry has crushed, a treatment other than injection is indicated. The following
procedure may be adopted.
(i) The loose material is removed and replaced with any of the materials
mentioned earlier, i.e., expansive cement mortar, quick setting cement or gypsum
cement mortar. (ii) Where found necessary, additional shear or flexural
reinforcement is provided in the region of repairs. This reinforcement could be
covered by mortar to give further strength as well as protection to the
reinforcement. (iii) In areas of very severe damage, replacement of the member or
portion of member can be carried out. (iv) In the case of damage to walls and floor
diaphragms, steel mesh could be provided on the outside of the surface and nailed
or bolted to the wall. Then it may cover with plaster or micro-concrete.
Repair Strategies
A number of options are available for giving a relief to a distressed structure,
which could cover any of the following:
 Reduction of dead/live loads
 Repair /strengthening of columns, beams and slabs
 Improving the compressive strength of concrete
 Attending to cracks and joints
 Improving the masonry structure to be able to resist earthquake forces
 Providing protective cover against the aggressive deteriorating chemicals
Stress Reduction: The reduction is another method of providing relief to the
structure. This can be achieved by the following:
 Reducing dead load and live loads
 Replacing heavy solid partitions with lightweight partitions
 Enlarging openings by removing filler walls
 Reducing numbers of stories
 Changing the building use to a lower classification of building
 Span reduction of beams by providing struts, etc.
Repairing columns, beams and slabs: These form the basic structural elements
in most of the building structural systems, which are deteriorated and require
attention to improve the load carrying capacity. Their structural modification or
strengthening would give the required relief to the structure and enhance its
performance as under:
[Link] Columns: The strengthening of columns may be required for the
following:
 Capacity: The load carrying capacity of the column can be enhanced by
section enlargement. Different types of arrangement for section
enlargement are shown in Figure 7.10.
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 Ductility / confinement: The ductility of the column can be enhanced by
providing additional tiles, steel tiles, steel plate bonding, and fibre wrap.
 Joints: The joints play crucial role for resisting earthquake forces. The
joints can be strengthening by enlargement, jacketing by steel collar and
fibre wrap.

Figure 7.10 Column compressive Strengthening by section enlargement

[Link] Beams: These can be strengthened for:
i) Flexural strength: The flexural strength of the bean can be enhanced by (a)
Section enlargement in compression. (b) Additional reinforcement in the
tension (Figure 7.11. Caution shall be exercised to ensure that section is
not over reinforced while providing additional reinforcement to compensate
loss of reinforcement due to corrosion etc. (c) The provisioning for
enhanced tensile strength if being undertaken, this should be
accompanied with corresponding increase in compression as well. Due to
such increased flexural capacities extra shear capacities required to
ensure ductile behavior during earthquake shall also considered for
provision. (d) MS plate bonding. (e) High strength fibre fabric wrap
technique (without section enlargement)
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Figure 7.11 Beam Strengthening by concrete overlay and section enlargement

ii) Shear strength: The shear strength of the beam can be enhanced by any of
the following:
(a) Section enlargement (b) Shear ties anchored in compression zone
of beam (c) Post tension strap around the section (d) Diagonally
anchored bolts ( the holes are drilled perpendicular to the possible
shear cracks) (e) MS steel plate bonding (f) Fibre wraps.
[Link] Slabs: The performance of the slab can be improved by providing
overlays ( in case of negative moment deficiency) or underlay ( in case of positive
moment deficiency) (Figure 7.12). The additional overlay/underlay will also increase
the stiffness of the slabs and control the excessive deflections problems. The slabs
are generally safe in shear and as such no need is likely to occur for shear
strengthening except flat slabs near column capital.

Figure 7.12 Slab strengthening: Concrete Overlay

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7.3.6 Stitching: The concrete and masonry are weak in tension. The cracks
indicate the tensile failure of the material. The tensile strength of a cracked section
can be restored by stitching in a manner analogous to sewing cloths. The crack is
bridged with U shaped metal units called “stitching dogs” before being repaired with
a rigid resin material. A nonshrink grout or an epoxy resin based adhesive should
be used to anchor the legs of the dogs. The cracks should be sealed watertight
before stitching. Stitching dogs should be of variable length and / or orientation
and so located that the tension transmitted across the crack is not applied to a
single plane within the section but is spread over an area. Since stress
concentrations occur at the ends of crack, the spacing of stitching dogs should be
reduced at such locations (Figures 7.13 and 7.14).

Figure 7.13 Stitching of wall / Slab Figure 7.14. Stitching of brick masonry
7.3.7 Repair Procedure for Corrosion Damaged Elements
Step by step procedure for repairing the damaged columns / beams / slabs
affected corrosion:
(A) Shotcreting: (Figure 7.15)
 Prop and support the structure in order to relieve the RC column of
stresses due to load coming over it.
 Remove plaster and finishes all around the distressed RCC columns.
Remove loose, cracked and spalled concrete to expose the rusted
reinforcement.
 Remove concrete all around the reinforcement in order to get average
25mm air gap all around including behind the reinforcement and clean the
reinforcement of concrete and rust by appropriate methods.
 Put additional reinforcement wherever the reinforcement diameter has
been reduced by more than 15% with necessary overlap or welding with the
existing reinforcement.
 Fix shear key bars of appropriate diameter at specified spacing in both
directions over the surface to be covered with repair materials.
 Apply appropriate passivating and bond coat over the reinforcement and
prepared RCC surface. Shotcrete the RCC column within the time limit
specified as pot life of the epoxy or tacking period of slurry. The necessary
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shuttering should be used for ensuring the desired thickness and shape of
the columns.
 6mm thick of finishing coat with cement sand plaster 1:3 if felt necessary,
shall be applied within 48 hours of application of shotcrete repair.
 Wet curing shall be done over the finished surface of the shotcrete for a
minimum period of 7 days.
 After RCC columns/beams are cured completely dried, a protective coating
shall be applied over it for protecting the reinforcement and concrete.
(B) RCC Jacketing
Step No. 1 to 5 same as above
6. Appropriate passivating and bond coat shall be applied over the prepared
surface.
7. Within the tacky period of bond coat, shuttering and concreting shall be
done with specified grade of concrete with minimum cement content and water
cement ratio more than 0.45. The consistency of this concrete shall be flowing and
self-compacting, which shall be achieved by using super plasticizer.
8. Follow steps 6 to 8 as above.

Figure 7.15 Column Repair by Guniting

Step by step procedure for repairing the damaged RCC slabs affected corrosion:
A. Repair with Polymer Modified Cement Mortar: (Figure 7.16)
1. Propping and supporting of RCC slab under distress.
2. All loose and spalled cover concrete shall be removed including finishing
plaster wherever found loose by tapping.
3. The rusted reinforcement shall be cleaned of concrete preferably by using
sand blasting to give a minimum 15mm clear air gap all around including
behind the reinforcement.
4. Additional reinforcement wherever necessary shall be added and tied to the
RCC slab with necessary binding wires and nails.
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5. Fix shear key bars of appropriate diameter at specified spacing in both
directions over the surface to be covered with repair materials.
6. The rusted reinforcement shall be cleaned of rust and passivated and applied
bond coating.
7. The prepared concrete surface shall be covered with appropriate mix of
polymer modified cement sand mortar in layers including behind
reinforcement over a bond coat with polymer modified cement slurry. The
mortar cover thickness shall be not less than 15mm over the reinforcement.
The maximum thickness shall be not more than 30mm with each layer not
exceeding 10mm.
8. Water curing shall be carried out for a minimum period of 7 days.

Figure 7.16 Repair of corrosion damaged slab

9. Necessary white washing/painting of the surface may be carried out after
the curing period is over and the surface gets dried up.
(B) Shotcreting
1. Step no. 1 to 6 shall be same as above.
7. Shotcreting with average thickness of 50mm shall be done within the
tacking period of epoxy bond coat to be applied over the prepared surface of
concrete.
8. Finishing plaster if necessary may be provided within 48 hours of
shotcreting without allowing the RCC slab to become dry during the intervening
period.
9. Water curing shall be carried out for a minimum period of 7 days.
7.3.8 Treatment of Distressed Floor in Toilets/Kitchen: (Figure 7.17)
1. Remove all materials/flooring from the sunken floors and expose the
drainage pipes/GI water supply lines.
 156
2. Test the GI water supply lines less than 6 kg/m2.
3. Test the drainage pipes and other joints for leakages, if any, by plugging of
horizontal pipe at tee junction with vertical stack and filling with water upto
the finished floor level for 48 hours.
4. Provide 40mm dia GI pipe spout and CC flooring with water proofing
compound laid in slope (1:48 minimum) for draining out leaking water, if
any, form the sunken portion in the shaft.
5. Provide 12mm thick cement plaster 1:3 mixed with water proofing
compound on the vertical walls of the sunken portion including providing
necessary repair around the drainage spout provided.
6. Provide two coats of bitumen coating in the sunken portion to ensure that
the entire surface is properly covered and drainage pipes are also painted
with bitumen.
7. Provide a 100 mm thick dry stone aggregate in the sunken portion. The
mouth of the drainage spout provided earlier shall have graded filter so as
not to get chocked.
8. Rest of the depth of sunken portion shall be filled with lean concrete [Link]
with stone aggregate and flooring laid to slope.
9. The rusted/leaking GI pipes wherever noticed during carrying out the
repairs shall be replaced or otherwise be cleaned of rust and coated with
polymer modified cement slurry and tow coats of bitumen painting.

Figure 7.17 Repair of sunken slab of Toilets

7.3.9. Strengthening Solutions using FRP Plates:

Flexural Strengthening
The flexural capacity of member need to be enhanced either to withstand the
additional increments of load beyond those for which the structures were originally
designed, or to compensate the loss of capacity due to corrosion of the embedded
steel reinforcement. Historically, RC members have been repaired by post -
tensioning or jacking with new concrete in conjunction with a surface adhesive.
 157
Since mid -1960s epoxy – bonded steel plates are being used to retrofit the flexural
members. But corrosion may occur along the adhesive interface and affects the
bond at the steel plate – concrete interface.
In the 1980s, fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) were developed and used in the
form of thin laminates. They are constructed of high performance fibres such as
carbon, aramid or glass, which are placed in a resin matrix. Selecting these fibres
for particular application can alter the mechanical and durability properties.
The FRP laminates are being widely used for flexural strengthening because of
their excellent properties including the following:
 High strength–to–weight ratio
 Low weight (making them much easier to handle on site)
 Immunity to corrosion
 Excellent mechanical strength and stiffness
 Unlimited availability in length
 Easy fabrication
 Possibility of bonding to non - flat surfaces
 Durability in adverse environments
 High fatigue strength
Moreover, bonding of FRP plating does not need expensive scaffolding. Many
researchers have done experiments on RC beams strengthened with externally
bonded FRP laminates to the tension face to exhibit ultimate flexural strength
greater than their original/damaged beams. They indicated that the ductility of RC
beams using externally bonded carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass
fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) laminates gets reduced and the extent of reduction
in ductility is dependent upon the characteristics of original.
One of the conventional methods for external strengthening implies the
addition of adhesive-bonded steel plates on the tension side of the RC beams. The
use of epoxy-bonded steel plates is very frequent in Europe and the United States
but it suffers from a number of disadvantages:
Steel plates are heavy and difficult to transport, handle and install; the length
of individual steel plates is restricted to 8-10m to enable handling and even at these
lengths it may be difficult to erect them due to pre-existing service facilities;
durability and corrosion effects remain uncertain; contaminants on structural
members prior to bonding; surface preparation including the priming systems; steel
plate thickness at least 5 mm to prevent distortion during blasting operation;
complex profiles are difficult to be shaped with steel plates; expensive false work is
required to maintain steel plates in position during bonding.
Composites fabricated either through wet processes on-site or prefabricated in
plates (Figure.7.18) and then adhesively bonded to the concrete surface provide an
efficient means of strengthening, that can be carried out with no or little disruption
in use. The efficacy of the method depends mainly on the appropriate selection of
 158
the composite material and on the efficiency and integrity of the bond between the
composite and the concrete surface.

Figure 7.18 Flexural strengthening schemes with FRP composites

Shear Strengthening of Beams
When a RC beam is deficient in shear, or when its shear capacity is less than
the flexural capacity after flexural strengthening, the shear strengthening of the
respective beam has to be considered. It has been realized that the FRP bonded to
the soffit of a RC beam does not modify significantly the shear behaviour from that
of the unstrengthened beams. Therefore, the influence of FRP strips bonded to the
soffit for flexural strengthening may be ignored in predicting the shear strength of
the beam. Various bonding schemes of FRP strips have been utilized to improve the
shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams. The shear effect of FRP external
reinforcement is maximized when the fibre direction coincides to that of maximum
principal tensile stress. For the most common case of structural members
subjected to transverse loads the maximum principal stress trajectories in the
shear-critical zones form an angle with the member axis which may be taken about
450. However, sometimes it is more practical to attach the external FRP
reinforcement with the principal fibre direction, perpendicular to the axis direction
(Figure 7.19).
Because FRPs are strong in the direction of fibers only their orientation is
recommended to control the shear cracks best. Shear forces in a beam may be
reversed under reversed cyclic loading and fibers may be thus arranged at two
 159
different directions to satisfy the requirement of shear strengthening in both
directions.

a – FRP bonded to the web sides only; b – U jacketing; c – complete wrapping

Figure 7.19 Shear strengthening schemes with FRP composites
Strengthening of RC Slabs
When the RC slabs are simply supported the one-way slabs are strengthened
by bonding FRP strips to the soffit along the required direction, Figure 7.20. For
two-way slabs strengthening must be applied for both directions, by bonding FRP
strips in both directions, Figure 7.21.

a – elevation; b – cross section

Figure 7.20 FRP strengthening of one-way simply supported slab:
The possible collapse mechanism of a two-way slab suggests that the
strengthening of such a slab can be concentrated in the central region and the FRP
strips can be terminated far away from the edges. The load capacity of such
strengthened slabs can be predicted by a yield line analysis, as the part of the slab
without bonded FRP strips has enough ductility for the formation of yield lines.

a – slab soffit; b – cross section

Figure 7.21 FRP strengthening of a two-way slab
 160
Strengthening of RC Columns
Conventional strengthening measures for RC columns range from the external
confinement of the core by heavily reinforced external concrete sections to the use
of steel cables wound helically around the existing column at close spacing that are
then covered by concrete and the use of steel jackets welded together in the field
confining the existing columns. Some of these methods are effective but they have
some disadvantages: they are time consuming and labour intensive; can cause
significant interruption of the structure functioning due to access and space
requirements for heavy equipment; rely on field welding, the quality of which is often
questionable; susceptible to degradation due to corrosion; introduce changes in
column stiffness, influencing the seismic force levels. The strengthening of existing RC
columns using steel or FRP jacketing is based on a well established fact that lateral
confinement of concrete can substantially enhance its axial compressive strength and
ductility. The most common form of FRP column strengthening involves the external
wrapping of FRP straps. The use of FRP composites provides a means for confinement
without the increase in stiffness (when only hoop reinforcing fibers are utilized),
enables rapid fabrication of cost effective and durable jackets, with little or no traffic
disruption in most cases. A suitable classification of FRP composite jackets is given in
Figure 7.22. In FRP-confined concrete subjected to axial compression, the FRP jackets
are loaded mainly in hoop tension while the concrete is subjected to triaxial
compression, so that both materials are used to their best advantages.
As a result of the confinement, both the strength and the ultimate strain of
concrete can be enhanced, while the tensile strength of FRP can be effectively
utilized. Instead of the brittle behaviour exhibited by both materials, FRP-confined
concrete possesses an enhanced ductility. For FRP wrapped, axially loaded columns
the design philosophy relies on the wrap to carry tensile forces around the
perimeter of the column as a result of lateral expansion of the underlying column
when loaded axially in compression. Constraining the lateral expansion of the
column confines the concrete and, consequently increases its axial compressive
capacity.

a – wrapping of fabric; b – partially wrapping with strips;

c – prefabricated jackets; d – spiral rings; e – automated winding; f – resin infusion.
Figure 7.22. Methods of FRP strengthening for RC columns
 161
It should be underlined that passive confinement of this type requires
significant lateral expansion of the concrete before the FRP wrap is loaded and
confinement is initiated. In case of columns rectangular or square in cross section
the confinement is effective at the column corners only with negligible resistance to
lateral expansion being provided along the flat column sides. A number of different
methods (based on form of jacketing material or fabrication process) have been
tested at large or full-scale many of which are now used commercially all over the
world.
7.4 REVISION POINTS
Maintenance Services, Classification of Maintenance.
7.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How will you repair cracks in RC elements using resins?
2. Explain about jacketing technique.
3. Explain flexural and shear strengthening using plate bonding technique.
4. Write short notes on ‘stitching’.
5. How will you repair corrosion demaged RC elements?
7.6 SUMMARY
Strengthening of RC members using jacketing, plate bonding are discussed in
detail.
7.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Cracks smaller than about ___________ may be difficult to pressure inject.
2. Test the GI water supply lines less than ____________.
3. Cracks to be injected with polyurethane resin should not be less than
_____________ in width

7.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

[Link] Mark/others/existingbldg reprofit pdf
7.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Techniques to restore originalskeyth
2. Treatment or distressed floor in Toilets Kitchen
7.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Fardis M. N., Khalili, H., Concrete Encased in Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic.
ACI Journal, 78(6), 440-446 (1981).
2. Meier U., Bridge Repair with High Performance Composite Materials.
Mater. Tech., 4, 125-128 (1987).
3. ACI 440.1R-06 – Guide for the design and construction of concrete
reinforced with FRP bars. ACI C ommittee 440, American Concrete
Institute, 2006.
4. fib, TG9.3 - FRP reinforcement in RC structures. Sprint-Digital-Druck,
Stuttgart, (2007).
 162
5. Taranu N., Polymeric composites in Construction, (Course Notes). The
University of Sheffield Printing Office, 2008.
6. The Concrete Society - Design guidance for strengthening concrete
structures using fibre composite materials. Concrete Society Technical
Report No 55, 102 (2004).
7. Teng J.G., Chen J. F., Smith S.T., Lam L., FRP –Strengthened RC
Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, New York, 2002.
8. Triantafillou T. C., Upgrading concrete structures using advanced
polymercomposites. In: Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural
Applications in Construction (ACIC). Proceedings of the Second
International Conference, held at the University of Surrey, April 2004,
Guildford, UK, 89-100.
9. Karbhari V.M., Seible F., Fiber reinforced composites - advanced materials
for renewal of civil infrastructure. Appl. Comp. Mater. 7, 95-124 (2000).
10. Guadagnini M., Shear behaviour and design of FRP RC beams. PhD Thesis,
The University of Sheffield, UK, 2002.
11. Pilakoutas K., Guadagnini M., Shear of FRP RC: a review of the state-of—
the-art. In Composites in Construction a Reality. Proceedings of the
International Workshop, 20-21 July 2001, Capri, 173-182.
12. ACI 440.2R-02. - Guide for the design and construction of externally
bonded FRPsystems for strengthening concrete structures. Reported by
ACI Committee 440, 2002.
13. Ciupala M.A., Pilakoutas K., Taranu N., FRP seismic strengthening of
columns in frames. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on
FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, 8-10 July 2003, Singapore,
1117-1126.
14. Masia M.J., Gale T.N., Shrive N.G., Size effect in axially loaded square-
section concrete prisms strengthened using carbon fibre reinforced
polymer wrapping. Can. [Link]. Eng., 31, 1-13 (2004).
15. Teng J.G., Lam L., Understanding and modeling the compressive behaviour
of FRP confined concrete. In: Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural
Applications in Construction (ACIC). Proceedings of the Second
International Conference, held at the University of Surrey, 20-22 April
2004, Guildford, UK, 73-88.
16. Budescu M., Ciongradi I., Taranu N., Gavrilas I., Ciupala M.A., Lungu I.,
Reabilitarea constructiilor. Ed. Vesper, Iasi, 2001.
17. Bank L.C., Composites for Construction. Structural Design with FRP
Materials. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, 2006.
7.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on PCP days
1. Case study on maintenance of Structures.
7.12 KEYWORDS
Strengthening – jacketing – plate bonding – guniting shotcrete – wrapping.


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LESSON – 8

MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Building maintenance is work undertaken to keep, restore or improve every
facility i.e., every part of a building, its services including horticulture operations to
a currently acceptable standard and to sustain the utility and value of the facility.
8.2 OBJECTIVE
 To study the maintenance of buildings in detail.
8.3 CONTENTS
8.3.1 Objective of maintenance
8.3.2 Maintenance Services
8.3.3 Classification of Maintenance
[Link] Day-to-day Repairs
[Link] Annual Repairs
[Link] Special Repairs
[Link] Additions and Alterations
[Link] Preventive Maintenance
[Link] Safety of Buildings
8.3.1 Objective of Maintenance
The objective of maintenance is: -
(i) To preserve machinery, building and services, in good operating condition.
(ii) To restore it back to its original standards, and
(iii) To improve the facilities depending upon the development that is taking
place in the building engineering.
Inspite of recent improvements in building technology all the buildings
deteriorate from the time they are completed. The rate of deterioration depends
upon a number of factors. Not all the factors are under the control of the
occupants.
During the design and construction stages, the following become essential:-
(i) Right choice of material.
(ii) Suitable construction techniques.
(iii) Adequate specifications for construction and installation work.
(iv) Effective supervision throughout construction and rectification of defects
prior to final certification.
(v) Provision of adequate space for landscaping with proper design.
In fact the Government department contracts provide for obligatory
maintenance by the original contractor in the initial stages for a period of six or
 164
three months, depending upon the nature of the work, immediately following the
date of completion as there are bound to be teething troubles in any new
construction. If these are attended to, the maintenance pressure will be reduced.
Where there are inherent defects both in design and construction the maintenance
cost raises disproportionately to a higher level and the anticipated life of building is
reduced. Maintenance aims at effective and economic means of keeping the
building and services fully utilizable. It involves numerous skills as influenced by
occupancy and the performance level expected of a building. Programming of works
to be carried out to keep the building in a good condition calls for high skills.
Feedback from maintenance should also be a continuous process to improve upon
the design and construction stages.
8.3.2 Maintenance Services
These include primarily operations undertaken for maintaining proper
condition of buildings, its services and works in ordinary use. The use for which
buildings are designed is a prime factor in determining the requisite standard of
care. Excessive maintenance should be avoided. At the same time, maintenance
should ensure safety to the occupant or the public at large and should comply with
the statutory requirements. The need also depends upon intensity of usage.
8.3.3 Classification of Maintenance
The repair works are classified in under mentioned categories:
 Day to day repairs / service facilities
 Annual repairs
 Special repairs
In addition to above the following works are also executed:
(a) Additions and Alterations Works in the buildings
(b) Supply & maintenance of furniture & furnishing articles,
[Link] Day to Day Repairs
Day to day repairs are carried out by the departments in all the buildings
under its maintenance on the basis of day to day complaints received at the Service
Centers. The works which are to be attended on day to day basis such as removing
chokage of drainage pipes, man holes, restoration of water supply, replacement of
blown fuses, repairs to faulty switches, watering of plants, lawn mowing, hedge
cutting, sweeping of leaf falls etc. are attended under day to day service facilities.
The purpose of this facility is to ensure satisfactory continuous functioning of
various services in the buildings. These services are provided after receipt of
complaint from the users at the respective Service Centers. Complaints of periodical
nature like white washing, painting etc., which are usually got attended through
contractors and cannot be attended on daily basis is transferred to register of
periodical repairs.
 165
[Link] Annual Repairs
To maintain the aesthetics of buildings and services as well as to preserve
their life, some works like white washing, distempering, painting, cleaning of lines,
tanks etc. are carried out periodically. These works are planned on year to year
basis.
In addition, works such as patch repair to plaster, minor repairs to various
items of work, replacement of glass panes, replacement of wiring damaged due to
accident, replacement of switches, sockets tiles, Gap filling of hedges/perennial
beds, Replacement/Replanting of trees, shrubs, painting of tree guards, planting of
annual beds and trimming/pruning of plants etc., which are not emergent works
and are considered to be of routine type, can be collected and attended to for a
group of houses at a time and particular period of financial year, depending upon
the exigency.
[Link] Special Repairs
Such works are undertaken to replace the existing parts of buildings and
services which get deteriorated on ageing of buildings. It is necessary to prevent the
structure & services from deterioration and restore it back to its original conditions
to the extent possible. As the building ages, there is deterioration to the various
parts of the building and services. Major repairs and replacement of elements
become inevitable. It becomes necessary to prevent the structure from deterioration
and undue wear and tear as [Link] as to restore it back to its original conditions to
the extent possible.
The following types of works in general are undertaken under special repairs: -
 White Washing, Colour washing, distempering etc., after completely
scrapping the existing finish and preparing the surface afresh.
 Painting after removing the existing old paint from various members.
 Provision of water proofing treatment to the roof.
 All the existing treatments known are supposed to last satisfactorily only
for a period of about ten years.
 Repairs of internal roads and pavements.
 Repairslreplacement of flooring, skirting, dado and plaster.
 Replacement of doors, window frames and shutters. Replacement of door
and window fittings .
 Replacement of water supply and sanitary installation like water tanks, WC
cistern, Wash basins, kitchen sinks. pipes etc..
 Re-grassing of lawns/grass plots within 5-1 0 years.
 Renovation of lawn in 5-6 years.
 Replanting of hedges in 8- 10 years.
 Completely uprooting and removing hedges1 shrubbery.
 166
 Replanting of
 Rose beds in 5-6 years.
 Perennial beds in 5-6 years.
 Canna beds in 1-2 years.
 Shifting of any garden feature from one site to another within building.
The building services fixtures including internal wiring, water supply
distribution system etc, are expected to last for 20-25 years. There afterwards it
may be necessary to replace them after detailed inspection.
The expected economic life of the building under normal occupancy and
maintenance conditions is considered to be as below:
(i) Monumental buildings 100 years.
(ii) RCC Framed construction 75 years
(iii) Load bearing construction 55 years.
(iv) Semi permanent structures 30 years
(v) Purely temporary structures 5 years
The life of the building mentioned above is only indicative and it depends on
~everalf actors like location, utilization, specifications, maintenance and upkeep/
caretaking. The replacement, renovation and major repairs become inevitable as the
life of all the components are not identical. All the three categories i.e. day to day,
annual and special repairs/services are interrelated. Neglect of routine maintenance
and preventive measures lead to more extensive periodical maintenance and in the
long run major repair or restoration which could have been avoided or postponed.
[Link] Additions and Alterations
The works of additions/alterations are carried out in buildings to suit the
special requirements of occupants for functional efficiency. Norms for facilities in
govt. residential and non-residential buildings are revised from time to time. The
facilities are updated by carrying out such works.
[Link] Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is carried out to avoid breakdown of machinery and
occurrence of maintenance problems in buildings and services. Works of preventive
maintenance are carried out on the basis of regular inspection/survey.
[Link]. Safety of Buildings
All Buildings/structures are required to be inspected once a year by the
Engineer in-charge to ensure that the building/structure is not unsafe for use. In
case of electrical and other installations, the Engineer (Electrical) should inspect
the same and record a certificate to that effect. The Junior Engineers are also
required to inspect such structures/installations twice a year and record
certificates to that effect. In case of any deficiency found in the structure/
installation necessary report should be made to higher authorities and immediate
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steps taken to get the same inspected by the Engineer and further action taken to
remedy the defects. In case it is decided to demolish such unsafe building, it
should be disposed off without land by auction under the powers vested in
competent authorities.
8.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Maintenance Services, Classification of Maintenance.
8.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the objectives of maintenance of buildings?
2. Classify the maintenance of structures.
8.6 SUMMARY
The objective and classification of maintenance are studied in detail.
8.7. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Expected Economical life of RCC frame structure ______ years.
2. Annual repair means _______.
3. Major repairs and replacements of elements become ______.
8.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. http : // [Link]/greenmark/others/exisiting bldg [Link]
8.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Building maintenance classification
8.10 SUGGESTED READING/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
[Link], ‘Repair and Maintenance of House’ Estate Gazette (1999).
8.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Group discussion on (during PCP days)
1. Case study on maintenance of structures.
8.12 KEYWORDS
Maintenance – Repair – Addition – Alteration – preventive measures.

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600E230
Annamalai University Press 2018 – 2019
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