International Journal of ChemTech Research
CODEN (USA): IJCRGG ISSN : 0974-4290
Vol.6, No.9, pp 4128-4133, September 2014
RTBCE 2014[12th August 2014]
Recent Trends in Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering
Carbon sequestration using microalgae-a Review
Sharmila.K1, Ramya.S1, Babu Ponnusami.A1*
1
Chemical Engineering Dept., Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur- 603 319, India
*Corres.author: [email protected]
Abstract: Sustainability is a key principle in natural resource management and it involves effective utilization
of natural resources. Across the world, industrialization and the consequent emergence of economies reliant on
fossil fuels have inevitably resulted in the adverse condition of atmospheric warming known as the greenhouse
effect. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been identified as one of the major causes. Out of several CO₂
sequestration methods, biological methods of sequestration using algae are energy efficient due to less energy
requirement. Algae are autotrophic micro-organisms capable of converting CO₂ into carbohydrates and lipids
in the presence of light by photosynthesis. Micro algae are cultivated for the treatment of domestic and
industrial waste water and also for CO₂ sequestration. Many studies were carried out in the areas of CO₂
sequestration using algae. From those studies it was concluded that the algae can be effectively used for the
treatment of wastewater and CO₂ sequestration. Hence, algal photosynthetic reaction may hold the key to
reduce CO₂ emission in sustainable manner. Algae can be extensively used to capture CO₂ from power plants,
steel, cement, oil, automobiles and many other industries and the resulting algal biomass not only be used for
biofuel production but also for various industrial products like fertilizers and pharmaceuticals. Besides giving
environmental and economic benefit, large scale algae cultivation can create a large number of jobs at different
levels in the society.
Key words: CO₂ sequestration, Micro algae, Sustainability and biomass.
Introduction
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. It causes acid rain, eutrophication,
Haze, Biomagnifications and Global climate change etc,. The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of
naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect"
keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this
natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and
methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's
average temperature to rises- a phenomenon known as global warming. Global climatic change is considered to
be the sensitive and global warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water
resources, forests, wildlife, and coastal areas. Atmospheric CO2 level keep increases until energy recovery
done by fossil fuels 1-2. Therefore, the use of fossil fuel is now widely accepted as unsustainable due to depleting
resources and the accumulation of Greenhouse gases in the environment. Due to industrial revolution, the
developed countries have emitted most of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. On the
other hand the developing countries are the most vulnerable to climate change impacts because they have fewer
resources to adapt socially, technologically and financially 3.
Dr. BabuPonnusami.A et al /Int.J. ChemTech Res.2014,6(9),pp 4128-4133. 4129
Greenhouse Gases and their Contributions
The effect of greenhouse gas not only depends on the quantity but also on their chemical nature. For
example, the influence of methane and CFC are very high though they are present in lower quantities. Though
water vapor dominates the greenhouse effect among the contributing gases, CO 2 plays a major role as it
influences the increase of water vapor concentrations. The concentration of nitrous oxide began to rise at the
beginning of the industrial revolution. Greenhouse gases such as CFC’s are mostly synthesized by the use of
refrigerants, aerosol propellants and cleaning solvents.
Table 1: Greenhouse gases and their contribution
Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse Effect % Natural% Man-Made %
Water vapour 95.000 94.999 0.001
Carbon Dioxide 3.618 3.502 0.117
Methane 0.360 0.294 0.066
Nitrous Oxide 0.950 0.903 0.047
Misc.Gases 0.072 0.025 0.047
Total 100 99.72 0.28
(Table- 1) shows the various greenhouse gases and their contribution. From the above table, it is
observed that, among all the greenhouse gases, contribution of carbon dioxide to the environment is considered
to be the maximum 4.
Ways to Reduce CO2
Most of the World’s energy supply comes from fossil fuel as a result there is rise in the atmospheric
CO2 leading to Global Warming. Thus, it is very important to develop new methods ofCO 2 sequestration. At
the same time, to develop an alternative clean energy sources which do not depend on fossil fuel and which
have a tolerable environmental impact. Oceans play a vital role in absorbing the carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere. As absorption of carbon dioxide by ocean is a slow process and can take hundreds of years, this
process cannot keep pace with the huge amount of the gas emitted every day. Plants use carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis. From the recent researches the scientists had come across the technique of carbon dioxide
sequestration and biofuel production from micro and macro algae. This method becomes one of the alternatives
to combat climate change as higher plants have various limitations to be used as a model system for carbon
sequestration and biofuel production. Numerous work have been done on carbon sequestration and biofuel
production by algae but still it needs much research in order to meet the increasing demand for energy. We
hope that in future it will replace the fossil fuel to larger extent and reduce the atmospheric CO2 to combat
Global warming5. The most important of these innovations is to increase CO 2 sinks through photosynthesis
including increased carbon storage in standing tree biomass, substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels, increase
in soil carbon sequestration and increase in soil primary productivity6. Microalgae can be extensively used to
capture CO2 from power plants, steel, cement, oil, automobiles and many other industries and the resulting
algal biomass can not only be used for biofuel production but also for various industrial products.
CO2 Sequestration using Microalgae
Algae are recognized as one of the oldest life-forms7. They are primitive plants which lack roots, stems
and leaves, have no sterile covering of cells around the reproductive cells and have chlorophyll a as their
primary photosynthetic pigment8. Depending on the species, algae can range from 1 micron (μm) to a few
hundred microns in size. As a point of reference, 1 micron (μm)=1/1000 of a millimeter (mm). Microalgae are
one of the most important groups of organisms on the planet. It is estimated that microalgae produce
approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen on earth, while consuming vast amounts of the greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide. Microalgae have a rapid growth potential and many species have oil content in the range of 20–
50% dry weight of biomass9-11. With respect to air quality maintenance and improvement, microalgae biomass
production can effect bio fixation of waste CO2 (1 kg of dry algal biomass utilize about 1.83 kg of CO2) 9.
Nutrients for microalgae cultivation can be obtained from wastewater as a growth medium, there by treating the
organic effluent from the agro-food industry 12. Algal cultivation does not require herbicides or pesticides
application13.They can also produce valuable co-products such as proteins and also biomass residue after oil
extraction which may be used as fermented to produce ethanol or methane 14 or fertilizer12. The potential
Dr. BabuPonnusami.A et al /Int.J. ChemTech Res.2014,6(9),pp 4128-4133. 4130
application of microalgae is biofuel production, CO2 fixation, bio hydrogen production and bio treatment of
wastewater.
Technologies for Microalgal Biomass Production
Microalgae culture has been developed recently by one of the biotechnologiest 15. Mass culturing of
microalgae on a commercial scale has been performed successfully on species such as Chlorella, Spirulina,
Scenedesmus, Dunaliella salina, Haematococcuspluviali and Porphyridium cruentum16-17. Although these
microorganisms are abundant in nature they have not made the subject of scientific investigation. Another
reason is that they have genetic ability to produce a wide range of compounds and chemicals that could be of
great commercial value 18. There are probably well over 30,000 species of microalgae, only a few hundred of
which are cultured in laboratories at present. In general microalgae can be produced in open ponds or closed
systems (such as photobioreactors) and the culturing methods used can be continuous, semi- continuous or
batch 19.
Photoautotrophic production
Currently, photoautotrophic production is the only method which is technically and economically
feasible for large-scale production of algae biomass for non-energy production 20. Two systems that have been
deployed are based on open pond and closed photo-bioreactor technologies 21. The technical viability of each
system is influenced by intrinsic properties of the selected algae strain used, as well as climatic conditions and
the costs of land and water 22.
Open pond system
Open ponds were extensively used in the past for the cultivation of algae (Figure- 1). Open ponds can
be grouped into natural waters bodies such as lakes, lagoons, ponds and artificial ponds. The most commonly
used system includes shallow big ponds, tanks, circular ponds and raceway ponds. Among the types of open
ponds, raceway ponds are very common and they have been used for the mass culture of algae since 1950s. The
advantage of open ponds is that they are easier to construct and operate, easy to clean after cultivation.
However, major limitation in open ponds include poor light utilization by the cells, high evaporation rate,
diffusion of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, requirement of large land areas and prone to contamination
which result in low biomass productivity 23-25.
Figure 1: Open pond system
Closed pond systems
In order to overcome the limitations of open culture systems, attention is now given on the
development of closed culture system (Figure- 2). Till now various types of closed system has been developed
such as flat – plate photo-bioreactor, tubular, vertical column etc. In closed system biomass productivities are
high and contamination rate are very less compared to open system. Most photo-bioreactors are characterized
by largely exposed illumination surfaces. Closed photo-bioreactors are good for the immobilization of algae
and biomass productivities are very high compared to the open system of cultivation 23-25.
Figure 2: Closed pond system
Dr. BabuPonnusami.A et al /Int.J. ChemTech Res.2014,6(9),pp 4128-4133. 4131
Microalgae tolerence of CO2
Direct utilization of power plant flue gas has been considered for CO2 sequestration systems 26.The
advantage of direct utilization of flue is the reduction of the cost of separating CO 2 gas. Since power plant flue
gas contains higher concentration of CO2, identifying high CO2 tolerant species is important. Although CO2
concentrations vary depending on the flue gas source, 15 - 20% v/v is typically assumed. Several species have
been tested under CO2 concentrations of over 15%. For example, Chlorococcum littorale could grow under
60% CO2using the stepwise adaptation technique 27. The following (Table- 2) shows the CO2 tolerance of
various species.
Table 2: CO2 tolerance of various species
Species Known Maximum CO2
References
uptake Concentration
Cyanidium caldarium 100% 28
Scenedesmus sp. 80% 29
Chlorococcum littorale 60% 27
Synechococcuselongatus 60% 30
Euglena gracilis 45% 31
Chlorella sp. 40% 29
Eudorina spp. 20% 29
Dunaliellatertiolecta 15% 32
Nannochloris sp. 15% 33
Chlamydomonas sp. 15% 34
Tetraselmis sp. 14% 35
Microalgae can assimilate CO2 within various ranges of concentration from ambient (0.04%) to 100%
v/v CO2 by selecting adequate species.
Microalgae tolerance to Gases other than CO2
Carbon dioxide, together with other flue gases such as nitric oxides ( NOx) and sulphur oxides ( SOx),
which are said to be toxic to biological systems, is released from industries that burn fossil fuels 36-37. The SOx
are oxidized to sulphates that accumulate, causing a decrease in pH and growth inhibition in microalgal
culturing conditions 38. Although some researchers have suggested that these toxic gases should be removed
because they hinder the CO2 mitigation for which the microalgae are being grown. Removal of these substances
is costly, and would make the technology of the microalgae systems unaffordable. Algal tolerance to NO x and
SOx varies from species to species. Acidophilic microalgae strains are not inhibited by SO x and NOx[33]. Lee
and co-researchers tested the tolerance of 250ppm of SOx and 300ppm of NOx using very high inoculums
concentrations of microalgae; and adjusting both the gas flow rate and the pH during the first 8 hours of
inoculation 39-40. Regardless of the flow rate, Monoraphium minutum was found to be able to tolerate up to
200ppm SOx and 150ppm of NOx41. (Table- 3) shows the temperature and flue gas tolerance of various algal
species.
Table 3: Temperature and flue gas tolerance of various algal species 42
Maximum Maximum CO2% Maximum SOx Maximum NOx
Algal species temperature (v/v) (ppm) (ppm)
tolerance (°C) tolerance tolerance tolerance
Cyanidium caldarium 60 100 - -
Scenedesmus 30 80 - -
Chlorococcum
- 70 - -
littorale
Synechococcus
60 60 - -
elongates
Euglena gracilis - 45 - -
Chlorella 45 40 - -
Chlorella - 15 - 100
Eudorina 30 20 - -
Dunaliellatertiolecta - 15 - 1000
Dr. BabuPonnusami.A et al /Int.J. ChemTech Res.2014,6(9),pp 4128-4133. 4132
Chlamydomonas 35 15 - -
Nannochloris 25 15 - 100
Tetraselmis - 14 185 125
From the table it is observed that at a temperature of 60 oC, 100% CO2 tolerance is observed for
Cyanidium caldarium. From the results certain thermophilic micro-organisms are known to survive till
temperatures of 60oC. It is suggested that the temperature dependent solubility of CO 2 gives an advantage to
thermophilic algae to tolerate a higher concentration of CO 2 42. Most of the algae species have no tolerance on
SOx concentration expect Tetraselmis species which has the tolerance limit of 185 ppm. Species such as
Chlorella, Dunaliellatertiolecta, Nannochloris and Tetraselmis has tolerance against NOx.
Conclusion
Carbon dioxide sequestration can effectively carried out using algae to produce algal biomass and
this can be converted in to biofuel. Algae shows reasonable tolerance to the temperature and co 2, hence
sequestration is done with maximum efficiency. This can be used to reduce the green house gases and thereby
global warming will be avoided. Using algal growth in photo-bioreactors requires some capital costs, but
relatively low operating costs as compared to other CO2 capture methods. Thus for effective carbon dioxide
sequestration, microalgae can be used and this biomass can be converted into useful bio products.
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