Aerospace Propulsion

Chapter 3

Dr. Nadia Kianvashrad

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

1
Introduction

• Afterburning turbojet engine

2
Introduction

• Conservation of mass

X X
ṁin = ṁout
Thus
ρ0 V0 A + ṁs + ṁf = (ṁ0 + ṁf ) + ρ0 V0 (A − A9 )

Note definition of ρ0 , ṁs , ṁ0 , A. The above equation simplifies to

ṁs = ṁ0 − ρ0 V0 A9

3
Introduction

• Conservation of momentum

X X X
ṁVx |out − ṁVx |in = Fx
The net force is
X
Fx = F |thrust − (p9 − p0 ) A9
| {z }
F

The momentum fluxes are

X
ṁVx |out = (ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 + ρ0 V02 (A − A9 )
X
ṁVx |in = ρ0 V02 A + ṁs V0

4
Introduction

• Conservation of momentum
The equation simplifies to

(ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 − ṁ0 V0 = F − (p9 − p0 ) A9

Define

F = Funinstalled = (ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 − ṁ0 V0 + (p9 − p0 ) A9

and
Dram = ṁ0 V0
For subsonic flow at exit, p9 = p0 .
For supersonic flow at exit, p9 is not necessarily equal to p0 .
p9 < p0 : overexpanded
p9 = p0 : perfectly expanded
p9 > p0 : underexpanded

5
Introduction

• Conservation of momentum
Define gross thrust
Fg = (ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 + (p9 − p0 ) A9
and thus
F = Fg − Dram
For multiple exhausts
X
F = Fg |nozzles − Dram |inlets
For turbofan
F = ṁ9 V9 + ṁ19 V19 + (p9 − p0 ) A9 + (p19 − p0 ) A19 − ṁ0 V0

6
Introduction

• Takeoff thrust
At takeoff, the air speed V0 is small and thus

F |takeoff ≈ (ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 + (p9 − p0 ) A9

7
Installed Thrust

• The installed thrust is the actual measured thrust when the engine is
installed on the pylon
• The uninstalled thrust is the thrust that would be measured if the
engine were isolated from the wing and pylon
• The uninstalled and installed thrust are related by

F |installed = F |uninstalled − D|nacelle

• The text shows that a different choice of control volume yields the
same result for uninstalled thrust

8
Installed Thrust

• The installed net thrust accounts for the effects of the engine
installation on the pylon

9
Engine Thrust

• Consider application of conservation of x−momentum to a succession

of control volumes
F |x,diffuser = I1 − I2
where I is the impulse

I = (ρV 2 + p)A = ṁV + P A

and F |x,diffuser is the force acting on the inner surface of the region
between stations 1 and 2

Why is F |x,diffuser the force acting on the diffuser inner surface ?

10
Engine Thrust

• Analyzing the successive sections in a similar manner

Fx,compressor = I2 − I3
Fx,burner = I3 − I4
Fx,turbine = I4 − I5
Fx,nozzle = I5 − I9
Thus, the total axial force acting on the inner walls of the engine is
Fx,engine = Fx,diffuser + Fx,compressor +
Fx,burner + Fx,turbine + Fx,nozzle
= I1 − I2 + I2 − I3 + I3 − I4 + I4 − I5 + I5 − I9
= I1 − I9
= ṁ1 V1 + p1 A1 − (ṁ9 V9 + p9 A9 )

11
Engine Thrust

• The engine internal thrust is the negative of the force acting on the
internal walls of the engine

F |internal = ṁ9 V9 − ṁ1 V1 + p9 A9 − p1 A1

However, we don’t know either V1 or p1

12
Engine Thrust

• Apply conservation of x−momentum to the capture streamtube

Z 1
ṁ1 V1 − ṁ0 V0 = (p − p0 ) dAn − (p1 − p0 ) A1
|0 {z }
Dadd

where dAn is the component of the area on the surface 0 → 1 which is

normal to the x−axis, and Dadd is the additive drag

13
Engine Thrust

• Therefore
ṁ1 V1 + p1 A1 = ṁ0 V0 + p0 A1 + Dadd
and
F |internal = ṁ9 V9 − ṁ0 V0 + p9 A9 − p0 A1 − Dadd
Furthermore, the integral of a constant pressure p0 about the nacelle is
zero, thus
Z Z
p0 dAn = p0 A1 − p0 A9 + p0 dAn = 0
sides

14
Engine Thrust

• Thus
Z
F |internal = ṁ9 V9 − ṁ0 V0 + p9 A9 − p0 A9 − Dadd − p0 dAn
sides

The force on the nacelle in the x−direction is

Z
F |nacelle = p dAn + F |viscous
sides

15
Engine Thrust

• The integral of the pressure on the nacelle lip (leading edge) produces
a lip force which approximately cancels the inlet additive drag
Z
(p − p0 ) dAn ≈ −Dadd
nacelle lip
Thus, the net installed thrust is
F |installed = ṁ9 V9 − ṁ0 V0 + (p9 − p0 ) A9 −
| {z }
uninstalled thrust
Z
(p − p0 ) dAn − F |viscous
sides-lip
| {z }
installation drag

16
Rocket

• The conservation of momentum applied to a rocket is

Frocket = (ṁox + ṁf ) V9 + (p9 − p0 ) A9

The thrust depends on altitude through p0

The Space Shuttle main engine produces approximately 25% more
thrust in vacuum than at sea level due to the effect of p0

17
Performance Parameters

• Specific thrust
F
Specific Thrust = N·s/kg
ṁ0
• Specific fuel consumption
ṁf
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) = mg/sec·N
F
• Specific impulse (rockets)
F
Is = sec
ṁp g

where g = 9.8m/s2 and ṁp is the mass flow rate of the propellant plus
oxidizer
• Specific impulse (air breathing)
F
Is = sec
ṁf g

18
Performance Parameters

• Thermal efficiency
1 d
ηth = (∆KE)
Pthermal dt
where
d
(∆KE) = rate of increase in kinetic energy
dt
and
P = heat value of fuel supplied per unit time
Thus
d
(∆KE) = 12 ṁ9 V92 − 12 ṁ0 V02
dt
and
P = ṁf QR
where QR is the heating value of the fuel (energy/mass). Thus

(ṁ0 + ṁf )V92 − ṁ0 V02

ηth =
2ṁf QR

19
Performance Parameters

• Thermal efficiency
Typical values of thermal efficiency are less than 50%
The remainder of the energy of the fuel is lost as wasted heat in the
engine exhaust
For a turboprop, additional useful work is produced by the power
supplied to the propellor, and the thermal efficiency is defined as
 
1 d
ηth = Pshaft + (∆KE)
ṁf QR dt

20
Performance Parameters

• Thermal efficiency
Additional concepts have been developed to recover a portion of the
waste heat in the exhaust

However, the limit on thermal efficiency is the Carnot cycle

21
Performance Parameters

• Propulsive efficiency
The fraction of the net mechanical output of the engine that is
converted into thrust is
 −1
d
ηp = (∆KE) F V0
dt
In the above expression, F is the net installed thrust. For simplicity,
however, it is useful to replace F by the uninstalled thrust, and thus
[(ṁ0 + ṁf ) V9 − ṁ0 V0 ] V0
ηp = 1
2
(ṁ0 + ṁf ) V92 − 12 ṁ0 V02

22
Performance Parameters

• Propulsive efficiency
Since ṁf  ṁ0 , this simplifies to
2V0
ηp ≈
V9 + V0
Thus, a propulsive efficiency of 100% occurs when V9 = V0 . However,
this corresponds to zero thrust.
Consequently, the propulsive efficiency is always less than 100%.
For a turboprop, the denominator in ηp is replaced by Ps + d(∆KE)/dt
where Ps is the shaft power to the propellor,
 −1
d
ηp = Ps + (∆KE) F V0
dt

23
Performance Parameters

• Range and Endurance

The product of the engine thermal and propulsive efficiency is the
engine overall efficiency
F V0
ηo = ηth ηp =
ṁf QR
using the previous definitions for ηth and ηp
For an aircraft flying at a constant velocity in level flight, the balance
of forces is
F = D and L = W
where D is the drag on the aircraft, L is the lift and W is the weight.
Thus,
F V0 = DV0 = ηo ṁf QR
and
ηo ṁf QR D
= V0
W L

24
Performance Parameters

• Range and Endurance

Now the fuel mass flowrate is
1 dW
ṁf = −
g dt
where W is the weight of the aircraft, and thus
ηo QR dW D 1
− = V0 dt = dR
g W L L/D

where R is the distance travelled in time t. Thus assuming L/D is

constant,
QR L Wi
R = ηo log
g D Wf
where Wi is the initial weight and Wf is the weight at range R. This is
the Breguet range equation

25
Performance Parameters

• Range and Endurance

Furthermore
F V0 QR L Wi
R= log
ṁf QR g D Wf
Using V0 = M0 a0 and using the definition of TSFC
L a0 /g Wi
R = M0 log
D TSFC Wf
Important results are
1 L
R∝ and R ∝ M0
TSFC D

26
Performance Parameters

• Range and Endurance

Define endurance as
R ηo Q R L Wi
Endurance = = log
V0 V0 g D Wf
This can be rewritten as
L 1 Wi
Endurance = log
D g TSFC Wf
Important results are
1 L
Endurance ∝ and Endurance ∝
TSFC D

27