24/04/2019

BIOACCUMULATION

Bioaccumulation of Substances by aquatic

organisms

• The process by which persistent

environmental pollution leads to the
uptake and accumulation of one or
more contaminants, e.g. metals, organic
pollutants, persistent endocrine
disruptors etc by organisms in an
ecosystem.

1
 24/04/2019

Chemical Pollutants
• Humans have been introducing synthetic
(man-made) chemicals into the environment.
Some examples are:
PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls) widely used in
paints, plastics, lubricants up
to 1977

DDT (an insecticide for

mosquitos) now banned in
many countries Dichloro-diphenyl trichloroethane
3

DDT
DDT was first used in WWII
to protect against diseases
such as typhus and malaria.

It is cheap and effective as

an insecticide – so it began
to be manufactured for home
use.

Before it was banned in 1972

by the EPA for use in
agriculture, 1,350,000,000
pounds of DDT had been
made in North America.
4

2
 24/04/2019

EFFECTS OF DDT

• DDT is found to have

estrogenic effects:
– Causes reproductive
disorders
– Weakens the shells of
eggs (eggs break or do
not hatch)
– Can also cause nervous
system/ immune system
disorders in animals

DDT – Used as an Insecticide

• DDT is used today in such
African nations as RSA,
Zimbabwe and Ethiopia to
control mosquitoes and
the tsetse fly.

– For control of malaria and

sleeping sickness.

– Uganda ?
6

3
 24/04/2019

PCBs
• Used widely in products like paints,
plastics, etc as softening agents
from the 1930’s – 1970’s

• Banned in North America in 1977

• There are 209 different congeners

(different chemical structures)

• PCBs interfere with immune

function making an organism more
susceptible to disease
(ex: cancer)
7

Heavy Metals
• Heavy metals are toxic
to organisms.
– Levels of lead in the
soil have increased
due to human
activities.
• Lead is not
considered safe at
any level.
• Many electronics
contain lead and
must be recycled
carefully.
• Lead can cause
anemia and nervous
and reproductive
system damage.
8

4
 24/04/2019

Heavy Metals (con’t)

– Cadmium is also found in low levels
naturally.

• Cadmium is used in the manufacture of

plastics and nickel-cadmium batteries.

• It is toxic to earthworms and causes

many health problems in fish.

• In humans, the main source of cadmium

is exposure to cigarette smoke.

– Cadmium causes lung diseases,

cancer, and nervous and immune
system damage.

Heavy Metals (con’t)

– Mercury also is found naturally.

– Mercury has entered ecosystems

through the burning of fossil fuels,
waste
– incineration, mining, and the
manufacture of items like batteries.

• Coal burning accounts for 40 percent

of the mercury released into the
atmosphere.

– Mercury bioaccumulates in the

brain, heart and kidneys of many
animals.
• Mercury compounds
bioaccumulate in fish, adding
risk for any organisms eating
fish.

10

5
 24/04/2019

Persistent Pollutants!
• Both DDT and PCBs are called
“persistent organic pollutants” (POPs)

• This is because they take a LONG time

to break down
HALF-LIFE = the time it takes for ½
the substance to break down

Half-life (PCBs) = 8 -10 years

Half-life (DDT) = 15 years
11

Bioaccumulation –The Process

• The process by which persistent environmental pollution leads
to the uptake and accumulation of one or more contaminants,
e.g. metals, organic pollutants, persistent endocrine disruptors
etc by organisms in an ecosystem.

– The amount of a pollutant available for exposure depends

on its persistence and the potential for its
bioaccumulation

– Exposure potential is a function of the amount (e.g.,

concentration) of a toxicant available for contact and the
way in which the contact is made.
– Factors which influence this exposure potential include:
• the way in which the contact is made
• the intensity
• the duration
• the frequency
• the route of exposure 12

6
 24/04/2019

Bioaccumulation -The process

• The amount of a toxicant available for contact depends
on two important factors:
– its persistence
– the potential for its bioaccumulation.
• Persistence is measured by the toxicant’s (in)ability to
(bio)degrade

• Water, soil, air, plants, and any of their combinations can

be an ecosystem for chemical bioaccumulation
• Bioaccumulants tend to be persistent, stable, and
lipophilic environmental pollutants.
• Chemicals tending to move freely within an organism’s
body are less likely to be accumulated by organisms

13

Bioaccumulation - Example
• Contamination of an aquatic environment by
organochlorines (DDT, PCBs, etc.)
• Organochlorines are persistent substances.
• They can be consumed by small aquatic
creatures in the same environment.
• The contaminated creatures are prey to
carnivorous fish, birds, and larger species,
• The pollutant’s concentrations are
progressively magnified in each of these
predators.

14

7
 24/04/2019

Bioaccumulation - Example
• NOTE
– Not all environmental pollutants, including those
capable of causing endocrine disruption, are prone to
bioaccumulation.
– As expected, contaminants that are more stable in
the environment are those having relatively longer
half-lives
– Those posing even greater threat are those
chemicals that are fairly resistant to metabolism
once inside an organism.
– Chemicals that are lipophilic (fat soluble or fat-
loving) can be stored in fat deposits for many years
inside an organism.
– It is these persistent, stable, and lipophilic chemicals
that are likely to be accumulated by animals and
eventually by humans.
15

Uptake of Bioaccumulants
• The uptake of many bioaccumulants by organisms is typically
initiated by passive transport, as chemical molecules tend to
move from high to low concentration;

– This first step is affected by the bioaccumulant’s

lipophilicity and water solubility

• Some chemicals also have a high affinity for binding with

proteins or the ability to dissolve in fats, thus prolonging the
storage of these substances inside an organism

16

8
 24/04/2019

Bioactivity of Pollutants
• Bioactivity is observed when the pollutant is in a form that is
active for the hormone or enzyme site. For example:

– Accumulation of an endocrine disruptor inside an organism

will pose threat of interference only if the contaminant is in
a form active for binding to hormonal sites

– Bioaccumulants having the affinity to bind to plasma

proteins are less biologically available or active for hormonal
disruption

– Many environmental endocrine disruptors are more bioactive,

compared to endogenous steroid hormones

17

Mobility of Pollutants
• Persistent pollutants can reach remote regions via
atmospheric, oceanic, or terrestrial transport

• Animal migration (biotransport) is the fourth mode of

long-range transport of bioaccumulants

– Biotransport appears to be much more significant

than the other three modes, in part because the
contaminant loads are more localized and in part
because the contaminants are more biologically
active

18

9
 24/04/2019

Biotransport of Pollutants
• Salmon, seabirds, whales, migrating birds, and eels
are some of the animals capable of transporting
pollutants from one region to another; in some cases,
even to such remote regions as the Arctic.

• The amounts of some persistent organic pollutants

(POPs) transported by migratory animals may be in a
similar order of magnitude as those by other modes
of long-range transports

19

Breakdown of Pollutants
• The biological breakdown of chemicals is called
metabolism; this ability varies among individual species

• Some chemicals are highly fat-soluble but are easily

metabolized; these chemicals do not accumulate in
organisms

• Thus, biological breakdown is one of the factors leading to

one of the two specific consequences of chemical
bioaccumulation: bioconcentration or biomagnification

• Some metabolites of pollutants are more bioactive while

some are less active than parent compounds

20

10
 24/04/2019

BAF, BCF, BMF

• Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF) is the ratio of a test

chemical’s concentration in a test organism’s
tissues to that in the surrounding medium, when
all potential uptake mechanisms are included.

• Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) is a specific case of

BAF, when the uptake is only from the
surrounding medium

• Biomagnification Factor (BMF) is the ratio of a test

chemical’s concentration in the tissues of an
organism, to that in the organism’s prey

21

Bioaccumulation Factors
• Definition

NOTE
– BCFs are based on water only exposures (lab data)
– BAFs are derived from water and dietary exposure (field
data)

• BCFs, BAFs, are inversely related to exposure

concentrations they are not an intrinsic property for
metals
– This identifies a problem for hazard assessment
• Big BCF/BAFs do not indicate hazard !!
• Larger values indicate low exposure and low potential for chronic
effects or secondary poisoning
• There is no one value above which hazard can be ascribed
22

11
 24/04/2019

Bioaccumulation Factors

• BCF / BAF >1000 has been used to signify

hazard in many national regulatory schemes

• Such values have their origin with non-polar

organic compounds

• BCF / BAF >1000 for these substances denotes:

– significant and slow accumulation
– potential for chronic effects
– potential for food chain accumulation

• This is not the case for metal substances –

why?
23

Bioaccumulation Factors

• This is not the case for metal substances – why?

– Nearly all metals (including iron) have BCF /BAFs>1000
in natural ecosystems that are deemed to be healthy
and with aqueous concentrations at background.

– Extremely clean systems have even larger BCF/BAFs

– Metals accumulate differently compared to organics

– Metal regulation systems operate in most organisms

24

12
 24/04/2019

Theoretical Basis - Metals

• Metals frequently occur as charged ions in

aqueous solutions and require active
transport to facilitate uptake for both
essential & non-essential elements

• Active transport mechanisms are rate

limited & uptake rates decline as exposure
increases

• Neutral lipophilic organics Uptake via

passive diffusion across lipid bilayer
25

Bio-concentration Factor Concept

( Non Polar Organic Substances)

26

13
 24/04/2019

Bioaccumulation
• Bioaccumulation is the “build-up of chemicals in
living organisms”.

• The chemical accumulates because it does not

break down easily (decomposers can’t break them
down)

• The chemicals get stored in fat-cells of organisms

and can cause serious problems...

NOTE: Accumulation is measured in parts per million (ppm) 27

28

14
 24/04/2019

Bioaccumulation - EFFECTS

• How it affects organisms:

– Birth defects
– Failure to reproduce

• Amphibians live on both land and in the water.

– Amphibians are sensitive to chemical changes in the
environment and are valuable indicators of
environmental health.
– Since the 1980s, many of the world’s amphibian
species have suffered declines in population.
– There also have been alarming increases in
amphibian birth deformities. 29

Amphibians, like this frog, have exhibited drastic changes since the 1980s.

o Many theories attempt to explain these changes, including drought,

increased UV rays, pollution, habitat loss, parasites, and diseases.
30

15
 24/04/2019

31

How BIOACCUMULATION affects ecosystems:

If an important part of the food chain

cannot reproduce, the whole food chain is
affected.
Keystone species = species that can
greatly affect population numbers &
health of ecosystem.

32

16
 24/04/2019

33

34

17
 24/04/2019

Biomagnification

Biomagnification is
the process where
chemicals accumulate
AND become more
concentrated at each
trophic level of the
food chain.

35

36

18
 24/04/2019

37

38

19
 24/04/2019

ORCAS- Biomagnification

• The PCB load of orcas (whales) is the

highest of any animal in the world.

• PCBs concentrate in the blubber of the

whale

• When the blubber is burned for energy,

the PCBs are released into bloodstream
(where they affect immune function).

• Calves are born with the same PCB level

as mother and then obtain more through
milk.

• PCB’s will affect the reproductive cycles

of orcas until at least 2030.

Reproductive success of BC’s resident orcas may be affected until 2030 39

40

20
 24/04/2019

41

Undoing the Damage

• Science has found ways of reducing the effects of
chemical pollution on the environment...

BIOREMEDIATION
Using living organisms (plants, bacteria) to naturally
cleanup chemical pollutants through biodegradation

Chemical-eating bacteria and

micro-organisms can break down
chemicals into non-toxic
compounds!
42

21
 24/04/2019

Rhodococcus bacteria can

biodegrade PCBs Bacteria can be used to clean
up oil spills and underground leaks
43

44

22
 24/04/2019

A Bright Idea!
Recently, scientists
were able to change
a gene in these
chemical-eating
bacteria allowing
them to fluoresce
(glow) when they are
in contact with oil or
other chemical
pollutants!
45

Bioremediation With Plants

• Plants can also be used to help
trap hazardous wastes such as
heavy metals

• The plants uptake the metals

and trap them in their tissues

• Plants also help stabilize by

reducing wind and water erosion
(that would spread
contaminants).

46

23