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 Table of Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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2. Type Less, Do More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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vii

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3. Rounding Out the Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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4. Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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viii | Table of Contents

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5. Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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6. Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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Table of Contents | ix

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 5HFDSDQG:KDW¦V1H[W 

7. The Scala Object System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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8. Functional Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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 9. Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
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10. Herding XML in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

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11. Domain-Specific Languages in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

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12. The Scala Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

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Table of Contents | xi

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13. Application Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

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14. Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

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Table of Contents | xiii

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 7HUUDFRWWD 
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Appendix: References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

xiv | Table of Contents

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 Foreword

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 Preface

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Welcome to Programming Scala

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2 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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4 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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6 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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Why Scala? | 7

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8 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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10 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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A Taste of Scala | 11

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12 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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A Taste of Scala | 13

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14 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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:HKDYHDOVRH[SORLWHGDVKRUWKDQGIRUWKHIXQFWLRQOLWHUDO3UHYLRXVO\ZHZURWHLWDV
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(s:String) => s.toUpperCase()

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/upper3.scala

object Upper {
def main(args: Array[String]) = {
args.map(_.toUpperCase()).foreach(printf("%s ",_))
println("")
}
}

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16 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala

package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}

class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}

class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}

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18 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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 // code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor.scala

package shapes {
import scala.actors._
import scala.actors.Actor._

object ShapeDrawingActor extends Actor {

def act() {
loop {
receive {
case s: Shape => s.draw()
case "exit" => println("exiting..."); exit
case x: Any => println("Error: Unknown message! " + x)
}
}
}
}
}

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor-script.scala

import shapes._

ShapeDrawingActor.start()

ShapeDrawingActor ! new Circle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 1.0)

ShapeDrawingActor ! new Rectangle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 2, 5)
ShapeDrawingActor ! new Triangle(new Point(0.0,0.0),
new Point(1.0,0.0),
new Point(0.0,1.0))
ShapeDrawingActor ! 3.14159

ShapeDrawingActor ! "exit"

20 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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Circle.draw: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))
Error: Unknown message! 3.14159
exiting...

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Recap and What’s Next

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Recap and What’s Next | 21

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Download at WoweBook.Com
 CHAPTER 2
Type Less, Do More

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ZKDW6FDODSURYLGHV<RXFRPSLOHDQGUXQVXFKSURJUDPVLQRQHVKRWZLWKWKH scala
FRPPDQG,I\RX¦YHGRZQORDGHGWKHH[DPSOHFRGHIRUWKLVERRNPDQ\RIWKHVPDOOHU
H[DPSOHVFDQEHUXQXVLQJWKH scalaFRPPDQGHJ scala filename.scala6HHWKH
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PDQG/LQH7RROV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWXVLQJWKHscalaFRPPDQG

Semicolons
<RXPD\KDYHDOUHDG\QRWLFHGWKDWWKHUHZHUHYHU\IHZVHPLFRORQVLQWKHFRGHH[DPSOHV
LQWKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHU<RXFDQXVHVHPLFRORQVWRVHSDUDWHVWDWHPHQWVDQGH[SUHV
VLRQVDVLQ-DYD&3+3DQGVLPLODUODQJXDJHV,QPRVWFDVHVWKRXJK6FDODEHKDYHV
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RUDQH[SUHVVLRQ:KHQDVWDWHPHQWRUH[SUHVVLRQLVWRRORQJIRURQHOLQH6FDODFDQ
XVXDOO\LQIHUZKHQ\RXDUHFRQWLQXLQJRQWRWKHQH[WOLQHDVVKRZQLQWKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/semicolon-example-script.scala

// Trailing equals sign indicates more code on next line

def equalsign = {
val reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine =
"wow that was a long value name"

println(reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine)

23

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 }

// Trailing opening curly brace indicates more code on next line

def equalsign2(s: String) = {
println("equalsign2: " + s)
}

// Trailing comma, operator, etc. indicates more code on next line

def commas(s1: String,
s2: String) = {
println("comma: " + s1 +
", " + s2)
}

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case "exit" => println("exiting..."); exit

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...
case "exit" =>
println("exiting...")
exit
...

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FRGH¦VUHDGDELOLW\

Variable Declarations
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ZULWH ZKHQ \RX GHFODUH LW $Q LPPXWDEOH £YDULDEOH¤ LV GHFODUHG ZLWK WKH NH\ZRUG
valWKLQNYDOXHREMHFW
val array: Array[String] = new Array(5)

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ArrayEXWWKHDUUD\LWVHOIFDQEHPRGLILHGDVVKRZQLQWKHIROORZLQJscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> val array: Array[String] = new Array(5)
array: Array[String] = Array(null, null, null, null, null)

scala> array = new Array(2)

<console>:5: error: reassignment to val
array = new Array(2)

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 ^

scala> array(0) = "Hello"

scala> array
res3: Array[String] = Array(Hello, null, null, null, null)

scala>

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scala> var stockPrice: Double = 100.
stockPrice: Double = 100.0

scala> stockPrice = 10.

stockPrice: Double = 10.0

scala>

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WRD varDVRIWHQDV\RXZDQW$JDLQWREHSUHFLVHWKH stockPriceUHIHUHQFHFDQEH
FKDQJHGWRSRLQWWRDGLIIHUHQW DoubleREMHFWHJ 10.,QWKLVFDVHWKHREMHFWWKDW
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LQLWLDOL]HGYDULDEOHVLQDEVWUDFWW\SHV$OVRGHULYHGW\SHVFDQRYHUULGH valVGHFODUHG
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LI\ZKHWKHURUQRWWKHREMHFWWKH\UHIHUHQFHLVPXWDEOH

Method Declarations
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HTXDOVVLJQ=DQGILQDOO\WKHPHWKRGERG\0HWKRGVDUHLPSOLFLWO\GHFODUHG£DEVWUDFW¤

Method Declarations | 25

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LI \RX OHDYH RII WKH HTXDOV VLJQ DQG PHWKRG ERG\ 7KH HQFORVLQJ W\SH LV WKHQ LWVHOI
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WKDQRQHDUJXPHQWOLVWIRUDPHWKRG7KLVLVUHTXLUHGIRUFXUU\LQJPHWKRGVZKLFKZH¦OO
GLVFXVVLQ£&XUU\LQJ¤RQSDJH,WLVDOVRYHU\XVHIXOIRUGHILQLQJ\RXURZQ'RPDLQ
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{...}<RXFDQRPLWWKHEUDFHVLIWKHPHWKRGERG\KDVMXVWRQHH[SUHVVLRQ

Method Default and Named Arguments (Scala Version 2.8)

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RIVWULQJVZLWKDXVHUVSHFLILHGVHSDUDWRU
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v1-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil".

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")

}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )

7KHUHDUHDFWXDOO\WZR£RYHUORDGHG¤ joinerPHWKRGV7KHVHFRQGRQHXVHVDVLQJOH
VSDFHDVWKH£GHIDXOW¤VHSDUDWRU+DYLQJWZRPHWKRGVVHHPVDELWZDVWHIXO,WZRXOG
EH QLFH LI ZH FRXOG HOLPLQDWH WKH VHFRQG joiner PHWKRG DQG GHFODUH WKDW WKH
separatorDUJXPHQWLQWKHILUVWjoinerKDVDGHIDXOWYDOXH,QIDFWLQ6FDODYHUVLRQ
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v2-v28-script.scala
// Version 2 of "StringUtil" for Scala v2.8 only.

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String = " "): String =
strings.mkString(separator)
}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")))

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ZKLFKZHZLOOGLVFXVVLQ£,PSOLFLW)XQFWLRQ3DUDPHWHUV¤RQSDJH

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6FDODYHUVLRQRIIHUVDQRWKHUHQKDQFHPHQWIRUPHWKRGDUJXPHQWOLVWVQDPHGDUJX
PHQWV:HFRXOGDFWXDOO\ZULWHWKHODVWOLQHRIWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHLQVHYHUDOZD\V
$OORIWKHIROORZLQJprintlnVWDWHPHQWVDUHIXQFWLRQDOO\HTXLYDOHQW
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")))
println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala")))
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), " ")) // #1
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " ")) // #2
println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " "))

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\RXUFDOOVWRWKRVHPHWKRGVGRFXPHQWHDFKDUJXPHQWZLWKDQDPH)RUH[DPSOHFRP
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/user-profile-v28-script.scala
// Scala v2.8 only.

object OptionalUserProfileInfo {
val UnknownLocation = ""
val UnknownAge = -1
val UnknownWebSite = ""
}

class OptionalUserProfileInfo(
location: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownLocation,
age: Int = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownAge,
webSite: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownWebSite)

println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo )

println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29) )
println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29, location="Earth") )

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:HEVRFLDOQHWZRUNLQJVLWH,WGHILQHVGHIDXOWYDOXHVIRUDOOLWVILHOGV7KHVFULSW
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DQGWKHSDUDPHWHUVDUHFXUULHGDFRQFHSWZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£&XUU\LQJ¤RQSDJH

Method Declarations | 27

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)LQDOO\DQRWKHUFRQVWUDLQWRQQDPHGSDUDPHWHUVLVWKDWRQFH\RXSURYLGHDQDPHIRU
DSDUDPHWHULQDPHWKRGLQYRFDWLRQWKHUHVWRIWKHSDUDPHWHUVDSSHDULQJDIWHULWPXVW
DOVREHQDPHG)RUH[DPSOHnew OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29, "Earth")ZRXOG
QRWFRPSLOHEHFDXVHWKHVHFRQGDUJXPHQWLVQRWLQYRNHGE\QDPH
:H¦OOVHHDQRWKHUXVHIXOH[DPSOHRIQDPHGDQGGHIDXOWDUJXPHQWVZKHQZHGLVFXVV
FDVHFODVVHVLQ£&DVH&ODVVHV¤RQSDJH

Nesting Method Definitions

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/factorial-script.scala

def factorial(i: Int): Int = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int): Int = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}

fact(i, 1)
}

println( factorial(0) )
println( factorial(1) )
println( factorial(2) )
println( factorial(3) )
println( factorial(4) )
println( factorial(5) )

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LQVLGHWKHHQFORVLQJPHWKRG,I\RXWU\WRFDOOfactRXWVLGHRIfactorial\RXZLOOJHWD
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ILQHEHFDXVHZHGRQ¦WQHHGWKHRXWHUYDOXHRI iLQVLGH fact:HRQO\XVHLWWKHILUVW
WLPHZHFDOOfactDWWKHHQGRIfactorial

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:KDWLIZHQHHGWRXVHDYDULDEOHWKDWLVGHILQHGRXWVLGHDQHVWHGIXQFWLRQ"&RQVLGHU
WKLVFRQWULYHGH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/count-to-script.scala

def countTo(n: Int):Unit = {

def count(i: Int): Unit = {
if (i <= n) {
println(i)
count(i + 1)
}
}
count(1)
}

countTo(5)

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countTo7KHUHLVQRQHHGWRSDVV nDVDQDUJXPHQWWR count%HFDXVH countLVQHVWHG
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UXOHVDQGNH\ZRUGVLQ£9LVLELOLW\5XOHV¤RQSDJH

Inferring Type Information

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import java.util.Map;
import java.util.HashMap;
...
Map<Integer, String> intToStringMap = new HashMap<Integer, String>();

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import java.util.Map
import java.util.HashMap
...
val intToStringMap: Map[Integer, String] = new HashMap

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Inferring Type Information | 29

Download at WoweBook.Com
)RUFRPSOHWHQHVVVXSSRVHZHGRQ¦WDFWXDOO\FDUHLIWKHLQVWDQFHLVRIW\SHMapWKH-DYD
LQWHUIDFHW\SH,WFDQEHRIW\SHHashMapIRUDOOZHFDUH
import java.util.Map
import java.util.HashMap
...
val intToStringMap2 = new HashMap[Integer, String]

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intToStringMap2DHashMap[Integer,String]
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When Explicit Type Annotations Are Required

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 $YDULDEOHGHFODUDWLRQXQOHVV\RXDVVLJQDYDOXHWRWKHYDULDEOHHJ val name =
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 $OOPHWKRGSDUDPHWHUVHJdef deposit(amount: Money)...
 0HWKRGUHWXUQYDOXHVLQWKHIROORZLQJFDVHV
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/HW¦VORRNDWH[DPSOHVZKHUHH[SOLFLWGHFODUDWLRQVRIPHWKRGUHWXUQW\SHVDUHUHTXLUHG
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-nested-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put a String return type on upCase.

def upCase(s: String) = {

if (s.length == 0)
return s
else
s.toUpperCase()
}

println( upCase("") )
println( upCase("Hello") )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWJLYHV\RXWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
... 6: error: method upCase has return statement; needs result type
return s
^

<RXFDQIL[WKLVHUURUE\FKDQJLQJWKHILUVWOLQHRIWKHPHWKRGWRWKHIROORZLQJ
def upCase(s: String): String = {

$FWXDOO\IRUWKLVSDUWLFXODUVFULSWDQDOWHUQDWLYHIL[LVWRUHPRYHWKH returnNH\ZRUG
IURPWKHOLQH,WLVQRWQHHGHGIRUWKHFRGHWRZRUNSURSHUO\EXWLWLOOXVWUDWHVRXUSRLQW
5HFXUVLYHPHWKRGVDOVRUHTXLUHDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SH5HFDOORXU factorialPHWKRG
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QHVWHGfactPHWKRG
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-recursive-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put an Int return type on "fact".

def factorial(i: Int) = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int) = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}

fact(i, 1)
}

1RZLWIDLOVWRFRPSLOH
... 9: error: recursive method fact needs result type
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
^

Inferring Type Information | 31

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2YHUORDGHGPHWKRGVFDQVRPHWLPHVUHTXLUHDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SH:KHQRQHVXFK
PHWKRGFDOOVDQRWKHUZHKDYHWRDGGDUHWXUQW\SHWRWKHRQHGRLQJWKHFDOOLQJDVLQ
WKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-overloaded-return-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil" (with a compilation error).
// ERROR: Won't compile: needs a String return type on the second "joiner".

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, " ")

}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )

7KHWZRjoinerPHWKRGVFRQFDWHQDWHDListRIVWULQJVWRJHWKHU7KHILUVWPHWKRGDOVR
WDNHVDQDUJXPHQWIRUWKHVHSDUDWRUVWULQJ7KHVHFRQGPHWKRGFDOOVWKHILUVWZLWKD
£GHIDXOW¤VHSDUDWRURIDVLQJOHVSDFH
,I\RXUXQWKLVVFULSW\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
... 9: error: overloaded method joiner needs result type
def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, "")
^

6LQFHWKHVHFRQGjoinerPHWKRGFDOOVWKHILUVWLWUHTXLUHVDQH[SOLFLWStringUHWXUQW\SH
,WVKRXOGORRNOLNHWKLV
def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")

7KHILQDOVFHQDULRFDQEHVXEWOHZKHQDPRUHJHQHUDOUHWXUQW\SHLVLQIHUUHGWKDQZKDW
\RXH[SHFWHG<RXXVXDOO\VHHWKLVHUURUZKHQ\RXDVVLJQDYDOXHUHWXUQHGIURPDIXQF
WLRQ WR D YDULDEOH ZLWK D PRUH VSHFLILF W\SH )RU H[DPSOH \RX ZHUH H[SHFWLQJ D
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H[DPSOHWKDWUHIOHFWVDEXJZKHUHWKLVVFHQDULRFDQRFFXU
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-broad-inference-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile; needs a String return type on the second "joiner".

def makeList(strings: String*) = {

if (strings.length == 0)
List(0) // #1
else
strings.toList
}

val list: List[String] = makeList()

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWUHWXUQVWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
...11: error: type mismatch;
found : List[Any]
required: List[String]

32 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 val list: List[String] = makeList()
^

:HLQWHQGHGIRU makeListWRUHWXUQD List[String]EXWZKHQ strings.lengthHTXDOV

]HURZHUHWXUQHG List(0)LQFRUUHFWO\£DVVXPLQJ¤WKDWWKLVH[SUHVVLRQLVWKHFRUUHFW
ZD\WRFUHDWHDQHPSW\OLVW,QIDFWZHUHWXUQHGDList[Int]ZLWKRQHHOHPHQW0:H
VKRXOG KDYH UHWXUQHG List() 6LQFH WKH else H[SUHVVLRQ UHWXUQV D List[String] WKH
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WLJDWHWKHPHWKRGWKDWDSSHDUVWRUHWXUQWKHXQH[SHFWHGW\SH,QRXUH[SHULHQFH\RX
RIWHQILQGWKDW\RXPRGLILHGWKDWPHWKRGRUDQRWKHURQHLQWKHFDOOSDWKLQVXFKD
ZD\WKDWWKHFRPSLOHUQRZLQIHUVDPRUHJHQHUDOUHWXUQW\SHWKDQQHFHVVDU\$GGWKH
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$QRWKHUZD\WRSUHYHQWWKHVHSUREOHPVLVWRDOZD\VGHFODUHUHWXUQW\SHVIRUPHWKRGV
HVSHFLDOO\ZKHQGHILQLQJPHWKRGVIRUDSXEOLF$3,/HW¦VUHYLVLWRXUStringUtilH[DPSOH
DQGVHHZK\H[SOLFLWGHFODUDWLRQVDUHDJRRGLGHDDGDSWHGIURP>6PLWKD@
+HUHLVRXUStringUtil£$3,¤DJDLQZLWKDQHZPHWKRGtoCollection
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v3.scala
// Version 3 of "StringUtil" (for all versions of Scala).

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = strings.mkString(" ")

def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ')

}

7KHtoCollectionPHWKRGVSOLWVDVWULQJRQVSDFHVDQGUHWXUQVDQArrayFRQWDLQLQJWKH
VXEVWULQJV7KHUHWXUQW\SHLVLQIHUUHGZKLFKLVDSRWHQWLDOSUREOHPDVZHZLOOVHH7KH
PHWKRG LV VRPHZKDW FRQWULYHG EXW LW ZLOO LOOXVWUDWH RXU SRLQW +HUH LV D FOLHQW RI
StringUtilWKDWXVHVWKLVPHWKRG
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-client.scala

import StringUtil._

object StringUtilClient {
def main(args: Array[String]) = {
args foreach { s => toCollection(s).foreach { x => println(x) } }
}
}

Inferring Type Information | 33

Download at WoweBook.Com
,I\RXFRPSLOHWKHVHILOHVZLWKscala\RXFDQUXQWKHFOLHQWDVIROORZV
$ scala -cp ... StringUtilClient "Programming Scala"
Programming
Scala

)RUWKH -cp ...FODVVSDWKDUJXPHQWXVHWKHGLUHFWRU\ZKHUH scalac

ZURWHWKHFODVVILOHVZKLFKGHIDXOWVWRWKHFXUUHQWGLUHFWRU\LHXVH
-cp .,I\RXXVHGWKHEXLOGSURFHVVLQWKHGRZQORDGHGFRGHH[DPSOHV
WKH FODVV ILOHV DUH ZULWWHQ WR WKH EXLOG GLUHFWRU\ XVLQJ scalac -d
build ...,QWKLVFDVHXVH-cp build

(YHU\WKLQJ LV ILQH DW WKLV SRLQW EXW QRZ LPDJLQH WKDW WKH FRGH EDVH KDV JURZQ
StringUtilDQGLWVFOLHQWVDUHQRZEXLOWVHSDUDWHO\DQGEXQGOHGLQWRGLIIHUHQW-$5V
,PDJLQHDOVRWKDWWKHPDLQWDLQHUVRIStringUtilGHFLGHWRUHWXUQDListLQVWHDGRIWKH
GHIDXOW
object StringUtil {
...

def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ').toList // changed!

}

7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHLVWKHILQDOFDOOWR toListWKDWFRQYHUWVWKHFRPSXWHG ArrayWRD

List<RXUHFRPSLOH StringUtilDQGUHGHSOR\LWV-$57KHQ\RXUXQWKHVDPHFOLHQW
ZLWKRXWUHFRPSLOLQJLWILUVW
$ scala -cp ... StringUtilClient "Programming Scala"
java.lang.NoSuchMethodError: StringUtil$.toCollection(...
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
...

:KDWKDSSHQHG":KHQWKHFOLHQWZDVFRPSLOHGStringUtil.toCollectionUHWXUQHGDQ
Array7KHQ toCollectionZDVFKDQJHGWRUHWXUQ List,QERWKYHUVLRQVWKHPHWKRG
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+RZHYHUKDGDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SHRISeqEHHQGHFODUHGZKLFKLVDSDUHQWIRUERWK
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RIWKHFOLHQW

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\RXFDQ7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWZKHQ$3,VGHFODUHDEVWUDFWPHWK
RGVVHHHJ&KDSWHU

7KHUH LV DQRWKHU VFHQDULR WR ZDWFK IRU ZKHQ XVLQJ GHFODUDWLRQV RI FROOHFWLRQV OLNH
val map = Map()DVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH

34 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 val map = Map()

map.update("book", "Programming Scala")

... 3: error: type mismatch;
found : java.lang.String("book")
required: Nothing
map.update("book", "Programming Scala")
^

:KDW KDSSHQHG" 7KH W\SH SDUDPHWHUV RI WKH JHQHULF W\SH Map ZHUH LQIHUUHG DV
[Nothing,Nothing]ZKHQWKHPDSZDVFUHDWHG:H¦OOGLVFXVV NothingLQ£7KH6FDOD
7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJHEXWLWVQDPHLVVXJJHVWLYH:HDWWHPSWHGWRLQVHUWDQ
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VROXWLRQ LV WR SDUDPHWHUL]H WKH LQLWLDO PDS GHFODUDWLRQ HJ val map = Map[String,
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map = Map("Programming" → "Scala")
)LQDOO\WKHUHLVDVXEWOHEHKDYLRUZLWKLQIHUUHGUHWXUQW\SHVWKDWFDQFDXVHXQH[SHFWHG
DQGEDIIOLQJUHVXOWVVHH>6FDOD7LSV@&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> def double(i: Int) { 2 * i }
double: (Int)Unit

scala> println(double(2))
()

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LQWHUSUHWHUVDLGWKHILUVWFRPPDQGUHWXUQHGdouble (Int)Unit:HGHILQHGDPHWKRG
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scala> def double(i: Int) = { 2 * i }
double: (Int)Int

scala> println(double(2))
4

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doubleWRUHWXUQDQIntDQGWKHVHFRQGFRPPDQGGRHVZKDWZHH[SHFWLWWRGR
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LWLVPRUHOLNHO\WKDWWKHSURJUDPPHUVLPSO\IRUJRWWRLQVHUWWKHHTXDOVVLJQ

Inferring Type Information | 35

Download at WoweBook.Com
 :KHQWKHUHWXUQW\SHRIDPHWKRGLVLQIHUUHGDQG\RXGRQ¦WXVHDQHTXDOV
VLJQEHIRUHWKHRSHQLQJSDUHQWKHVLVIRUWKHPHWKRGERG\6FDODLQIHUVD
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Scala"/HW¦VGLVFXVVWKHNLQGVRIOLWHUDOYDOXHVVXSSRUWHGE\6FDOD+HUHZH¦OOOLPLW
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WRWKHP

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PDUL]HGLQ7DEOH
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Kind Format Examples
Decimal 0 or a nonzero digit followed by zero or more digits (0–9) 0, 1, 321
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36 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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$FRPSLOHWLPHHUURURFFXUVLIDQLQWHJHUOLWHUDOQXPEHULVVSHFLILHGWKDWLVRXWVLGHWKHVH
UDQJHVDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV
scala > val i = 12345678901234567890
<console>:1: error: integer number too large
val i = 12345678901234567890
scala> val b: Byte = 128
<console>:4: error: type mismatch;
found : Int(128)
required: Byte
val b: Byte = 128
^

scala> val b: Byte = 127

b: Byte = 127

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Literals | 37

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scala> val b1 = true
b1: Boolean = true

scala> val b2 = false

b2: Boolean = false

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38 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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String Literals
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TXRWHVLH"""..."""
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"Programming\nScala"
"He exclaimed, \"Scala is great!\""
"First\tSecond"

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"""Programming\nScala"""
"""He exclaimed, "Scala is great!" """
"""First line\n
Second line\t

Fourth line"""

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Literals | 39

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 ,I \RX ZDQW WR FUHDWH D V\PERO WKDW FRQWDLQV ZKLWHVSDFH XVH HJ
scala.Symbol(" Programming Scala ")$OOWKHZKLWHVSDFHLVSUHVHUYHG

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V\QWD[RIDFRPPDVHSDUDWHGOLVWRIWKHLWHPVLQVLGHSDUHQWKHVHVHJ(x1, x2, ...)
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/tuple-example-script.scala

def tupleator(x1: Any, x2: Any, x3: Any) = (x1, x2, x3)

val t = tupleator("Hello", 1, 2.3)

println( "Print the whole tuple: " + t )
println( "Print the first item: " + t._1 )
println( "Print the second item: " + t._2 )
println( "Print the third item: " + t._3 )

val (t1, t2, t3) = tupleator("World", '!', 0x22)

println( t1 + " " + t2 + " " + t3 )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscalaSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Print the whole tuple: (Hello,1,2.3)
Print the first item: Hello
Print the second item: 1
Print the third item: 2.3
World ! 34

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val t = ("Hello",1,2.3)DQGVHHWKDW\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJUHVXOWZKLFKVKRZV\RX
WKHW\SHRIHDFKHOHPHQWLQWKHWXSOH
scala> val t = ("Hello",1,2.3)
t: (java.lang.String, Int, Double) = (Hello,1,2.3)

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scala> 1 -> 2
res0: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

scala> Tuple2(1, 2)
res1: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

scala> Pair(1, 2)
res2: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls

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Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls | 41

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<RXFDQVHHOptionSomeDQGNoneLQDFWLRQLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHZKHUHZHFUHDWH
DPDSRIVWDWHFDSLWDOVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/state-capitals-subset-script.scala

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

println( "Get the capitals wrapped in Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama") )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown") )

println( "Get the capitals themselves out of the Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama").get )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming").getOrElse("Oops!") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown").getOrElse("Oops2!") )

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YDOXHVIURPWKHPDS,I\RXUXQWKLVVFULSWZLWKWKH scalaFRPPDQG\RX¦OOJHWWKH
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Get the capitals wrapped in Options:
Alabama: Some(Montgomery)
Wyoming: Some(Cheyenne)
Unknown: None
Get the capitals themselves out of the Options:
Alabama: Montgomery
Wyoming: Cheyenne
Unknown: Oops2!

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def get(key: A): Option[B] = {
if (contains(key))
new Some(getValue(key))
else
None
}

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Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls | 43

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Organizing Code in Files and Namespaces
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7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHGHILQHVDFODVV MyClassLQDSDFNDJH com.example.mypkgXVLQJ
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/package-example1.scala

package com.example.mypkg

class MyClass {
// ...
}

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modulesDVQDPHVSDFHVLQ5XE\
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/package-example2.scala

package com {
package example {
package pkg1 {
class Class11 {
def m = "m11"
}
class Class12 {
def m = "m12"
}
}

package pkg2 {
class Class21 {
def m = "m21"
def makeClass11 = {
new pkg1.Class11
}
def makeClass12 = {
new pkg1.Class12
}
}
}

package pkg3.pkg31.pkg311 {
class Class311 {
def m = "m21"
}
}
}
}

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scala

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Importing Types and Their Members

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example1.scala

import java.awt._
import java.io.File
import java.io.File._
import java.util.{Map, HashMap}

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Importing Types and Their Members | 45

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example2-script.scala

def writeAboutBigInteger() = {

import java.math.BigInteger.{
ONE => _,
TEN,
ZERO => JAVAZERO }

// ONE is effectively undefined

// println( "ONE: "+ONE )
println( "TEN: "+TEN )
println( "ZERO: "+JAVAZERO )
}

writeAboutBigInteger()

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Imports are Relative

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/relative-imports.scala
import scala.collection.mutable._
import collection.immutable._ // Since "scala" is already imported
import _root_.scala.collection.jcl._ // full path from real "root"
package scala.actors {
import remote._ // We're in the scope of "scala.actors"
}

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Abstract Types And Parameterized Types

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val languages: List[String] = ...

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PHWHUL]HGW\SHVDUHXVHG+RZHYHUZKLOHWKHWZRPHFKDQLVPVRYHUODSWKH\DUHQRW
UHGXQGDQW(DFKKDVVWUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHVIRUFHUWDLQGHVLJQSUREOHPV

Abstract Types And Parameterized Types | 47

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+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHWKDWXVHVDQDEVWUDFWW\SH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)
in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}

println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscalaSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Hello Scala!
import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

...

7KH BulkReader DEVWUDFW FODVV GHFODUHV WKUHH DEVWUDFW PHPEHUV D type QDPHG In D
valILHOGsourceDQGDreadPHWKRG$VLQ-DYDLQVWDQFHVLQ6FDODFDQRQO\EHFUHDWHG
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7KH GHULYHG FODVVHV StringBulkReader DQG FileBulkReader SURYLGH FRQFUHWH GHILQL
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)RUQRZQRWHWKDWWKHtypeILHOGZRUNVYHU\PXFKOLNHDW\SHSDUDPHWHULQDSDUDPH
WHUL]HGW\SH,QIDFWZHFRXOGUHZULWHWKLVH[DPSOHDVIROORZVZKHUHZHVKRZRQO\
ZKDWZRXOGEHGLIIHUHQW
abstract class BulkReader[In] {
val source: In
...

48 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 }

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader[String] {...}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader[File] {...}

-XVWDVIRUSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVLIZHGHILQHWKHInW\SHWREHStringWKHQWKHsource
ILHOGPXVWDOVREHGHILQHGDVDString1RWHWKDWWKHStringBulkReader¦VreadPHWKRG
VLPSO\UHWXUQVWKHsourceILHOGZKLOHWKHFileBulkReader¦VreadPHWKRGUHDGVWKHFRQ
WHQWVRIWKHILOH
$VGHPRQVWUDWHGE\>%UXFH@SDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVWHQGWREHEHVWIRUFROOHFWLRQV
ZKLFKLVKRZWKH\DUHPRVWRIWHQXVHGLQ-DYDFRGHZKHUHDVDEVWUDFWW\SHVDUHPRVW
XVHIXOIRUW\SH£IDPLOLHV¤DQGRWKHUW\SHVFHQDULRV
:H¦OOH[SORUHWKHGHWDLOVRI6FDOD¦VDEVWUDFWW\SHVLQ&KDSWHU)RUH[DPSOHZH¦OOVHH
KRZWRFRQVWUDLQWKHSRVVLEOHFRQFUHWHW\SHVWKDWFDQEHXVHG

Reserved Words
7DEOHOLVWVWKHUHVHUYHGZRUGVLQ6FDODZKLFKZHVRPHWLPHVFDOO£NH\ZRUGV¤DQG
EULHIO\GHVFULEHVKRZWKH\DUHXVHGVHH>6FDOD6SHF@
7DEOH5HVHUYHGZRUGV
Word Description See …
abstract Makes a declaration abstract. Unlike Java, the keyword is usually “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
not required for abstract members.
case Start a case clause in a match expression. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
catch Start a clause for catching thrown exceptions. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
class Start a class declaration. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
def Start a method declaration. “Method Declarations” on page 25
do Start a do...while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
else Start an else clause for an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
extends Indicates that the class or trait that follows is the parent type of the “Parent Classes” on page 91
class or trait being declared.
false Boolean false. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
final Applied to a class or trait to prohibit deriving child types from it. “Attempting to Override final Declara-
Applied to a member to prohibit overriding it in a derived class or tions” on page 112
trait.
finally Start a clause that is executed after the corresponding try clause, “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
whether or not an exception is thrown by the try clause. ses” on page 70

Reserved Words | 49

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 Word Description See …
for Start a for comprehension (loop). “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
forSome Used in existential type declarations to constrain the allowed “Existential Types” on page 284
concrete types that can be used.
if Start an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
implicit Marks a method as eligible to be used as an implicit type converter. “Implicit Conversions” on page 186
Marks a method parameter as optional, as long as a type-
compatible substitute object is in the scope where the method is
called.
import Import one or more types or members of types into the current “Importing Types and Their Mem-
scope. bers” on page 45
lazy Defer evaluation of a val. “Lazy Vals” on page 190
match Start a pattern matching clause. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
new Create a new instance of a class. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
null Value of a reference variable that has not been assigned a value. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
object Start a singleton declaration: a class with only one instance. “Classes and Objects: Where Are the
Statics?” on page 148
override Override a concrete member of a class or trait, as long as the original “Overriding Members of Classes and
is not marked final. Traits” on page 111
package Start a package scope declaration. “Organizing Code in Files and Namespa-
ces” on page 44
private Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
protected Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
requires Deprecated. Was used for self typing. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
return Return from a function. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
sealed Applied to a parent class to require all directly derived “Case Classes” on page 136
classes to be declared in the same source file.
super Analogous to this, but binds to the parent type. “Overriding Abstract and Concrete
Methods” on page 112
this How an object refers to itself. The method name for auxiliary “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
constructors.
throw Throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
trait A mixin module that adds additional state and behavior to an Chapter 4
instance of a class.
try Start a block that may throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70

50 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 Word Description See …
true Boolean true. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
type Start a type declaration. “Abstract Types And Parameterized
Types” on page 47
val Start a read-only “variable” declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
var Start a read-write variable declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
while Start a while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
with Include the trait that follows in the class being declared or the object Chapter 4
being instantiated.
yield Return an element in a for comprehension that becomes part of “Yielding” on page 60
a sequence.
_ A placeholder, used in imports, function literals, etc. Many
: Separator between identifiers and type annotations. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
= Assignment. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
=> Used in function literals to separate the argument list from the “Function Literals and Clo-
function body. sures” on page 169
<- Used in for comprehensions in generator expressions. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
<: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
<% Used in parameterized and abstract type “view bounds” “Type Bounds” on page 259
declarations.
>: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
# Used in type projections. “Path-Dependent Types” on page 272
@ Marks an annotation. “Annotations” on page 289
º (Unicode \u21D2) Same as =>. “Function Literals and Clo-
sures” on page 169
← (Unicode \u2190) Same as <-. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59

1RWLFHWKDW breakDQG continueDUHQRWOLVWHG7KHVHFRQWURONH\ZRUGVGRQ¦WH[LVWLQ

6FDOD,QVWHDG6FDODHQFRXUDJHV\RXWRXVHIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJLGLRPVWKDWDUH
XVXDOO\PRUHVXFFLQFWDQGOHVVHUURUSURQH:H¦OOGLVFXVVDOWHUQDWLYHDSSURDFKHVZKHQ
ZHGLVFXVVforORRSVVHH£*HQHUDWRU([SUHVVLRQV¤RQSDJH
6RPH -DYD PHWKRGV XVH QDPHV WKDW DUH UHVHUYHG E\ 6FDOD IRU H[DPSOH
java.util.Scanner.match7RDYRLGDFRPSLODWLRQHUURUVXUURXQGWKHQDPHZLWKVLQJOH
EDFNTXRWHVHJjava.util.Scanner.ÂmatchÂ

Reserved Words | 51

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Recap and What’s Next
:HFRYHUHGVHYHUDOZD\VWKDW6FDOD¦VV\QWD[LVFRQFLVHIOH[LEOHDQGSURGXFWLYH:H
DOVRGHVFULEHGPDQ\6FDODIHDWXUHV,QWKHQH[WFKDSWHUZHZLOOURXQGRXWVRPH6FDOD
HVVHQWLDOV EHIRUH ZH GLYH LQWR 6FDOD¦V VXSSRUW IRU REMHFWRULHQWHG SURJUDPPLQJ DQG
IXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ

52 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 CHAPTER 3
Rounding Out the Essentials

%HIRUHZHGLYHLQWR6FDOD¦VVXSSRUWIRUREMHFWRULHQWHGDQGIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ
OHW¦VILQLVKRXUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHHVVHQWLDOIHDWXUHV\RX¦OOXVHLQPRVWRI\RXUSURJUDPV

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$QLPSRUWDQWIXQGDPHQWDOFRQFHSWLQ6FDODLVWKDWDOORSHUDWRUVDUHDFWXDOO\PHWKRGV
&RQVLGHUWKLVPRVWEDVLFRIH[DPSOHV
// code-examples/Rounding/one-plus-two-script.scala

1 + 2

7KDW SOXV VLJQ EHWZHHQ WKH QXPEHUV" ,W¦V D PHWKRG )LUVW 6FDOD DOORZV QRQ
DOSKDQXPHULFPHWKRGQDPHV<RXFDQFDOOPHWKRGV + - $RUZKDWHYHU\RXGHVLUH
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ZRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVDDouble:KHQDPHWKRGWDNHVRQHDUJXPHQW6FDODOHWV\RX
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6RZKDWFKDUDFWHUVFDQ\RXXVHLQLGHQWLILHUV"+HUHLVDVXPPDU\RIWKHUXOHVIRULGHQ
WLILHUV XVHG IRU PHWKRG DQG W\SH QDPHV YDULDEOHV HWF )RU WKH SUHFLVH GHWDLOV VHH
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53

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VKRZQVXFKDVPDWKHPDWLFDOV\PEROVDQG£RWKHU¤V\PEROV7KHVHUHPDLQLQJFKDUDF
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World!"5HFDOOWKDWWKLVV\QWD[LVDOVRWKHZD\WRLQYRNHDPHWKRGRQD-DYDRU1(7
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54 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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NQRZWKDWWKH!LVMXVWDQRWKHUPHWKRGDVDUHWKHRWKHUKDQG\VKRUWFXWRSHUDWRUV\RX
FDQXVHWRWDONWR$FWRUV6LPLODUO\6FDOD¦V;0/OLEUDU\SURYLGHVWKH\DQG\\RSHUDWRUV
WRGLYHLQWRGRFXPHQWVWUXFWXUHV7KHVHDUHMXVWPHWKRGVRQWKH scala.xml.NodeSeq
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VKRUWFXWGRHVQ¦WFRPHUHDGLO\WRPLQG

Methods Without Parentheses and Dots

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2, 3).size()\RX¦OOJHWDQHUURU+RZHYHUWKH lengthPHWKRGIRU java.lang.String
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EXWGHILQLQJDPHWKRGWKDWWUDQVIRUPVWKHHOHPHQWVLQWKHVHTXHQFHVKRXOGEHZULWWHQ
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WKDWWDNHVRQO\RQHDUJXPHQW:LWKWKLVLQPLQGRXU List(1, 2, 3).sizeH[DPSOH
FRXOGEHZULWWHQDV
// code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3) size

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Methods Without Parentheses and Dots | 55

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 // code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-better-script.scala

def isEven(n: Int) = (n % 2) == 0

List(1, 2, 3, 4) filter isEven foreach println

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res2: Double = 13.333333333333332

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res3: Double = 13.333333333333332

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\RXFDQSUHSHQGDQHOHPHQWWRD ListXVLQJWKH ::PHWKRGFDOOHG£FRQV¤VKRUWIRU
£FRQVWUXFWRU¤
scala> val list = List('b', 'c', 'd')
list: List[Char] = List(b, c, d)

scala> 'a' :: list

res4: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d)

7KHVHFRQGH[SUHVVLRQLVHTXLYDOHQWWR list.::(a),QDVHTXHQFHRIULJKWDVVRFLDWLYH
PHWKRGLQYRFDWLRQVWKH\ELQGIURPULJKWWROHIW:KDWDERXWDPL[WXUHRIOHIWELQGLQJ
DQGULJKWELQGLQJH[SUHVVLRQV"
scala> 'a' :: list ++ List('e', 'f')
res5: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d, e, f)

7KH++PHWKRGDSSHQGVWZROLVWV,QWKLVFDVHlistLVDGGHGWRWKHList(e, f)WKHQ

aLVSUHSHQGHGWRFUHDWHWKHILQDOOLVW,W¦VXVXDOO\EHWWHUWRDGGSDUHQWKHVHVWRUHPRYH
DQ\SRWHQWLDOXQFHUWDLQW\

$Q\PHWKRGZKRVHQDPHHQGVZLWKD:ELQGVWRWKHULJKWQRWWKHOHIW

)LQDOO\QRWHWKDWZKHQ\RXXVHWKHscalaFRPPDQGHLWKHULQWHUDFWLYHO\RUZLWKVFULSWV
LWPD\DSSHDUWKDW\RXFDQGHILQH£JOREDO¤YDULDEOHVDQGPHWKRGVRXWVLGHRIW\SHV7KLV
LVDFWXDOO\DQLOOXVLRQWKHLQWHUSUHWHUZUDSVDOOGHILQLWLRQVLQDQDQRQ\PRXVW\SHEHIRUH
JHQHUDWLQJ-90RU1(7&/5E\WHFRGH

Domain-Specific Languages
'RPDLQ6SHFLILF/DQJXDJHVRU'6/VSURYLGHDFRQYHQLHQWV\QWDFWLFDOPHDQVIRUH[
SUHVVLQJJRDOVLQDJLYHQSUREOHPGRPDLQ)RUH[DPSOH64/SURYLGHVMXVWHQRXJKRI
DSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHWRKDQGOHWKHSUREOHPVRIZRUNLQJZLWKGDWDEDVHVPDNLQJ
LWD'RPDLQ6SHFLILF/DQJXDJH
:KLOHVRPH'6/VOLNH64/DUHVHOIFRQWDLQHGLW¦VEHFRPHSRSXODUWRLPSOHPHQW'6/V
DVVXEVHWVRIIXOOIOHGJHGSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHV7KLVDOORZVSURJUDPPHUVWROHYHUDJH
WKHHQWLUHW\RIWKHKRVWODQJXDJHIRUHGJHFDVHVWKDWWKH'6/GRHVQRWFRYHUDQGVDYHV
WKHZRUNRIZULWLQJOH[HUVSDUVHUVDQGWKHRWKHUEXLOGLQJEORFNVRIDODQJXDJH
6FDOD¦VULFKIOH[LEOHV\QWD[PDNHVZULWLQJ'6/VDEUHH]H&RQVLGHUWKLVH[DPSOHRID
VW\OHRIWHVWZULWLQJFDOOHG%HKDYLRU'ULYHQ'HYHORSPHQWVHH>%''@XVLQJWKH6SHFV
OLEUDU\VHH£6SHFV¤RQSDJH
// code-examples/Rounding/specs-script.scala

"nerd finder" should {

Domain-Specific Languages | 57

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 "identify nerds from a List" in {
val actors = List("Rick Moranis", "James Dean", "Woody Allen")
val finder = new NerdFinder(actors)
finder.findNerds mustEqual List("Rick Moranis", "Woody Allen")
}
}

1RWLFHKRZPXFKWKLVFRGHUHDGVOLNH(QJOLVK£7KLVVKRXOGWHVWWKDWLQWKHIROORZLQJ
VFHQDULR¤ £7KLV YDOXH PXVW HTXDO WKDW YDOXH¤ DQG VR IRUWK 7KLV H[DPSOH XVHV WKH
VXSHUE6SHFVOLEUDU\ZKLFKHIIHFWLYHO\SURYLGHVD'6/IRUWKH%HKDYLRU'ULYHQ'HYHO
RSPHQWWHVWLQJDQGHQJLQHHULQJPHWKRGRORJ\%\PDNLQJPD[LPXPXVHRI6FDOD¦VOLE
HUDOV\QWD[DQGULFKPHWKRGV6SHFVWHVWVXLWHVDUHUHDGDEOHHYHQE\QRQGHYHORSHUV
7KLVLVMXVWDWDVWHRIWKHSRZHURI'6/VLQ6FDOD:H¦OOVHHRWKHUH[DPSOHVODWHUDQG
OHDUQKRZWRZULWHRXURZQDVZHJHWPRUHDGYDQFHGVHH&KDSWHU

Scala if Statements
(YHQWKHPRVWIDPLOLDUODQJXDJHIHDWXUHVDUHVXSHUFKDUJHGLQ6FDOD/HW¦VKDYHDORRN
DWWKHORZO\ifVWDWHPHQW$VLQPRVWHYHU\ODQJXDJH6FDOD¦VifHYDOXDWHVDFRQGLWLRQDO
H[SUHVVLRQWKHQSURFHHGVWRDEORFNLIWKHUHVXOWLV trueRUEUDQFKHVWRDQDOWHUQDWH
EORFNLIWKHUHVXOWLVfalse$VLPSOHH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/if-script.scala

if (2 + 2 == 5) {
println("Hello from 1984.")
} else if (2 + 2 == 3) {
println("Hello from Remedial Math class?")
} else {
println("Hello from a non-Orwellian future.")
}

:KDW¦VGLIIHUHQWLQ6FDODLVWKDWifDQGDOPRVWDOORWKHUVWDWHPHQWVDUHDFWXDOO\H[SUHV
VLRQVWKHPVHOYHV6RZHFDQDVVLJQWKHUHVXOWRIDQifH[SUHVVLRQDVVKRZQKHUH
// code-examples/Rounding/assigned-if-script.scala

val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")

val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

configFile.getAbsolutePath()
} else {
configFile.createNewFile()
configFile.getAbsolutePath()
}

1RWHWKDW ifVWDWHPHQWVDUHH[SUHVVLRQVPHDQLQJWKH\KDYHYDOXHV,QWKLVH[DPSOH
WKHYDOXH configFilePathLVWKHUHVXOWRIDQ ifH[SUHVVLRQWKDWKDQGOHVWKHFDVHRID
FRQILJXUDWLRQILOHQRWH[LVWLQJLQWHUQDOO\WKHQUHWXUQVWKHDEVROXWHSDWKWRWKDWILOH7KLV
YDOXHFDQQRZEHUHXVHGWKURXJKRXWDQDSSOLFDWLRQDQGWKH ifH[SUHVVLRQZRQ¦WEH
UHHYDOXDWHGZKHQWKHYDOXHLVXVHG

58 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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%HFDXVH ifVWDWHPHQWVDUHH[SUHVVLRQVLQ6FDODWKHUHLVQRQHHGIRUWKHVSHFLDOFDVH
WHUQDU\FRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWH[LVWLQ&GHULYHGODQJXDJHV<RXZRQ¦WVHH x ?
doThis() : doThat()LQ6FDOD6FDODSURYLGHVDPHFKDQLVPWKDW¦VMXVWDVSRZHUIXODQG
PRUHUHDGDEOH
:KDW LI ZH RPLW WKH else FODXVH LQ WKH SUHYLRXV H[DPSOH" 7\SLQJ WKH FRGH LQ WKH
scalaLQWHUSUHWHUZLOOWHOOXVZKDWKDSSHQV
scala> val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")
configFile: java.io.File = ~/.myapprc

scala> val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

| configFile.getAbsolutePath()
| }
configFilePath: Unit = ()

scala>

1RWHWKDWconfigFilePathLVQRZUnit,WZDVStringEHIRUH7KHW\SHLQIHUHQFHSLFNV

DW\SHWKDWZRUNVIRUDOORXWFRPHVRIWKHifH[SUHVVLRQUnitLVWKHRQO\SRVVLELOLW\VLQFH
QRYDOXHLVRQHSRVVLEOHRXWFRPH

Scala for Comprehensions

$QRWKHU IDPLOLDU FRQWURO VWUXFWXUH WKDW¦V SDUWLFXODUO\ IHDWXUHULFK LQ 6FDOD LV WKH for
ORRSUHIHUUHGWRLQWKH6FDODFRPPXQLW\DVDforFRPSUHKHQVLRQRUforH[SUHVVLRQ7KLV
FRUQHURIWKHODQJXDJHGHVHUYHVDWOHDVWRQHIDQF\QDPHEHFDXVHLWFDQGRVRPHJUHDW
SDUW\WULFNV
$FWXDOO\WKHWHUPcomprehensionFRPHVIURPIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ,WH[SUHVVHVWKH
LGHDWKDWZHDUHWUDYHUVLQJDVHWRIVRPHNLQG£FRPSUHKHQGLQJ¤ZKDWZHILQGDQG
FRPSXWLQJVRPHWKLQJQHZIURPLW

A Dog-Simple Example
/HW¦VVWDUWZLWKDEDVLFforH[SUHVVLRQ
// code-examples/Rounding/basic-for-script.scala

val dogBreeds = List("Doberman", "Yorkshire Terrier", "Dachshund",

"Scottish Terrier", "Great Dane", "Portuguese Water Dog")

for (breed <- dogBreeds)

println(breed)

$V\RXPLJKWJXHVVWKLVFRGHVD\V£)RUHYHU\HOHPHQWLQWKHOLVW dogBreedsFUHDWHD
WHPSRUDU\YDULDEOHFDOOHGbreedZLWKWKHYDOXHRIWKDWHOHPHQWWKHQSULQWLW¤7KLQNRI
WKH<-RSHUDWRUDVDQDUURZGLUHFWLQJHOHPHQWVRIDFROOHFWLRQRQHE\RQHWRWKHVFRSHG
YDULDEOHE\ZKLFKZH¦OOUHIHUWRWKHPLQVLGHWKHforH[SUHVVLRQ7KHOHIWDUURZRSHUDWRU

Scala for Comprehensions | 59

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LVFDOOHGDJHQHUDWRUVRQDPHGEHFDXVHLW¦VJHQHUDWLQJLQGLYLGXDOYDOXHVIURPDFROOHF
WLRQIRUXVHLQDQH[SUHVVLRQ

Filtering
:KDWLIZHZDQWWRJHWPRUHJUDQXODU"6FDOD¦VforH[SUHVVLRQVDOORZIRUILOWHUVWKDWOHW
XVVSHFLI\ZKLFKHOHPHQWVRIDFROOHFWLRQZHZDQWWRZRUNZLWK6RWRILQGDOOWHUULHUV
LQRXUOLVWRIGRJEUHHGVZHFRXOGPRGLI\WKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHWRWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/Rounding/filtered-for-script.scala

for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier")
) println(breed)

7RDGGPRUHWKDQRQHILOWHUWRDforH[SUHVVLRQVHSDUDWHWKHILOWHUVZLWKVHPLFRORQV
// code-examples/Rounding/double-filtered-for-script.scala

for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier");
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
) println(breed)

<RX¦YHQRZIRXQGDOOWKHWHUULHUVWKDWGRQ¦WKDLOIURP<RUNVKLUHDQGKRSHIXOO\OHDUQHG
MXVWKRZXVHIXOILOWHUVFDQEHLQWKHSURFHVV

Yielding
:KDW LI UDWKHU WKDQ SULQWLQJ \RXU ILOWHUHG FROOHFWLRQ \RX QHHGHG WR KDQG LW RII WR
DQRWKHUSDUWRI\RXUSURJUDP"7KH yieldNH\ZRUGLV\RXUWLFNHWWRJHQHUDWLQJQHZ
FROOHFWLRQVZLWK forH[SUHVVLRQV,QWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHQRWHWKDWZH¦UHZUDSSLQJ
XSWKHforH[SUHVVLRQLQFXUO\EUDFHVDVZHZRXOGZKHQGHILQLQJDQ\EORFN
// code-examples/Rounding/yielding-for-script.scala

val filteredBreeds = for {

breed <- dogBreeds
if breed.contains("Terrier")
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
} yield breed

forH[SUHVVLRQVPD\EHGHILQHGZLWKSDUHQWKHVHVRUFXUO\EUDFHVEXW
XVLQJFXUO\EUDFHVPHDQV\RXGRQ¦WKDYHWRVHSDUDWH\RXUILOWHUVZLWK
VHPLFRORQV0RVWRIWKHWLPH\RX¦OOSUHIHUXVLQJFXUO\EUDFHVZKHQ\RX
KDYHPRUHWKDQRQHILOWHUDVVLJQPHQWHWF

(YHU\WLPHWKURXJKWKH forH[SUHVVLRQWKHILOWHUHGUHVXOWLV\LHOGHGDVDYDOXHQDPHG
breed7KHVHUHVXOWVDFFXPXODWHZLWKHYHU\UXQDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJFROOHFWLRQLVDVVLJQHG
WR WKH YDOXH filteredBreeds DV ZH GLG ZLWK if VWDWHPHQWV HDUOLHU 7KH W\SH RI WKH

60 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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FROOHFWLRQUHVXOWLQJIURPDfor-yieldH[SUHVVLRQLVLQIHUUHGIURPWKHW\SHRIWKHFROOHF
WLRQEHLQJLWHUDWHGRYHU,QWKLVFDVHfilteredBreedsLVRIW\SHList[String]VLQFHLWLV
DVXEVHWRIWKHdogBreedsOLVWZKLFKLVDOVRRIW\SHList[String]

Expanded Scope
2QHILQDOXVHIXOIHDWXUHRI6FDOD¦VforFRPSUHKHQVLRQVLVWKHDELOLW\WRGHILQHYDULDEOHV
LQVLGHWKHILUVWSDUWRI\RXUforH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWFDQEHXVHGLQWKHODWWHUSDUW7KLVLV
EHVWLOOXVWUDWHGZLWKDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/scoped-for-script.scala

for {
breed <- dogBreeds
upcasedBreed = breed.toUpperCase()
} println(upcasedBreed)

1RWHWKDWZLWKRXWGHFODULQJupcasedBreedDVDval\RXFDQUHXVHLWZLWKLQWKHERG\RI
\RXU forH[SUHVVLRQ7KLVDSSURDFKLVLGHDOIRUWUDQVIRUPLQJHOHPHQWVLQDFROOHFWLRQ
DV\RXORRSWKURXJKWKHP
)LQDOO\ LQ £2SWLRQV DQG IRU &RPSUHKHQVLRQV¤ RQ SDJH  ZH¦OO VHH KRZ XVLQJ
OptionsZLWK forFRPSUHKHQVLRQVFDQJUHDWO\UHGXFHFRGHVL]HE\HOLPLQDWLQJXQQHF
HVVDU\£QXOO¤DQG£PLVVLQJ¤FKHFNV

Other Looping Constructs

6FDODSURYLGHVVHYHUDORWKHUORRSLQJFRQVWUXFWV

Scala while Loops

)DPLOLDULQPDQ\ODQJXDJHVWKHwhileORRSH[HFXWHVDEORFNRIFRGHDVORQJDVDFRQ
GLWLRQLVWUXH)RUH[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJFRGHSULQWVRXWDFRPSODLQWRQFHDGD\XQWLO
WKHQH[W)ULGD\WKHWKKDVDUULYHG
// code-examples/Rounding/while-script.scala
// WARNING: This script runs for a LOOOONG time!

import java.util.Calendar

def isFridayThirteen(cal: Calendar): Boolean = {

val dayOfWeek = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK)
val dayOfMonth = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_MONTH)

// Scala returns the result of the last expression in a method

(dayOfWeek == Calendar.FRIDAY) && (dayOfMonth == 13)
}

while (!isFridayThirteen(Calendar.getInstance())) {
println("Today isn't Friday the 13th. Lame.")

Other Looping Constructs | 61

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 // sleep for a day
Thread.sleep(86400000)
}

7DEOHODWHULQWKLVFKDSWHUVKRZVWKHFRQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUVWKDWZRUNLQwhileORRSV

Scala do-while Loops

/LNHWKHwhileORRSDdo-whileORRSH[HFXWHVVRPHFRGHZKLOHDFRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQ
LVWUXH7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHWKDWD do-whileFKHFNVWRVHHLIWKHFRQGLWLRQLVWUXHDIWHU
UXQQLQJWKHEORFN7RFRXQWXSWRZHFRXOGZULWHWKLV
// code-examples/Rounding/do-while-script.scala

var count = 0

do {
count += 1
println(count)
} while (count < 10)

$VLWWXUQVRXWWKHUH¦VDPRUHHOHJDQWZD\WRORRSWKURXJKFROOHFWLRQVLQ6FDODDVZH¦OO
VHHLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQ

Generator Expressions
5HPHPEHUWKHDUURZRSHUDWRU<-IURPWKHGLVFXVVLRQDERXW forORRSV":HFDQSXW
LWWRZRUNKHUHWRR/HW¦VFOHDQXSWKHdo-whileH[DPSOHMXVWVKRZQ
// code-examples/Rounding/generator-script.scala

for (i <- 1 to 10) println(i)

<XS WKDW¦V DOO WKDW¦V QHFHVVDU\ 7KLV FOHDQ RQHOLQHU LV SRVVLEOH EHFDXVH RI 6FDOD¦V
RichIntFODVV$QLPSOLFLWFRQYHUVLRQLVLQYRNHGE\WKHFRPSLOHUWRFRQYHUWWKH 1DQ
Int LQWR D RichInt :H¦OO GLVFXVV WKHVH FRQYHUVLRQV LQ £7KH 6FDOD 7\SH +LHUDU
FK\¤RQSDJHDQGLQ£,PSOLFLW&RQYHUVLRQV¤RQSDJH RichIntGHILQHVD to
PHWKRGWKDWWDNHVDQRWKHULQWHJHUDQGUHWXUQVDQLQVWDQFHRIRange.Inclusive7KDWLV
Inclusive LV D QHVWHG FODVV LQ WKH Range FRPSDQLRQ REMHFW D FRQFHSW ZH LQWURGXFHG
EULHIO\LQ&KDSWHUVHH&KDSWHUIRUGHWDLOV7KLVVXEFODVVRIWKHFODVVRangeLQKHULWV
DQXPEHURIPHWKRGVIRUZRUNLQJZLWKVHTXHQFHVDQGLWHUDEOHGDWDVWUXFWXUHVLQFOXGLQJ
WKRVHQHFHVVDU\WRXVHLWLQDforORRS
%\WKHZD\LI\RXZDQWHGWRFRXQWIURPXSWREXWQRWLQFOXGLQJ\RXFRXOGXVH
untilLQVWHDGRIto)RUH[DPSOHfor (i <- 0 until 10)
7KLVVKRXOGSDLQWDFOHDUHUSLFWXUHRIKRZ6FDOD¦VLQWHUQDOOLEUDULHVFRPSRVHWRIRUP
HDV\WRXVHODQJXDJHFRQVWUXFWV

62 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 :KHQZRUNLQJZLWKORRSVLQPRVWODQJXDJHV\RXFDQ breakRXWRID
ORRSRUcontinueWKHLWHUDWLRQV6FDODGRHVQ¦WKDYHHLWKHURIWKHVHVWDWH
PHQWVEXWZKHQZULWLQJLGLRPDWLF6FDODFRGHWKH\¦UHQRWQHFHVVDU\
8VHFRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQVWRWHVWLIDORRSVKRXOGFRQWLQXHRUPDNH
XVHRIUHFXUVLRQ%HWWHU\HWILOWHU\RXUFROOHFWLRQVDKHDGRIWLPHWRHOLP
LQDWHFRPSOH[FRQGLWLRQVZLWKLQ\RXUORRSV+RZHYHUEHFDXVHRIGH
PDQGIRULW6FDODYHUVLRQLQFOXGHVVXSSRUWIRUbreakLPSOHPHQWHG
DVDOLEUDU\PHWKRGUDWKHUWKDQDEXLOWLQbreakNH\ZRUG

Conditional Operators
6FDODERUURZVPRVWRIWKHFRQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUVIURP-DYDDQGLWVSUHGHFHVVRUV<RX¦OO
ILQGWKHRQHVOLVWHGLQ7DEOHLQ ifVWDWHPHQWV whileORRSVDQGHYHU\ZKHUHHOVH
FRQGLWLRQVDSSO\
7DEOH&RQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUV
Operator Operation Description
&& and The values on the left and right of the operator are true. The righthand side is only evaluated
if the lefthand side is true.
|| or At least one of the values on the left or right is true. The righthand side is only evaluated if the
lefthand side is false.
> greater than The value on the left is greater than the value on the right.
>= greater than or The value on the left is greater than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
< less than The value on the left is less than the value on the right.
<= less than or The value on the left is less than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
== equals The value on the left is the same as the value on the right.
!= not equal The value on the left is not the same as the value on the right.

1RWHWKDW&&DQG||DUH£VKRUWFLUFXLWLQJ¤RSHUDWRUV7KH\VWRSHYDOXDWLQJH[SUHVVLRQV
DVVRRQDVWKHDQVZHULVNQRZQ
:H¦OOGLVFXVVREMHFWHTXDOLW\LQPRUHGHWDLOLQ£(TXDOLW\RI2EMHFWV¤RQSDJH)RU
H[DPSOHZH¦OOVHHWKDW==KDVDGLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJLQ6FDODYHUVXV-DYD2WKHUZLVHWKHVH
RSHUDWRUVVKRXOGDOOEHIDPLOLDUVROHW¦VPRYHRQWRVRPHWKLQJQHZDQGH[FLWLQJ

Pattern Matching
$QLGHDERUURZHGIURPIXQFWLRQDOODQJXDJHVSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVDSRZHUIXO\HWFRQFLVH
ZD\WRPDNHDSURJUDPPDWLFFKRLFHEHWZHHQPXOWLSOHFRQGLWLRQV3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLV
WKHIDPLOLDUcaseVWDWHPHQWIURP\RXUIDYRULWH&OLNHODQJXDJHEXWRQVWHURLGV,QWKH

Pattern Matching | 63

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W\SLFDOcaseVWDWHPHQW\RX¦UHOLPLWHGWRPDWFKLQJDJDLQVWYDOXHVRIRUGLQDOW\SHV\LHOG
LQJWULYLDOH[SUHVVLRQVOLNHWKLV£,QWKHFDVHWKDWiLVSULQWDPHVVDJHLQWKHFDVHWKDW
iLVH[LWWKHSURJUDP¤:LWK6FDOD¦VSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJ\RXUFDVHVFDQLQFOXGHW\SHV
ZLOGFDUGVVHTXHQFHVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDQGHYHQGHHSLQVSHFWLRQVRIDQREMHFW¦V
YDULDEOHV

A Simple Match
7REHJLQZLWKOHW¦VVLPXODWHIOLSSLQJDFRLQE\PDWFKLQJWKHYDOXHRIDERROHDQ
// code-examples/Rounding/match-boolean-script.scala

val bools = List(true, false)

for (bool <- bools) {

bool match {
case true => println("heads")
case false => println("tails")
case _ => println("something other than heads or tails (yikes!)")
}
}

,WORRNVMXVWOLNHD&VW\OHcaseVWDWHPHQWULJKW"7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHLVWKHODVWcaseZLWK
WKHXQGHUVFRUH _ ZLOGFDUG,WPDWFKHVDQ\WKLQJQRWGHILQHGLQWKHFDVHVDERYHLWVR
LWVHUYHVWKHVDPHSXUSRVHDVWKHdefaultNH\ZRUGLQ-DYDDQG&switchVWDWHPHQWV
3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVHDJHUWKHILUVWPDWFKZLQV6RLI\RXWU\WRSXWD case _FODXVH
EHIRUHDQ\RWKHUcaseFODXVHVWKHFRPSLOHUZLOOWKURZDQ£XQUHDFKDEOHFRGH¤HUURURQ
WKHQH[WFODXVHEHFDXVHQRWKLQJZLOOJHWSDVWWKHGHIDXOWFODXVH

8VHcase _IRUWKHGHIDXOW£FDWFKDOO¤PDWFK

:KDWLIZHZDQWWRZRUNZLWKPDWFKHVDVYDULDEOHV"

Variables in Matches
,Q WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOH ZH DVVLJQ WKH ZLOGFDUG FDVH WR D YDULDEOH FDOOHG other
NumberWKHQSULQWLWLQWKHVXEVHTXHQWH[SUHVVLRQ,IZHJHQHUDWHDZH¦OOH[WROWKDW
QXPEHU¦VYLUWXHV2WKHUZLVHZH¦OOFXUVHIDWHIRUPDNLQJXVVXIIHUDQXQOXFN\QXPEHU
// code-examples/Rounding/match-variable-script.scala

import scala.util.Random

val randomInt = new Random().nextInt(10)

randomInt match {

64 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 case 7 => println("lucky seven!")
case otherNumber => println("boo, got boring ol' " + otherNumber)
}

Matching on Type
7KHVHVLPSOHH[DPSOHVGRQ¦WHYHQEHJLQWRVFUDWFKWKHVXUIDFHRI6FDOD¦VSDWWHUQPDWFK
LQJIHDWXUHV/HW¦VWU\PDWFKLQJEDVHGRQW\SH
// code-examples/Rounding/match-type-script.scala

val sundries = List(23, "Hello", 8.5, 'q')

for (sundry <- sundries) {

sundry match {
case i: Int => println("got an Integer: " + i)
case s: String => println("got a String: " + s)
case f: Double => println("got a Double: " + f)
case other => println("got something else: " + other)
}
}

+HUHZHSXOOHDFKHOHPHQWRXWRIDListRIAnyW\SHRIHOHPHQWLQWKLVFDVHFRQWDLQLQJ
DStringDDoubleDQIntDQGDChar)RUWKHILUVWWKUHHRIWKRVHW\SHVZHOHWWKHXVHU
NQRZVSHFLILFDOO\ZKLFKW\SHZHJRWDQGZKDWWKHYDOXHZDV:KHQZHJHWVRPHWKLQJ
HOVHWKHCharZHMXVWOHWWKHXVHUNQRZWKHYDOXH:HFRXOGDGGIXUWKHUHOHPHQWVWR
WKHOLVWRIRWKHUW\SHVDQGWKH\¦GEHFDXJKWE\WKHotherZLOGFDUGFDVH

Matching on Sequences
6LQFHZRUNLQJLQ6FDODRIWHQPHDQVZRUNLQJZLWKVHTXHQFHVZRXOGQ¦WLWEHKDQG\WR
EHDEOHWRPDWFKDJDLQVWWKHOHQJWKDQGFRQWHQWVRIOLVWVDQGDUUD\V"7KHIROORZLQJ
H[DPSOHGRHVMXVWWKDWWHVWLQJWZROLVWVWRVHHLIWKH\FRQWDLQIRXUHOHPHQWVWKHVHFRQG
RIZKLFKLVWKHLQWHJHU3
// code-examples/Rounding/match-seq-script.scala

val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()

for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

l match {
case List(_, 3, _, _) => println("Four elements, with the 2nd being '3'.")
case List(_*) => println("Any other list with 0 or more elements.")
}
}

,QWKHVHFRQG caseZH¦YHXVHGDVSHFLDOZLOGFDUGSDWWHUQWRPDWFKD ListRIDQ\VL]H

HYHQ]HURHOHPHQWVDQGDQ\HOHPHQWYDOXHV<RXFDQXVHWKLVSDWWHUQDWWKHHQGRIDQ\
VHTXHQFHPDWFKWRUHPRYHOHQJWKDVDFRQGLWLRQ

Pattern Matching | 65

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5HFDOOWKDWZHPHQWLRQHGWKH£FRQV¤PHWKRGIRU List ::7KHH[SUHVVLRQ a :: list
SUHSHQGVaWRDOLVW<RXFDQDOVRXVHWKLVRSHUDWRUWRH[WUDFWWKHKHDGDQGWDLORIDOLVW
// code-examples/Rounding/match-list-script.scala

val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()

def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {

case head :: tail =>
format("%s ", head)
processList(tail)
case Nil => println("")
}

for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

print("List: ")
processList(l)
}

7KHprocessListPHWKRGPDWFKHVRQWKHListDUJXPHQWO,WPD\ORRNVWUDQJHWRVWDUW
WKHPHWKRGGHILQLWLRQOLNHWKHIROORZLQJ
def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {
...
}

+RSHIXOO\KLGLQJWKHGHWDLOVZLWKWKHHOOLSVLVPDNHVWKHPHDQLQJDOLWWOHFOHDUHU7KH
processListPHWKRGLVDFWXDOO\RQHVWDWHPHQWWKDWFURVVHVVHYHUDOOLQHV
,WILUVWPDWFKHVRQ head :: tailZKHUH headZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWKHILUVWHOHPHQWLQWKH
OLVWDQGtailZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWKHUHVWRIWKHOLVW7KDWLVZH¦UHH[WUDFWLQJWKHKHDGDQG
WDLOIURPWKHOLVWXVLQJ:::KHQWKLVFDVHPDWFKHVLWSULQWVWKHheadDQGFDOOVprocess
ListUHFXUVLYHO\WRSURFHVVWKHWDLO
7KHVHFRQGFDVHPDWFKHVWKHHPSW\OLVWNil,WSULQWVDQHQGRIOLQHDQGWHUPLQDWHVWKH
UHFXUVLRQ

Matching on Tuples (and Guards)

$OWHUQDWHO\LIZHMXVWZDQWHGWRWHVWWKDWZHKDYHDWXSOHRIWZRLWHPVZHFRXOGGRD
WXSOHPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-tuple-script.scala

val tupA = ("Good", "Morning!")

val tupB = ("Guten", "Tag!")

for (tup <- List(tupA, tupB)) {

tup match {
case (thingOne, thingTwo) if thingOne == "Good" =>
println("A two-tuple starting with 'Good'.")
case (thingOne, thingTwo) =>

66 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 println("This has two things: " + thingOne + " and " + thingTwo)
}
}

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YDULDEOHVWKHQUHXVHGWKHVHYDULDEOHVLQWKHUHVXOWLQJH[SUHVVLRQ
,QWKHILUVWFDVHZH¦YHDGGHGDQHZFRQFHSWJXDUGV7KHifFRQGLWLRQDIWHUWKHWXSOHLV
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WKHSUHFHGLQJSDUWRIWKHFDVH*XDUGVSURYLGHDGGLWLRQDOJUDQXODULW\ZKHQFRQVWUXFWLQJ
FDVHV,QWKLVH[DPSOHWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHWZRSDWWHUQVLVWKHJXDUGH[
SUHVVLRQEXWWKDW¦VHQRXJKIRUWKHFRPSLOHUWRGLIIHUHQWLDWHWKHP

5HFDOOWKDWWKHFDVHVLQDSDWWHUQPDWFKDUHHYDOXDWHGLQRUGHU)RUH[
DPSOHLI\RXUILUVWFDVHLVEURDGHUWKDQ\RXUVHFRQGFDVHWKHVHFRQG
FDVH ZLOO QHYHU EH UHDFKHG 8QUHDFKDEOH FDVHV ZLOO FDXVH D FRPSLOHU
HUURU<RXPD\LQFOXGHD£GHIDXOW¤FDVHDWWKHHQGRIDSDWWHUQPDWFK
HLWKHUXVLQJWKHXQGHUVFRUHZLOGFDUGFKDUDFWHURUDPHDQLQJIXOO\QDPHG
YDULDEOH:KHQXVLQJDYDULDEOHLWVKRXOGKDYHQRH[SOLFLWW\SHRULW
VKRXOGEHGHFODUHGDVAnyVRLWFDQPDWFKDQ\WKLQJ2QWKHRWKHUKDQG
WU\WRGHVLJQ\RXUFRGHWRDYRLGDFDWFKDOOFODXVHE\HQVXULQJLWRQO\
UHFHLYHVVSHFLILFLWHPVWKDWDUHH[SHFWHG

Matching on Case Classes

/HW¦VWU\DGHHSPDWFKH[DPLQLQJWKHFRQWHQWVRIREMHFWVLQRXUSDWWHUQPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-script.scala

case class Person(name: String, age: Int)

val alice = new Person("Alice", 25)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32)

for (person <- List(alice, bob, charlie)) {

person match {
case Person("Alice", 25) => println("Hi Alice!")
case Person("Bob", 32) => println("Hi Bob!")
case Person(name, age) =>
println("Who are you, " + age + " year-old person named " + name + "?")
}
}

3RRU&KDUOLHJHWVWKHFROGVKRXOGHUDVZHFDQVHHLQWKHRXWSXW
Hi Alice!
Hi Bob!
Who are you, 32 year-old person named Charlie?

Pattern Matching | 67

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:HILUVWGHILQHDFDVHFODVVDVSHFLDOW\SHRIFODVVWKDWZH¦OOOHDUQPRUHDERXWLQ£&DVH
&ODVVHV¤RQSDJH)RUQRZLWZLOOVXIILFHWRVD\WKDWDFDVHFODVVDOORZVIRUYHU\
WHUVHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVLPSOHREMHFWVZLWKVRPHSUHGHILQHGPHWKRGV2XUSDWWHUQPDWFK
WKHQORRNVIRU$OLFHDQG%REE\LQVSHFWLQJWKHYDOXHVSDVVHGWRWKHFRQVWUXFWRURIWKH
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VDPHageYDOXHDV%REZH¦UHPDWFKLQJRQWKHnameSURSHUW\DVZHOO
7KLVW\SHRISDWWHUQPDWFKEHFRPHVH[WUHPHO\XVHIXOZKHQZRUNLQJZLWK$FWRUVDV
ZH¦OO VHH ODWHU RQ &DVH FODVVHV DUH IUHTXHQWO\ VHQW WR $FWRUV DV PHVVDJHV DQG GHHS
SDWWHUQPDWFKLQJRQDQREMHFW¦VFRQWHQWVLVDFRQYHQLHQWZD\WR£SDUVH¤WKRVHPHVVDJHV

Matching on Regular Expressions

5HJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDUHFRQYHQLHQWIRUH[WUDFWLQJGDWDIURPVWULQJVWKDWKDYHDQLQIRU
PDOVWUXFWXUHEXWDUHQRW£VWUXFWXUHGGDWD¤WKDWLVLQDIRUPDWOLNH;0/RU-621IRU
H[DPSOH&RPPRQO\UHIHUUHGWRDVUHJH[HVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDUHDIHDWXUHRIQHDUO\
DOOPRGHUQSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHV7KH\SURYLGHDWHUVHV\QWD[IRUVSHFLI\LQJFRPSOH[
PDWFKHV RQH WKDW LV W\SLFDOO\ WUDQVODWHG LQWR D VWDWH PDFKLQH EHKLQG WKH VFHQHV IRU
RSWLPXPSHUIRUPDQFH
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ODQJXDJHV/HW¦VVHHDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/match-regex-script.scala

val BookExtractorRE = """Book: title=([^,]+),\s+authors=(.+)""".r

val MagazineExtractorRE = """Magazine: title=([^,]+),\s+issue=(.+)""".r

val catalog = List(

"Book: title=Programming Scala, authors=Dean Wampler, Alex Payne",
"Magazine: title=The New Yorker, issue=January 2009",
"Book: title=War and Peace, authors=Leo Tolstoy",
"Magazine: title=The Atlantic, issue=February 2009",
"BadData: text=Who put this here??"
)

for (item <- catalog) {

item match {
case BookExtractorRE(title, authors) =>
println("Book \"" + title + "\", written by " + authors)
case MagazineExtractorRE(title, issue) =>
println("Magazine \"" + title + "\", issue " + issue)
case entry => println("Unrecognized entry: " + entry)
}
}

:HVWDUWZLWKWZRUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVRQHIRUUHFRUGVRIERRNVDQGDQRWKHUIRUUHFRUGV
RIPDJD]LQHV&DOOLQJ.rRQDVWULQJWXUQVLWLQWRDUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQZHXVHUDZWULSOH
TXRWHGVWULQJVKHUHWRDYRLGKDYLQJWRGRXEOHHVFDSHEDFNVODVKHV6KRXOG\RXILQG

68 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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WKH.rWUDQVIRUPDWLRQPHWKRGRQVWULQJVXQFOHDU\RXFDQDOVRGHILQHUHJH[HVE\FUHDWLQJ
QHZLQVWDQFHVRIWKHRegexFODVVDVLQnew Regex("""\W""")
1RWLFHWKDWHDFKRIRXUUHJH[HVGHILQHVWZRFDSWXUHJURXSVFRQQRWHGE\SDUHQWKHVHV
(DFKJURXSFDSWXUHVWKHYDOXHRIDVLQJOHILHOGLQWKHUHFRUGVXFKDVDERRN¦VWLWOHRU
DXWKRU5HJH[HVLQ6FDODWUDQVODWHWKRVHFDSWXUHJURXSVWRH[WUDFWRUV(YHU\PDWFKVHWV
DILHOGWRWKHFDSWXUHGUHVXOWHYHU\PLVVLVVHWWRnull
:KDWGRHVWKLVPHDQLQSUDFWLFH",IWKHWH[WIHGWRWKHUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQPDWFKHV
case BookExtractorRE(title, authors)ZLOODVVLJQWKHILUVWFDSWXUHJURXSWRtitleDQG
WKH VHFRQG WR authors :H FDQ WKHQ XVH WKRVH YDOXHV RQ WKH ULJKWKDQG VLGH RI WKH
case FODXVH DV ZH KDYH LQ WKH SUHYLRXV H[DPSOH 7KH YDULDEOH QDPHV title DQG
author ZLWKLQ WKH H[WUDFWRU DUH DUELWUDU\ PDWFKHV IURP FDSWXUH JURXSV DUH VLPSO\
DVVLJQHGIURPOHIWWRULJKWDQG\RXFDQFDOOWKHPZKDWHYHU\RX¦GOLNH
7KDW¦VUHJH[HVLQ6FDODLQQXWVKHOO7KHscala.util.matching.RegexFODVVVXSSOLHVVHY
HUDOKDQG\PHWKRGVIRUILQGLQJDQGUHSODFLQJPDWFKHVLQVWULQJVERWKDOORFFXUUHQFHV
RIDPDWFKDQGMXVWWKHILUVWRFFXUUHQFHVREHVXUHWRPDNHXVHRIWKHP
:KDWZHZRQ¦WFRYHULQWKLVVHFWLRQLVWKHGHWDLOVRIZULWLQJUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQV6FDOD¦V
Regex FODVV XVHV WKH XQGHUO\LQJ SODWIRUP¦V UHJXODU H[SUHVVLRQ $3,V WKDW LV -DYD¦V
RU1(7¦V&RQVXOWUHIHUHQFHVRQWKRVH$3,VIRUWKHKDLU\GHWDLOVDVWKH\PD\EHVXEWO\
GLIIHUHQWIURPWKHUHJH[VXSSRUWLQ\RXUODQJXDJHRIFKRLFH

Binding Nested Variables in Case Clauses

6RPHWLPHV\RXZDQWWRELQGDYDULDEOHWRDQREMHFWHQFORVHGLQDPDWFKZKHUH\RXDUH
DOVRVSHFLI\LQJPDWFKFULWHULDRQWKHQHVWHGREMHFW6XSSRVHZHPRGLI\DSUHYLRXVH[
DPSOH VR ZH¦UH PDWFKLQJ RQ WKH NH\YDOXH SDLUV IURP D PDS :H¦OO VWRUH RXU VDPH
PersonREMHFWVDVWKHYDOXHVDQGXVHDQHPSOR\HH,'DVWKHNH\:H¦OODOVRDGGDQRWKHU
DWWULEXWHWRPersonDroleILHOGWKDWSRLQWVWRDQLQVWDQFHIURPDW\SHKLHUDUFK\
// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-pair-script.scala

class Role
case object Manager extends Role
case object Developer extends Role

case class Person(name: String, age: Int, role: Role)

val alice = new Person("Alice", 25, Developer)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32, Manager)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32, Developer)

for (item <- Map(1 -> alice, 2 -> bob, 3 -> charlie)) {
item match {
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, Manager)) => format("%s is overpaid.\n", p)
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, _)) => format("%s is underpaid.\n", p)
}
}

Pattern Matching | 69

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7KHcase objectsDUHMXVWVLQJOHWRQREMHFWVOLNHZH¦YHVHHQEHIRUHEXWZLWKWKHVSHFLDO
caseEHKDYLRU:H¦UHPRVWLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHHPEHGGHGp @ Person(...)LQVLGHWKHFDVH
FODXVH:H¦UHPDWFKLQJRQSDUWLFXODUNLQGVRIPersonREMHFWVLQVLGHWKHHQFORVLQJWXSOH
:HDOVRZDQWWRDVVLJQWKHPersonWRDYDULDEOHpVRZHFDQXVHLWIRUSULQWLQJ
Person(Alice,25,Developer) is underpaid.
Person(Bob,32,Manager) is overpaid.
Person(Charlie,32,Developer) is underpaid.

,IZHZHUHQ¦WXVLQJPDWFKLQJFULWHULDLQPersonLWVHOIZHFRXOGMXVWZULWHp: Person)RU
H[DPSOHWKHSUHYLRXVmatchFODXVHFRXOGEHZULWWHQWKLVZD\
item match {
case (id, p: Person) => p.role match {
case Manager => format("%s is overpaid.\n", p)
case _ => format("%s is underpaid.\n", p)
}
}

1RWHWKDWWKH p @ Person(...)V\QWD[JLYHVXVDZD\WRIODWWHQWKLVQHVWLQJRIPDWFK
VWDWHPHQWVLQWRRQHVWDWHPHQW,WLVDQDORJRXVWRXVLQJ£FDSWXUHJURXSV¤LQDUHJXODU
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VXFFHVVLYHVWHSVWRH[WUDFWWKHVXEVWULQJVZHZDQW8VHZKLFKHYHUWHFKQLTXH\RXSUHIHU

Using try, catch, and finally Clauses

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VW\OH WKDW OHVVHQV WKH QHHG IRU H[FHSWLRQV DQG H[FHSWLRQ KDQGOLQJ %XW ZKHUH 6FDOD
LQWHUDFWVZLWK-DYDH[FHSWLRQVDUHVWLOOSUHYDOHQW

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WLRQV¤RQSDJH

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WRPDNHVPDUWFKRLFHVZKHQSUHVHQWHGZLWKDPXOWLSOLFLW\RISRWHQWLDOH[FHSWLRQV/HW¦V
VHHWKLVLQDFWLRQ
// code-examples/Rounding/try-catch-script.scala

import java.util.Calendar

val then = null

val now = Calendar.getInstance()

try {
now.compareTo(then)
} catch {

70 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 case e: NullPointerException => println("One was null!"); System.exit(-1)
case unknown => println("Unknown exception " + unknown); System.exit(-1)
} finally {
println("It all worked out.")
System.exit(0)
}

,QWKLVH[DPSOHZHH[SOLFLWO\FDWFKWKH NullPointerExceptionWKURZQZKHQWU\LQJWR
FRPSDUHDCalendarLQVWDQFHZLWKnull:HDOVRGHILQHunknownDVDFDWFKDOOFDVHMXVW
WREHVDIH,IZHZHUHQ¦WKDUGFRGLQJWKLVSURJUDPWRIDLOWKH finallyEORFNZRXOGEH
UHDFKHGDQGWKHXVHUZRXOGEHLQIRUPHGWKDWHYHU\WKLQJZRUNHGRXWMXVWILQH

<RXFDQXVHDQXQGHUVFRUH6FDOD¦VVWDQGDUGZLOGFDUGFKDUDFWHUDVD

SODFHKROGHUWRFDWFKDQ\W\SHRIH[FHSWLRQUHDOO\WRPDWFKDQ\FDVHLQ
DSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJH[SUHVVLRQ+RZHYHU\RXZRQ¦WEHDEOHWRUHIHUWR
WKHH[FHSWLRQLQWKHVXEVHTXHQWH[SUHVVLRQ1DPHWKHH[FHSWLRQYDUL
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GRLQWKHFDWFKDOOFDVHRIWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOH

3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJDVLGH6FDOD¦VWUHDWPHQWRIH[FHSWLRQKDQGOLQJVKRXOGEHIDPLOLDUWR
WKRVHIOXHQWLQ-DYD5XE\3\WKRQDQGPRVWRWKHUPDLQVWUHDPODQJXDJHV$QG\HV
\RXWKURZDQH[FHSWLRQE\ZULWLQJthrow new MyBadException(...)7KDW¦VDOOWKHUHLV
WRLW

Concluding Remarks on Pattern Matching

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WZHHQSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJDQGSRO\PRUSKLVP0RVWRIWKHWLPH\RXZDQWWRDYRLGWKH
SUREOHPVRI£VZLWFK¤VWDWHPHQWVWKDWNQRZDFODVVKLHUDUFK\EHFDXVHWKH\KDYHWREH
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JRULHV¤RIPHVVDJHVEXWZHXVHGSRO\PRUSKLVPWRGUDZWKHVKDSHVVHQWWRLW:HFRXOG
FKDQJHWKHShapeKLHUDUFK\DQGWKH$FWRUFRGHZRXOGQRWUHTXLUHFKDQJHV
3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVDOVRXVHIXOIRUWKHGHVLJQSUREOHPZKHUH\RXQHHGWRJHWDWGDWD
LQVLGHDQREMHFWEXWRQO\LQVSHFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHV2QHRIWKHXQLQWHQGHGFRQVHTXHQ
FHVRIWKH-DYD%HDQVVHH>-DYD%HDQV6SHF@VSHFLILFDWLRQZDVWKDWLWHQFRXUDJHGSHRSOH
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WUDFWLQIRUPDWLRQLQDFRQWUROOHGZD\$VZHZLOOVHHLQ£8QDSSO\¤RQSDJHWKH
SDWWHUQPDWFKLQJH[DPSOHVZHKDYHVKRZQXVH unapplyPHWKRGVGHILQHGWRH[WUDFW

Pattern Matching | 71

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LQIRUPDWLRQIURPLQVWDQFHV7KHVHPHWKRGVOHW\RXH[WUDFWWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQZKLOHKLG
LQJWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOV,QIDFWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQUHWXUQHGE\unapplyPLJKWEH
DWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHDFWXDOLQIRUPDWLRQLQWKHW\SH
)LQDOO\ZKHQGHVLJQLQJSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJVWDWHPHQWVEHZDU\RIUHO\LQJRQDGHIDXOW
FDVHFODXVH8QGHUZKDWFLUFXPVWDQFHVZRXOG£QRQHRIWKHDERYH¤EHWKHFRUUHFWDQ
VZHU",WPD\LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHGHVLJQVKRXOGEHUHILQHGVR\RXNQRZPRUHSUHFLVHO\DOO
WKHSRVVLEOHPDWFKHVWKDWPLJKWRFFXU:H¦OOOHDUQRQHWHFKQLTXHWKDWKHOSVZKHQZH
GLVFXVVVHDOHGFODVVKLHUDUFKLHVLQ£6HDOHG&ODVV+LHUDUFKLHV¤RQSDJH

Enumerations
5HPHPEHURXUH[DPSOHVLQYROYLQJYDULRXVEUHHGVRIGRJ",QWKLQNLQJDERXWWKHW\SHV
LQWKHVHSURJUDPVZHPLJKWZDQWDWRSOHYHOBreedW\SHWKDWNHHSVWUDFNRIDQXPEHU
RIEUHHGV6XFKDW\SHLVFDOOHGDQHQXPHUDWHGW\SHDQGWKHYDOXHVLWFRQWDLQVDUHFDOOHG
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LVQRVSHFLDOV\QWD[IRUHQXPHUDWLRQVLQ6FDODDVLQ-DYDDQG&,QVWHDG\RXMXVW
GHILQHDQREMHFWWKDWH[WHQGVWKHEnumerationFODVV+HQFHDWWKHE\WHFRGHOHYHOWKHUH
LVQRFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ6FDODHQXPHUDWLRQVDQGWKHenumFRQVWUXFWVLQ-DYDDQG&
+HUHLVDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/enumeration-script.scala

object Breed extends Enumeration {

val doberman = Value("Doberman Pinscher")
val yorkie = Value("Yorkshire Terrier")
val scottie = Value("Scottish Terrier")
val dane = Value("Great Dane")
val portie = Value("Portuguese Water Dog")
}

// print a list of breeds and their IDs

println("ID\tBreed")
for (breed <- Breed) println(breed.id + "\t" + breed)

// print a list of Terrier breeds

println("\nJust Terriers:")
Breed.filter(_.toString.endsWith("Terrier")).foreach(println)

:KHQUXQ\RX¦OOJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
ID Breed
0 Doberman Pinscher
1 Yorkshire Terrier
2 Scottish Terrier
3 Great Dane
4 Portuguese Water Dog

72 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 Just Terriers:
Yorkshire Terrier
Scottish Terrier

:HFDQVHHWKDWRXUBreedHQXPHUDWHGW\SHFRQWDLQVVHYHUDOYDULDEOHVRIW\SHValueDV
LQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
val doberman = Value("Doberman Pinscher")

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DPSOHDGDSWHGIURPWKH6FDODGRFHQWU\IRUEnumeration
// code-examples/Rounding/days-enumeration-script.scala

object WeekDay extends Enumeration {

type WeekDay = Value
val Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun = Value
}
import WeekDay._

def isWorkingDay(d: WeekDay) = ! (d == Sat || d == Sun)

WeekDay filter isWorkingDay foreach println

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscala\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(0)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(1)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(2)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(3)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(4)

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Enumerations | 73

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1RWHWKDWZHLPSRUWHGWeekDay._7KLVPDGHHDFKHQXPHUDWLRQYDOXHMonTuesHWF
LQVFRSH2WKHUZLVH\RXZRXOGKDYHWRZULWHWeekDay.MonWeekDay.TuesHWF
$OVRWKHLPSRUWPDGHWKHW\SHDOLDVtype Weekday = ValueLQVFRSHZKLFKZHXVHG
DVWKHW\SHIRUWKHDUJXPHQWIRUWKH isWorkingDayPHWKRG,I\RXGRQ¦WGHILQHDW\SH
DOLDV OLNH WKLV WKHQ \RX ZRXOG GHFODUH WKH PHWKRG DV def isWorkingDay(d: Week
Day.Value)
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Recap and What’s Next

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74 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 CHAPTER 4
Traits

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala

package ui

class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {

require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")

def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(label: String) = {

75

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 this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}

def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}

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76 | Chapter 4:—Traits

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button.scala

package ui

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}
}

+HUHLVWKHSDUHQWFODVVWidget
// code-examples/Traits/ui/widget.scala

package ui

abstract class Widget

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// code-examples/Traits/observer/observer.scala

package observer

trait Subject {
type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this))
}

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Introducing Traits | 77

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78 | Chapter 4:—Traits

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Subject
// code-examples/Traits/ui/observable-button.scala

package ui
import observer._

class ObservableButton(name: String) extends Button(name) with Subject {

override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

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Introducing Traits | 79

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,I\RXGRQ¦WXVHextendsIRUWKHILUVWWUDLWHJ\RXZULWHWKHIROORZLQJ
// ERROR:
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}

<RX¦OOJHWDQHUURUOLNHWKLV
... error: ';' expected but 'with' found.
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}
^

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer.scala

package ui
import observer._

class ButtonCountObserver {
var count = 0
def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) = count += 1
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new ObservableButton("Okay")
val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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Specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec"
A Button Observer should
+ observe button clicks

80 | Chapter 4:—Traits

Download at WoweBook.Com
 Total for specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec":
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1 example, 1 expectation, 0 failure, 0 error

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assertEquals(3, buttonObserver.count)

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-anon-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserverAnonSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with Subject {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver

observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3

Introducing Traits | 81

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 }
}
}

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£/LQHDUL]DWLRQRIDQ2EMHFW¦V+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

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)LUVWOHW¦VLQWURGXFHDQHZWUDLWClickableDQDEVWUDFWLRQIRUDQ\ZLGJHWWKDWUHVSRQGV
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/clickable.scala

package ui2

trait Clickable {
def click()
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button.scala

package ui2

import ui.Widget

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...

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 }
}

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Clickable
// code-examples/Traits/ui2/observable-clicks.scala

package ui2
import observer._

trait ObservableClicks extends Clickable with Subject {

abstract override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-spec.scala

package ui2

Stackable Traits | 83

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 import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/vetoable-clicks.scala

package ui2
import observer._

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

val maxAllowed = 1 // default
private var count = 0

abstract override def click() = {

if (count < maxAllowed) {
count += 1
super.click()
}
}
}

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5XOHV¤RQSDJH7KHRYHUULGGHQ clickPHWKRGLQFUHPHQWV count,WRQO\FDOOVWKH
super.click()PHWKRGLIWKHFRXQWLVOHVVWKDQRUHTXDOWRWKHmaxAllowedFRXQW
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-vetoable-spec.scala

package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first button click" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 1
}
}
}

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new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-vetoable-clickable-observer-spec.scala

package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonVetoableClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Vetoable Button with Click Observer" should {
"observe all the button clicks, even when some are vetoed" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with VetoableClicks with ObservableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

Stackable Traits | 85

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 for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/trait-construction-script.scala

trait T1 {
println( " in T1: x = " + x )
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}
trait T2 {
println( " in T2: y = " + y )
val y="T2"
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}

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println( " in Base12: b = " + b )
}
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val c="C12"

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 println( " in C12: c = " + c )
}
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new C12
println( "After Creating C12" )

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Constructing Traits | 87

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 CHAPTER 5
Basic Object-Oriented Programming
in Scala

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// code-examples/BasicOOP/type-erasure-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

object Foo {
def bar(list: List[String]) = list.toString
def bar(list: List[Int]) = list.size.toString
}

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90 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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FDQEHXVHGLQVWHDGHJval name = "Programming Scala"LVHTXLYDOHQWWRval name =
new String("Programming Scala")
,QVWDQFHVRIYDOXHW\SHVIntDoubleHWFZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGWRWKHSULPLWLYHVLQODQ
JXDJHVOLNH-DYDDUHDOZD\VFUHDWHGXVLQJOLWHUDOYDOXHVHJ13.14,QIDFWWKHUHDUH
QRSXEOLFFRQVWUXFWRUVIRUWKHVHW\SHVVRDQH[SUHVVLRQOLNHval i = new Int(1)ZRQ¦W
FRPSLOH
:H¦OO GLVFXVV WKH GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ UHIHUHQFH DQG YDOXH W\SHV LQ £7KH 6FDOD 7\SH
+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

Parent Classes
6FDODVXSSRUWVVLQJOHLQKHULWDQFHQRWPXOWLSOHLQKHULWDQFH$FKLOGRUGHULYHGFODVV
FDQKDYHRQHDQGRQO\RQHSDUHQWRUEDVHFODVV7KHVROHH[FHSWLRQLVWKHURRWRIWKH
6FDODFODVVKLHUDUFK\AnyZKLFKKDVQRSDUHQW
:H¦YHVHHQVHYHUDOH[DPSOHVRISDUHQWDQGFKLOGFODVVHV+HUHDUHVQLSSHWVRIRQHRI
WKHILUVWZHVDZLQ£$EVWUDFW7\SHV$QG3DUDPHWHUL]HG7\SHV¤RQSDJH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

// ...
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

// ...
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

// ...
}

$VLQ-DYDWKHNH\ZRUGextendsLQGLFDWHVWKHSDUHQWFODVVLQWKLVFDVHBulkReader,Q
6FDODextendsLVDOVRXVHGZKHQDFODVVLQKHULWVDWUDLWDVLWVSDUHQWHYHQZKHQLWPL[HV
LQRWKHUWUDLWVXVLQJWKHwithNH\ZRUG$OVRextendsLVXVHGZKHQRQHWUDLWLVWKHFKLOG
RIDQRWKHUWUDLWRUFODVV<HVWUDLWVFDQLQKHULWFODVVHV
,I\RXGRQ¦W extendDSDUHQWFODVVWKHGHIDXOWSDUHQWLV AnyRefDGLUHFWFKLOGFODVVRI
Any:HGLVFXVVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQAnyDQGAnyRefZKHQZHGLVFXVVWKH6FDODW\SH
KLHUDUFK\LQ£7KH6FDOD7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

Constructors in Scala
6FDODGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQDSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUDQG]HURRUPRUHDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXF
WRUV,Q6FDODWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRULVWKHHQWLUHERG\RIWKHFODVV$Q\SDUDPHWHUV

Constructors in Scala | 91

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WKDWWKHFRQVWUXFWRUUHTXLUHVDUHOLVWHGDIWHUWKHFODVVQDPH:H¦YHVHHQPDQ\H[DPSOHV
RIWKLVDOUHDG\DVLQWKHButtonWithCallbacksH[DPSOHZHXVHGLQ&KDSWHU
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala

package ui

class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {

require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")

def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(label: String) = {

this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}

def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}

7KHButtonWithCallbacksFODVVUHSUHVHQWVDEXWWRQRQDJUDSKLFDOXVHULQWHUIDFH,WKDV
DODEHODQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFNIXQFWLRQVWKDWDUHLQYRNHGLIWKHEXWWRQLVFOLFNHG(DFK
FDOOEDFN IXQFWLRQ WDNHV QR DUJXPHQWV DQG UHWXUQV Unit 7KH click PHWKRG LWHUDWHV
WKURXJKWKHOLVWRIFDOOEDFNVDQGLQYRNHVHDFKRQH
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ERG\RIWKHHQWLUHFODVVKDVDSDUDPHWHUOLVWWKDWWDNHVDODEHOVWULQJDQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFN
IXQFWLRQV%HFDXVHHDFKSDUDPHWHULVGHFODUHGDVDvalWKHFRPSLOHUJHQHUDWHVDSULYDWH
ILHOGFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRHDFKSDUDPHWHUDGLIIHUHQWLQWHUQDOQDPHLVXVHGDORQJZLWKD
SXEOLFUHDGHUPHWKRGWKDWKDVWKHVDPHQDPHDVWKHSDUDPHWHU£3ULYDWH¤DQG£SXEOLF¤
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5XOHV¤RQSDJH
,IDSDUDPHWHUKDVWKHvarNH\ZRUGDSXEOLFZULWHUPHWKRGLVDOVRJHQHUDWHGZLWKWKH
SDUDPHWHU¦VQDPHDVDSUHIL[IROORZHGE\_=)RUH[DPSOHLIlabelZHUHGHFODUHGDVD
varWKHZULWHUPHWKRGZRXOGEHQDPHGlabel_=DQGLWZRXOGWDNHDVLQJOHDUJXPHQW
RIW\SHString
7KHUHDUHWLPHVZKHQ\RXGRQ¦WZDQWWKHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVWREHJHQHUDWHGDXWRPDW
LFDOO\,QRWKHUZRUGV\RXZDQWWKHILHOGWREHSULYDWH$GGWKHprivateNH\ZRUGEHIRUH
WKHvalRUvarNH\ZRUGDQGWKHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVZRQ¦WEHJHQHUDWHG6HH£9LVLELOLW\
5XOHV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHGHWDLOV

92 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 )RU\RX-DYDSURJUDPPHUV6FDODGRHVQ¦WIROORZWKH-DYD%HDQV>-DYD
%HDQV6SHF@FRQYHQWLRQWKDWILHOGUHDGHUDQGZULWHUPHWKRGVEHJLQZLWK
getDQGsetUHVSHFWLYHO\IROORZHGE\WKHILHOGQDPHZLWKWKHILUVWFKDU
DFWHUFDSLWDOL]HG:H¦OOVHHZK\ZKHQZHGLVFXVVWKH8QLIRUP$FFHVV
3ULQFLSOHLQ£:KHQ$FFHVVRU0HWKRGVDQG)LHOGV$UH,QGLVWLQJXLVKDEOH
7KH 8QLIRUP $FFHVV 3ULQFLSOH¤ RQ SDJH  +RZHYHU \RX FDQ JHW
-DYD%HDQVVW\OH JHWWHUV DQG VHWWHUV ZKHQ \RX QHHG WKHP XVLQJ WKH
scala.reflect.BeanPropertyDQQRWDWLRQDVZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£-DYD%HDQ
3URSHUWLHV¤RQSDJH

:KHQDQLQVWDQFHRIWKHFODVVLVFUHDWHGHDFKILHOGFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRDSDUDPHWHULQWKH
SDUDPHWHUOLVWZLOOEHLQLWLDOL]HGZLWKWKHSDUDPHWHUDXWRPDWLFDOO\1RFRQVWUXFWRUORJLF
LVUHTXLUHGWRLQLWLDOL]HWKHVHILHOGVLQFRQWUDVWWRPRVWRWKHUREMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV
7KHILUVWVWDWHPHQWLQWKHButtonWithCallbacksFODVVLHWKHFRQVWUXFWRUERG\LVDWHVW
WRHQVXUHWKDWDQRQnullOLVWKDVEHHQSDVVHGWRWKHFRQVWUXFWRU,WGRHVDOORZDQHPSW\
NilOLVWKRZHYHU,WXVHVWKHFRQYHQLHQWrequireIXQFWLRQWKDWLVLPSRUWHGDXWRPDWL
FDOO\LQWRWKHFXUUHQWVFRSHDVZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£7KH3UHGHI2EMHFW¤RQSDJH,I
WKHOLVWLVQXOOrequireZLOOWKURZDQH[FHSWLRQ7KHrequireIXQFWLRQDQGLWVFRPSDQLRQ
assumeDUHYHU\XVHIXOIRU 'HVLJQE\&RQWUDFWSURJUDPPLQJDVGLVFXVVHGLQ £%HWWHU
'HVLJQZLWK'HVLJQ%\&RQWUDFW¤RQSDJH
+HUH LV SDUW RI D IXOO VSHFLILFDWLRQ IRU ButtonWithCallbacks WKDW GHPRQVWUDWHV WKH
requireVWDWHPHQWLQXVH
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._

object ButtonWithCallbacksSpec extends Specification {

"A ButtonWithCallbacks" should {
// ...
"not be constructable with a null callback list" in {
val nullList:List[() => Unit] = null
val errorMessage =
"requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!"
(new ButtonWithCallbacks("button1", nullList)) must throwA(
new IllegalArgumentException(errorMessage))
}
}
}

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ZRQ¦WW\SHFKHFNZKHQ\RXFRPSLOHLW+RZHYHU\RXFDQDVVLJQ nullWRDYDOXHDV
VKRZQ ,I ZH GLGQ¦W KDYH WKH must throwA(...) FODXVH ZH ZRXOG VHH WKH IROORZLQJ
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java.lang.IllegalArgumentException: requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!
at scala.Predef$.require(Predef.scala:112)
at ui.ButtonWithCallbacks.<init>(button-callbacks.scala:7)
...

Constructors in Scala | 93

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ButtonWithCallbacksGHILQHVWZRDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRUVIRUWKHXVHU¦VFRQYHQLHQFH7KH
ILUVW DX[LOLDU\ FRQVWUXFWRU DFFHSWV D ODEHO DQG D VLQJOH FDOOEDFN ,W FDOOV WKH SULPDU\
FRQVWUXFWRUSDVVLQJWKHODEHODQGDQHZListWRZUDSWKHVLQJOHFDOOEDFN
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ZLWKNilZKLFKUHSUHVHQWVDQHPSW\ListREMHFW7KHFRQVWUXFWRUWKHQSULQWVDZDUQ
LQJPHVVDJHWKDWWKHUHDUHQRFDOOEDFNVVLQFHOLVWVDUHLPPXWDEOHDQGWKHUHLVQRZD\
WRUHSODFHWKHFDOOEDFNOLVWvalZLWKDQHZRQH
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FRQVWUXFWRUGHILQHGEHIRUHLWVHH>6FDOD6SHF@7KHFRQVWUXFWRULQYRNHGPD\EH
HLWKHUDQRWKHUDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUDQGLWPXVWEHWKHILUVW
VWDWHPHQWLQWKHDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU¦VERG\$GGLWLRQDOSURFHVVLQJFDQRFFXUDIWHU
WKLVFDOOVXFKDVWKHZDUQLQJPHVVDJHSULQWHGLQRXUH[DPSOH

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VWUXFWRUORJLFFKHFNVDQGRWKHULQLWLDOL]DWLRQVGRQHLQWKHERG\ZLOOEH
SHUIRUPHGFRQVLVWHQWO\IRUDOOLQVWDQFHVFUHDWHG

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(OLPLQDWLRQRIGXSOLFDWLRQ
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SULDWHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVXQOHVVWKH\DUHGHFODUHG privateDQGWKHLQLWLDOL]DWLRQ
ORJLFIRUZKHQLQVWDQFHVDUHFUHDWHG
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/HVVIOH[LELOLW\
6RPHWLPHVLW¦VMXVWQRWFRQYHQLHQWWRKDYHRQHFRQVWUXFWRUERG\WKDWDOOFRQVWUXF
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FDVHVLWPD\VLPSO\EHWKDWWKHFODVVKDVWRRPDQ\UHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGLWVKRXOG
EHUHIDFWRUHGLQWRVPDOOHUFODVVHV

Calling Parent Class Constructors

7KHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRULQDGHULYHGFODVVPXVWLQYRNHRQHRIWKHSDUHQWFODVVFRQ
VWUXFWRUVHLWKHUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUDQDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU,QWKHIROORZLQJ
H[DPSOHDFODVVGHULYHGIURPButtonWithCallbacksFDOOHGRadioButtonWithCallbacks
LQYRNHVWKHSULPDU\ ButtonWithCallbacksFRQVWUXFWRU£5DGLR¤EXWWRQVFDQEHHLWKHU
RQRURII

94 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 // code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/radio-button-callbacks.scala

package ui

/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection button on a radio.
*/
class RadioButtonWithCallbacks(
var on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit])
extends ButtonWithCallbacks(label, clickedCallbacks) {

def this(on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(on, label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(on: Boolean, label: String) = this(on, label, Nil)

}

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VWDWHtrueRUfalseDODEHODQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV,WSDVVHVWKHODEHODQGOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV
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:KLOHsuperLVXVHGWRLQYRNHRYHUULGGHQPHWKRGVDVLQ-DYDLWFDQQRW
EHXVHGWRLQYRNHDVXSHUFODVVFRQVWUXFWRU

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6FDODOHWV\RXQHVWFODVVGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHPDQ\REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV6XSSRVHZH
ZDQWDOO WidgetsWRKDYHDPDSRISURSHUWLHV7KHVHSURSHUWLHVFRXOGEHVL]HFRORU
ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH ZLGJHW LV YLVLEOH HWF :H PLJKW XVH D VLPSOH map WR KROG WKH
SURSHUWLHVEXWOHW¦VDVVXPHWKDWZHDOVRZDQWWRFRQWURODFFHVVWRWKHSURSHUWLHVDQG
WRSHUIRUPRWKHURSHUDWLRQVZKHQWKH\FKDQJH
+HUHLVRQHZD\ZHPLJKWH[SDQGRXURULJLQDO WidgetH[DPSOHIURP£7UDLWV$V0L[
LQV¤RQSDJHWRDGGWKLVIHDWXUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/widget.scala

package ui

Nested Classes | 95

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 abstract class Widget {
class Properties {
import scala.collection.immutable.HashMap

private var values: Map[String, Any] = new HashMap

def size = values.size

def get(key: String) = values.get(key)

def update(key: String, value: Any) = {

// Do some preprocessing, e.g., filtering.
values = values.update(key, value)
// Do some postprocessing.
}
}

val properties = new Properties

}

:HDGGHGD PropertiesFODVVWKDWKDVDSULYDWHPXWDEOHUHIHUHQFHWRDQLPPXWDEOH
HashMap:HDOVRDGGHGWKUHHSXEOLFPHWKRGVWKDWUHWULHYHWKHVL]HLHWKHQXPEHURI
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EDVLFVRILQKHULWDQFH,QWKHQH[WVHFWLRQZH¦OOGLVFXVVYLVLELOLW\UXOHVZLWKLQFODVVHVDQG
REMHFWV

Visibility Rules
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96 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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<RX¦OOZDQWWRXVHSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\IRUDQ\WKLQJWKDWXVHUVRI\RXUFODVVHVDQGREMHFWV
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EHIRUH WKH DUJXPHQW OLVW DV LQ WKLV H[DPSOH class Restricted[+A]
private (name: String) {...}

7DEOHVXPPDUL]HVWKHYLVLELOLW\VFRSHV
7DEOH9LVLELOLW\VFRSHV
Name Keyword Description
public none Public members and types are visible everywhere, across all boundaries.
protected protected Protected members are visible to the defining type, to derived types, and to
nested types. Protected types are visible only within the same package and
subpackages.

Visibility Rules | 97

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 Name Keyword Description
private private Private members are visible only within the defining type and nested types.
Private types are visible only within the same package.
scoped protected protected[scope] Visibility is limited to scope, which can be a package, type, or this (meaning
the same instance, when applied to members, or the enclosing package, when
applied to types). See the text below for details.
scoped private private[scope] Synonymous with scoped protected visibility, except under inheritance (dis-
cussed below).

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ILHOGVIRUPHPEHUH[DPSOHV0HWKRGDQGW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVEHKDYHWKHVDPHZD\

8QIRUWXQDWHO\\RXFDQ¦WDSSO\DQ\RIWKHYLVLELOLW\PRGLILHUVWRSDFN
DJHV7KHUHIRUHDSDFNDJHLVDOZD\VSXEOLFHYHQZKHQLWFRQWDLQVQR
SXEOLFO\YLVLEOHW\SHV

Public Visibility
$Q\GHFODUDWLRQZLWKRXWDYLVLELOLW\NH\ZRUGLV£SXEOLF¤PHDQLQJLWLVYLVLEOHHYHU\
ZKHUH7KHUHLVQRpublicNH\ZRUGLQ6FDOD7KLVLVLQFRQWUDVWWR-DYDZKLFKGHIDXOWV
WRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\RQO\ZLWKLQWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJHLH£SDFNDJHSULYDWH¤2WKHU
REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHVOLNH5XE\DOVRGHIDXOWWRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/public.scala

package scopeA {
class PublicClass1 {
val publicField = 1

class Nested {
val nestedField = 1
}

val nested = new Nested

}

class PublicClass2 extends PublicClass1 {

val field2 = publicField + 1
val nField2 = new Nested().nestedField
}
}

package scopeB {
class PublicClass1B extends scopeA.PublicClass1

class UsingClass(val publicClass: scopeA.PublicClass1) {

def method = "UsingClass:" +
" field: " + publicClass.publicField +

98 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 " nested field: " + publicClass.nested.nestedField
}
}

<RXFDQFRPSLOHWKLVILOHZLWKscalac,WVKRXOGFRPSLOHZLWKRXWHUURU
(YHU\WKLQJLVSXEOLFLQWKHVHSDFNDJHVDQGFODVVHV1RWHWKDW scopeB.UsingClassFDQ
DFFHVVscopeA.PublicClass1DQGLWVPHPEHUVLQFOXGLQJWKHLQVWDQFHRINestedDQGLWV
SXEOLFILHOG

Protected Visibility
3URWHFWHGYLVLELOLW\LVIRUWKHEHQHILWRILPSOHPHQWHUVRIGHULYHGW\SHVZKRQHHGDOLWWOH
PRUH DFFHVV WR WKH GHWDLOV RI WKHLU SDUHQW W\SHV $Q\ PHPEHU GHFODUHG ZLWK WKH
protectedNH\ZRUGLVYLVLEOHRQO\WRWKHGHILQLQJW\SHLQFOXGLQJRWKHULQVWDQFHVRIWKH
VDPHW\SHDQGDQ\GHULYHGW\SHV:KHQDSSOLHGWRDW\SHprotectedOLPLWVYLVLELOLW\WR
WKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
-DYDLQFRQWUDVWPDNHVSURWHFWHGPHPEHUVYLVLEOHWKURXJKRXWWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
6FDODKDQGOHVWKLVFDVHZLWKVFRSHGSULYDWHDQGSURWHFWHGDFFHVV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/protected-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class ProtectedClass1(protected val protectedField1: Int) {
protected val protectedField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: ProtectedClass1) =

(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
protected val nestedField = 1
}

protected val nested = new Nested

}

class ProtectedClass2 extends ProtectedClass1(1) {

val field1 = protectedField1
val field2 = protectedField2
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class ProtectedClass3 {
val protectedClass1 = new ProtectedClass1(1)
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1 // ERROR
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2 // ERROR
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

Visibility Rules | 99

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 protected class ProtectedClass4

class ProtectedClass5 extends ProtectedClass4

protected class ProtectedClass6 extends ProtectedClass4
}

package scopeB {
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4 // ERROR
}

:KHQ\RXFRPSLOHWKLVILOHZLWKscalac\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW7KHILOHQDPHV
EHIRUHWKHN:OLQHQXPEHUVKDYHEHHQUHPRYHGIURPWKHRXWSXWWREHWWHUILWWKHVSDFH
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in ProtectedClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value protectedField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1
^
21: error: value protectedField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField
^
32: error: class ProtectedClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4
^
5 errors found

7KH// ERRORFRPPHQWVLQWKHOLVWLQJPDUNWKHOLQHVWKDWIDLOWRSDUVH
ProtectedClass2 FDQ DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI ProtectedClass1 VLQFH LW GHULYHV
IURP LW +RZHYHU LW FDQ¦W DFFHVV WKH SURWHFWHG nestedField LQ protectedClass1.nes
ted $OVR ProtectedClass3 FDQ¦W DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI WKH ProtectedClass1
LQVWDQFHLWXVHV
)LQDOO\EHFDXVH ProtectedClass4LVGHFODUHG protectedLWLVQRWYLVLEOHLQWKH scopeB
SDFNDJH

Private Visibility
3ULYDWHYLVLELOLW\FRPSOHWHO\KLGHVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOVHYHQIURPWKHLPSOHPHQWHUV
RIGHULYHGFODVVHV$Q\PHPEHUGHFODUHGZLWKWKH privateNH\ZRUGLVYLVLEOHRQO\WR
WKHGHILQLQJW\SHLQFOXGLQJRWKHULQVWDQFHVRIWKHVDPHW\SH:KHQDSSOLHGWRDW\SH
privateOLPLWVYLVLELOLW\WRWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private val privateField1: Int) {
private val privateField2 = 1

100 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =
(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private val nestedField = 1
}

private val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

private class PrivateClass4

class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR
private class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass4
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
14: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
15: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value privateField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
21: error: value privateField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^

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 27: error: private class PrivateClass4 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass4
class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4
^
28: error: private class PrivateClass4 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass4
protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4
^
33: error: class PrivateClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4
^
9 errors found

1RZ PrivateClass2FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRILWVSDUHQWFODVV PrivateClass1

7KH\DUHFRPSOHWHO\LQYLVLEOHWRWKHVXEFODVVDVLQGLFDWHGE\WKHHUURUPHVVDJHV1RU
FDQLWDFFHVVDSULYDWHILHOGLQDNestedFODVV
-XVWDVIRUWKHFDVHRIprotectedDFFHVVPrivateClass3FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRI
WKHPrivateClass1LQVWDQFHLWLVXVLQJ1RWHKRZHYHUWKDWWKHequalFieldsPHWKRGFDQ
DFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIWKHotherLQVWDQFH
7KH GHFODUDWLRQV RI PrivateClass5 DQG PrivateClass6 IDLO EHFDXVH LI DOORZHG WKH\
ZRXOGHQDEOHPrivateClass4WR£HVFDSHLWVGHILQLQJVFRSH¤+RZHYHUWKHGHFODUDWLRQ
RIPrivateClass7VXFFHHGVEHFDXVHLWLVDOVRGHFODUHGWREHSULYDWH&XULRXVO\RXUSUH
YLRXVH[DPSOHZDVDEOHWRGHFODUHDSXEOLFFODVVWKDWVXEFODVVHGDSURWHFWHGFODVVZLWK
RXWDVLPLODUHUURU
)LQDOO\MXVWDVIRU protectedW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVWKH privateW\SHVFDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHG
RXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH

Scoped Private and Protected Visibility

6FDOD DOORZV \RX WR ILQHWXQH WKH VFRSH RI YLVLELOLW\ ZLWK WKH VFRSHG private DQG
protectedYLVLELOLW\GHFODUDWLRQV1RWHWKDWXVLQJprivateRUprotectedLQDVFRSHGGHF
ODUDWLRQLVLQWHUFKDQJHDEOHDVWKH\EHKDYHLGHQWLFDOO\H[FHSWXQGHULQKHULWDQFHZKHQ
DSSOLHGWRPHPEHUV

:KLOHHLWKHUFKRLFHEHKDYHVWKHVDPHLQPRVWVFHQDULRVLWLVPRUHFRP
PRQWRVHH private[X]UDWKHUWKDQ protected[X]XVHGLQFRGH,QWKH
FRUHOLEUDULHVLQFOXGHGZLWK6FDODWKHUDWLRLVURXJKO\ILYHWRRQH

/HW¦VEHJLQE\FRQVLGHULQJWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHVLQEHKDYLRUEHWZHHQVFRSHGSULYDWHDQG
VFRSHG SURWHFWHG¢KRZ WKH\ EHKDYH XQGHU LQKHULWDQFH ZKHQ PHPEHUV KDYH WKHVH
VFRSHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/scope-inheritance-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {

102 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 class Class1 {
private[scopeA] val scopeA_privateField = 1
protected[scopeA] val scopeA_protectedField = 2
private[Class1] val class1_privateField = 3
protected[Class1] val class1_protectedField = 4
private[this] val this_privateField = 5
protected[this] val this_protectedField = 6
}

class Class2 extends Class1 {

val field1 = scopeA_privateField
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}

package scopeB {
class Class2B extends scopeA.Class1 {
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
17: error: not found: value class1_privateField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
^
19: error: not found: value this_privateField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
^
26: error: not found: value scopeA_privateField
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
^
28: error: not found: value class1_privateField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
^
30: error: not found: value this_privateField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
^
5 errors found

7KHILUVWWZRHUURUVLQVLGHClass2VKRZXVWKDWDGHULYHGFODVVLQVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH
FDQ¦WUHIHUHQFHDPHPEHUWKDWLVVFRSHGSULYDWHWRWKHSDUHQWFODVVRU thisEXWLWFDQ
UHIHUHQFHDSULYDWHPHPEHUVFRSHGWRWKHSDFNDJHRUW\SHWKDWHQFORVHVERWKClass1
DQGClass2

Visibility Rules | 103

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,QFRQWUDVWIRUDGHULYHGFODVVRXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJHLWKDVQRDFFHVVWRDQ\RIWKH
VFRSHGSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIClass1
+RZHYHUDOOWKHVFRSHGSURWHFWHGPHPEHUVDUHYLVLEOHLQERWKGHULYHGFODVVHV
:H¦OOXVHVFRSHGSULYDWHGHFODUDWLRQVIRUWKHUHVWRIRXUH[DPSOHVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVLQFH
XVHRIVFRSHGSULYDWHLVDOLWWOHPRUHFRPPRQLQWKH6FDODOLEUDU\WKDQVFRSHGSURWHFWHG
ZKHQWKHSUHYLRXVLQKHULWDQFHVFHQDULRVDUHQ¦WDIDFWRU
)LUVW OHW¦V VWDUW ZLWK WKH PRVW UHVWULFWLYH YLVLELOLW\ private[this] DV LW DIIHFWV W\SH
PHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[this] val privateField1: Int) {
private[this] val privateField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =

(privateField1 == other.privateField1) && // ERROR
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private[this] val nestedField = 1
}

private[this] val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
5: error: value privateField1 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
^
14: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
15: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^

104 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 16: error: value nestedField is not a member of PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value privateField1 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
21: error: value privateField2 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
22: error: value nested is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
7 errors found

/LQHV¡DOVRZRQ¦WSDUVH6LQFHWKH\DUHSDUWRIWKHH[SUHVVLRQWKDW
VWDUWHGRQOLQHWKHFRPSLOHUVWRSSHGDIWHUWKHILUVWHUURU

7KHprivate[this]PHPEHUVDUHRQO\YLVLEOHWRWKHVDPHLQVWDQFH$QLQVWDQFHRIWKH
VDPHFODVVFDQ¦WVHH private[this]PHPEHUVRIDQRWKHULQVWDQFHVRWKH equalFields
PHWKRGZRQ¦WSDUVH
2WKHUZLVH WKH YLVLELOLW\ RI FODVV PHPEHUV LV WKH VDPH DV private ZLWKRXW D VFRSH
VSHFLILHU
:KHQGHFODULQJDW\SHZLWKprivate[this]XVHRIthisHIIHFWLYHO\ELQGVWRWKHHQFORVLQJ
SDFNDJHDVVKRZQKHUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
private[this] class PrivateClass1

package scopeA2 {
private[this] class PrivateClass2
}

class PrivateClass3 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR
private class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass1

private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW

Visibility Rules | 105

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 8: error: private class PrivateClass1 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass1
class PrivateClass3 extends PrivateClass1
^
9: error: private class PrivateClass1 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass1
protected class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1
^
13: error: type PrivateClass2 is not a member of package scopeA.scopeA2
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2
^
17: error: type PrivateClass1 is not a member of package scopeA
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
four errors found

,QWKHVDPHSDFNDJHDWWHPSWLQJWRGHFODUHDpublicRUprotectedVXEFODVVIDLOV2QO\
privateDQG private[this]VXEFODVVHVDUHDOORZHG$OVR PrivateClass2LVVFRSHGWR
scopeA2VR\RXFDQ¦WGHFODUHLWRXWVLGHscopeA26LPLODUO\DQDWWHPSWWRGHFODUHDFODVV
LQXQUHODWHGscopeBXVLQJPrivateClass1DOVRIDLOV
+HQFHZKHQDSSOLHGWRW\SHV private[this]LVHTXLYDOHQWWR-DYD¦V package private
YLVLELOLW\
1H[WOHW¦VH[DPLQHW\SHOHYHOYLVLELOLW\private[T]ZKHUHTLVDW\SH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[PrivateClass1] val privateField1: Int) {
private[PrivateClass1] val privateField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =

(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private[Nested] val nestedField = 1
}

private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR

106 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
12: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass1.this.Nested
val nestedNested = nested.nestedField
^
15: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
16: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^
17: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
21: error: value privateField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
22: error: value privateField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
23: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
7 errors found

$ private[PrivateClass1] PHPEHU LV YLVLEOH WR RWKHU LQVWDQFHV VR WKH equalFields
PHWKRG QRZ SDUVHV +HQFH private[T] LV QRW DV UHVWULFWLYH DV private[this] 1RWH
WKDW PrivateClass1 FDQ¦W VHH Nested.nestedField EHFDXVH WKDW ILHOG LV GHFODUHG
private[Nested]

:KHQPHPEHUVRITDUHGHFODUHGprivate[T]WKHEHKDYLRULVHTXLYDOHQW
WR private ,W LV QRW HTXLYDOHQW WR private[this] ZKLFK LV PRUH
UHVWULFWLYH

:KDWLIZHFKDQJHWKHVFRSHRINested.nestedFieldWREHprivate[PrivateClass1]"/HW¦V
VHHKRZprivate[T]DIIHFWVQHVWHGW\SHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-nested-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1 {
class Nested {
private[PrivateClass1] val nestedField = 1
}

private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField

Visibility Rules | 107

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 }

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
10: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
def nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
14: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
two errors found

1RZnestedFieldLVYLVLEOHWRPrivateClass1EXWLWLVVWLOOLQYLVLEOHRXWVLGHRIPrivate
Class17KLVLVKRZprivateZRUNVLQ-DYD
/HW¦VH[DPLQHVFRSLQJXVLQJDSDFNDJHQDPH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
private[scopeA] class PrivateClass1

package scopeA2 {
private [scopeA2] class PrivateClass2
private [scopeA] class PrivateClass3
}

class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1

protected class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass1
private class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass1

private[this] class PrivateClass8 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

private[this] class PrivateClass9 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass3
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
14: error: class PrivateClass2 cannot be accessed in package scopeA.scopeA2
private[this] class PrivateClass8 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2
^
19: error: class PrivateClass1 cannot be accessed in package scopeA

108 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
two errors found

1RWHWKDWPrivateClass2FDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHGRXWVLGHRIscopeA2EXWPrivateClass3FDQ
EHVXEFODVVHGLQscopeAEHFDXVHLWLVGHFODUHGprivate[scopeA]
)LQDOO\OHW¦VORRNDWWKHHIIHFWRISDFNDJHOHYHOVFRSLQJRIW\SHPHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1 {
private[scopeA] val privateField = 1

class Nested {
private[scopeA] val nestedField = 1
}

private[scopeA] val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

val field = privateField
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
val privateField = privateClass1.privateField
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
}

package scopeA2 {
class PrivateClass4 {
private[scopeA2] val field1 = 1
private[scopeA] val field2 = 2
}
}

class PrivateClass5 {
val privateClass4 = new scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateClass4.field2
}
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 {
val field1 = privateField // ERROR
val privateClass1 = new scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField // ERROR
}
}

Visibility Rules | 109

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&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
28: error: value field1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1
^
35: error: not found: value privateField
val field1 = privateField
^
37: error: value privateField cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField
^
three errors found

7KHRQO\HUURUVDUHZKHQZHDWWHPSWWRDFFHVVPHPEHUVVFRSHGWR scopeAIURPWKH
XQUHODWHG SDFNDJH scopeB DQG ZKHQ ZH DWWHPSW WR DFFHVV D PHPEHU IURP D QHVWHG
SDFNDJHscopeA2WKDWLVVFRSHGWRWKDWSDFNDJH

:KHQDW\SHRUPHPEHULVGHFODUHGprivate[P]ZKHUHPLVWKHHQFORVLQJ
SDFNDJHWKHQLWLVHTXLYDOHQWWR-DYD¦Vpackage privateYLVLELOLW\

Final Thoughts on Visibility

6FDODYLVLELOLW\GHFODUDWLRQVDUHYHU\IOH[LEOHDQGWKH\EHKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\7KH\SURYLGH
ILQHJUDLQHG FRQWURO RYHU YLVLELOLW\ DW DOO SRVVLEOH VFRSHV IURP WKH LQVWDQFH OHYHO
private[this]XSWRSDFNDJHOHYHOYLVLELOLW\private[P]IRUDSDFNDJHP)RUH[DP
SOH WKH\ PDNH LW HDVLHU WR FUHDWH £FRPSRQHQWV¤ ZLWK W\SHV H[SRVHG RXWVLGH RI WKH
FRPSRQHQW¦VWRSOHYHOSDFNDJHZKLOHKLGLQJLPSOHPHQWDWLRQW\SHVDQGW\SHPHPEHUV
ZLWKLQWKH£FRPSRQHQW¦V¤SDFNDJHV
)LQDOO\ZHKDYHREVHUYHGDSRWHQWLDO£JRWFKD¤ZLWKKLGGHQPHPEHUVRIWUDLWV

%HFDUHIXOZKHQFKRRVLQJWKHQDPHVRIPHPEHUVRIWUDLWV,IWZRWUDLWV
KDYHDPHPEHURIWKHVDPHQDPHDQGWKHWUDLWVDUHXVHGLQWKHVDPH
LQVWDQFHDQDPHFROOLVLRQZLOORFFXUHYHQLIERWKPHPEHUVDUHSULYDWH

)RUWXQDWHO\WKHFRPSLOHUFDWFKHVWKLVSUREOHP

Recap and What’s Next

:HLQWURGXFHGWKHEDVLFVRI6FDOD¦VREMHFWPRGHOLQFOXGLQJFRQVWUXFWRUVLQKHULWDQFH
QHVWLQJRIFODVVHVDQGUXOHVIRUYLVLELOLW\
,QWKHQH[WFKDSWHUZH¦OOH[SORUH6FDOD¦VPRUHDGYDQFHG223IHDWXUHVLQFOXGLQJRYHU
ULGLQJFRPSDQLRQREMHFWVFDVHFODVVHVDQGUXOHVIRUHTXDOLW\EHWZHHQREMHFWV

110 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 CHAPTER 6
Advanced Object-Oriented
Programming In Scala

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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits

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111

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W\SHPLVVSHOOLQJVEXWLWFDQ¦WKHOSZLWKHUURUVRIWKHVHFRQGW\SHVLQFHXVLQJWKH
DQQRWDWLRQLVRSWLRQDO

Attempting to Override final Declarations

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LVSURKLELWHG,QWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHWKHfixedMethodLVGHFODUHGfinalLQWKHSDUHQW
FODVV$WWHPSWLQJWRFRPSLOHWKHH[DPSOHZLOOUHVXOWLQDFRPSLODWLRQHUURU
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-member-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.

class NotFixed {
final def fixedMethod = "fixed"
}

class Changeable2 extends NotFixed {

override def fixedMethod = "not fixed" // ERROR
}

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FODVVFixedLVGHFODUHGfinalVRDQDWWHPSWWRGHULYHDQHZW\SHIURPLWZLOODOVRIDLOWR
FRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-class-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.

final class Fixed {

def doSomething = "Fixed did something!"
}

class Changeable1 extends Fixed // ERROR

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OLNHStringDQGDOOWKH£YDOXH¤W\SHVGHULYHGIURPAnyValVHH£7KH6FDOD
7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

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VWDUWLQJZLWKPHWKRGV

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IRUHZHZLOOXVHDQHZSDFNDJHui3

112 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 'UDZLQJLVDFWXDOO\DFURVVFXWWLQJFRQFHUQ7KHVWDWHRIDWidgetLVRQH
WKLQJKRZLWLVUHQGHUHGRQGLIIHUHQWSODWIRUPVWKLFNFOLHQWVZHESDJHV
PRELOHGHYLFHVHWFLVDVHSDUDWHLVVXH6RGUDZLQJLVDYHU\JRRGFDQ
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WidgetKLHUDUFK\LWVHOI

+HUHLVWKHUHYLVHGWidgetFODVVZLWKdrawDQGtoStringPHWKRGV
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/widget.scala

package ui3

abstract class Widget {

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}

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overrideNH\ZRUGLVUHTXLUHGIRUWidget.toString
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button.scala

package ui3

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}

def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}

override def toString() =

"(button: label=" + label + ", " + super.toString() + ")"
}

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Button DOVR RYHUULGHV toString VR WKH override NH\ZRUG LV UHTXLUHG 1RWH WKDW
super.toStringLVFDOOHG

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 113

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super.toString ZLOO ILQG WKH £FORVHVW¤ SDUHQW W\SH toString DV GHWHUPLQHG E\ WKH
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WKLVFDVHVLQFHClickableGRHVQ¦WGHILQHtoStringWidget.toStringZLOOEHFDOOHG

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WHUQVHH>*2)@

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WLFXODULVVXHV

Overriding Abstract and Concrete Fields in Traits

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-val-script.scala
// DANGER! Silent failure to override a trait's "name" (V2.7.5 only).
// Works as expected in V2.8.0.

114 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 trait T1 {
val name = "T1"
}

class Base

class ClassWithT1 extends Base with T1 {

override val name = "ClassWithT1"
}

val c = new ClassWithT1()

println(c.name)

class ClassExtendsT1 extends T1 {

override val name = "ClassExtendsT1"
}

val c2 = new ClassExtendsT1()

println(c2.name)

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-abs-val-script.scala

trait AbstractT1 {
val name: String

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 115

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 }

class Base

class ClassWithAbstractT1 extends Base with AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractT1"
}

val c = new ClassWithAbstractT1()

println(c.name)

class ClassExtendsAbstractT1 extends AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassExtendsAbstractT1"
}

val c2 = new ClassExtendsAbstractT1()

println(c2.name)

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ClassWithAbstractT1
ClassExtendsAbstractT1

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-invalid-init-val-script.scala
// ERROR: "value" read before initialized.

trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value // ???
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}

val c2b = new AbstractT2 {

println("In c2b:")
val value = 10
}
println("c2b.value = "+c2b.value+", inverse = "+c2b.inverse)

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WUDLW7KLVVFULSWVKRZVZKDWKDSSHQVZKHQinverseLVFDOFXODWHG
In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 0, inverse = Infinity
In c2b:
c2b.value = 10, inverse = Infinity

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116 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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WKHprintln("In c2b:")VWDWHPHQW7KHQWU\SXWWLQJLWEDFNEXWDIWHUWKHval value =
10OLQH
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-pre-init-val-script.scala

trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}

val c2c = new {

// Only initializations are allowed in pre-init. blocks.
// println("In c2c:")
val value = 10
} with AbstractT2

println("c2c.value = "+c2c.value+", inverse = "+c2c.inverse)

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In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 10, inverse = 0.1
c2c.value = 10, inverse = 0.1

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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 117

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 // code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/vetoable-clicks.scala

package ui3
import observer._

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

var maxAllowed = 1 // default
private var count = 0
abstract override def click() = {
count += 1
if (count <= maxAllowed)
super.click()
}
}

+HUHLVDQHZspecsREMHFWButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec2WKDWGHPRQVWUDWHV
FKDQJLQJWKHYDOXHRImaxAllowed
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button-clickable-observer-vetoable2-spec.scala
package ui3

import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec2 extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first 'maxAllowed' clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks {
maxAllowed = 2
}
observableButton.maxAllowed mustEqual 2
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 2
}
}
}

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118 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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IRUWKHPDLQWDLQHURIVetoableClicks&RQWURORYHUWKDWILHOGLVQRZORVW7KHPDLQWDLQHU
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Overriding Abstract and Concrete Fields in Classes

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H[DPSOHZLWKERWKDvalRYHUULGHDQGDvarUHDVVLJQPHQWLQDGHULYHGFODVV
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-field-script.scala

class C1 {
val name = "C1"
var count = 0
}

class ClassWithC1 extends C1 {

override val name = "ClassWithC1"
count = 1
}

val c = new ClassWithC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)

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1

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-abs-field-script.scala

abstract class AbstractC1 {

val name: String
var count: Int
}

class ClassWithAbstractC1 extends AbstractC1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractC1"

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 119

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 var count = 1
}

val c = new ClassWithAbstractC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)

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1

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Overriding Abstract Types

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7\SHV¤RQSDJH5HFDOOWKHBulkReaderH[DPSOHIURPWKDWVHFWLRQ
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)
in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}

println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )

120 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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YLGHDQDEVWUDFWLRQPHFKDQLVPDWWKHW\SHOHYHO
7KHH[DPSOHVKRZVKRZWRGHFODUHDQDEVWUDFWW\SHDQGKRZWRGHILQHDFRQFUHWHYDOXH
LQ GHULYHG FODVVHV BulkReader GHFODUHV type In ZLWKRXW LQLWLDOL]LQJ LW 7KH FRQFUHWH
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)LQDOO\\RXSUREDEO\QRWLFHGWKDWWKLVH[DPSOHDOVRGHPRQVWUDWHVGHILQLQJDQDEVWUDFW
ILHOGXVLQJDFRQVWUXFWRUSDUDPHWHUDQGDQDEVWUDFWPHWKRG
)RU DQRWKHU H[DPSOH OHW¦V UHYLVLW RXU Subject WUDLW IURP £7UDLWV $V 0L[
LQV¤RQSDJH7KHGHILQLWLRQRIWKHObserverW\SHLVDVWUXFWXUDOW\SHZLWKDPHWKRG
QDPHG receiveUpdate2EVHUYHUVPXVWKDYHWKLV£VWUXFWXUH¤/HW¦VJHQHUDOL]HWKHLP
SOHPHQWDWLRQQRZXVLQJDQDEVWUDFWW\SH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/observer2.scala

package observer

trait AbstractSubject {
type Observer

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (notify(_))

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit

}

trait SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer.receiveUpdate(this)

}

trait SubjectForFunctionalObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = (AbstractSubject) => Unit

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer(this)

}

1RZAbstractSubjectGHFODUHVtype ObserverDVDEVWUDFWLPSOLFLWO\EHFDXVHWKHUHLV

QRGHILQLWLRQ6LQFHWKHRULJLQDOVWUXFWXUDOW\SHLVJRQHZHGRQ¦WNQRZH[DFWO\KRZWR
QRWLI\DQREVHUYHU6RZHDOVRDGGHGDQDEVWUDFWPHWKRGnotifyZKLFKDFRQFUHWHFODVV
RUWUDLWZLOOGHILQHDVDSSURSULDWH

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 121

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VWUXFWXUDO W\SH ZH XVHG LQ WKH RULJLQDO H[DPSOH DQG notify VLPSO\ FDOOV
receiveUpdateDVEHIRUH
7KH SubjectForFunctionalObservers GHULYHG WUDLW GHILQHV Observer WR EH D IXQFWLRQ
WDNLQJDQLQVWDQFHRI AbstractSubjectDQGUHWXUQLQJ Unit$OO notifyKDVWRGRLVFDOO
WKHREVHUYHUIXQFWLRQSDVVLQJWKHVXEMHFWDVWKHVROHDUJXPHQW1RWHWKDWWKLVLPSOH
PHQWDWLRQLVVLPLODUWRWKHDSSURDFKZHXVHGLQRXURULJLQDOEXWWRQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
ButtonWithCallbacksZKHUHWKH£FDOOEDFNV¤ZHUHXVHUVXSSOLHGIXQFWLRQV6HH£,QWUR
GXFLQJ 7UDLWV¤ RQ SDJH  DQG D UHYLVLWHG YHUVLRQ LQ £&RQVWUXFWRUV LQ 6FDOD¤
RQSDJH
+HUHLVDVSHFLILFDWLRQWKDWH[HUFLVHVWKHVHWZRYDULDWLRQVREVHUYLQJEXWWRQFOLFNVDV
EHIRUH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/button-observer2-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserver2Spec extends Specification {

"An Observer watching a SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers button" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button(name) with SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
"An Observer watching a SubjectForFunctionalObservers button" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button(name) with SubjectForFunctionalObservers {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
var count = 0
observableButton.addObserver((button) => count += 1)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

122 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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GRQ¦WQHHGDQRWKHU£REVHUYHU¤LQVWDQFHDWDOO:HMXVWPDLQWDLQD countYDULDEOHDQG
SDVVDIXQFWLRQOLWHUDOWRaddObserverWRLQFUHPHQWWKHFRXQWDQGLJQRUHWKHEXWWRQ
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VSHFLDO LQVWDQFHV QR WUDLWV GHILQLQJ DEVWUDFWLRQV HWF )RU PDQ\ FDVHV LW LV DQ LGHDO
DSSURDFK
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LPSRVHVIHZHUFRQVWUDLQWVRQSRWHQWLDOREVHUYHUV

AbstractSubjectLOOXVWUDWHVWKDWDQDEVWUDFWLRQZLWKIHZHUFRQFUHWHGH
WDLOVLVXVXDOO\PRUHUHXVDEOH

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LQ£6FDODEOH$EVWUDFWLRQV¤RQSDJH

When Accessor Methods and Fields Are Indistinguishable: The Uniform

Access Principle
6XSSRVHDXVHURI ButtonCountObserverIURP£7UDLWV$V0L[LQV¤RQSDJHDFFHVVHV
WKHcountPHPEHU
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer-script.scala

val bco = new ui.ButtonCountObserver

val oldCount = bco.count
bco.count = 5
val newCount = bco.count
println(newCount + " == 5 and " + oldCount + " == 0?")

:KHQWKHcountILHOGLVUHDGRUZULWWHQDVLQWKLVH[DPSOHDUHPHWKRGVFDOOHGRULVWKH
ILHOGDFFHVVHGGLUHFWO\"$VRULJLQDOO\GHFODUHGLQ ButtonCountObserverWKHILHOGLVDF
FHVVHGGLUHFWO\+RZHYHUWKHXVHUGRHVQ¦WUHDOO\FDUH,QIDFWWKHIROORZLQJWZRGHIL
QLWLRQVDUHIXQFWLRQDOO\HTXLYDOHQWIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHXVHU
class ButtonCountObserver {
var count = 0 // public field access (original definition)
// ...
}
class ButtonCountObserver {
private var cnt = 0 // private field
def count = cnt // reader method
def count_=(newCount: Int) = cnt = newCount // writer method
// ...
}

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 123

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ILHOGYDOXHVDVLIWKH\DUHSXEOLFO\DFFHVVLEOHHYHQWKRXJKLQVRPHFDVHVWKH\DUHDFWXDOO\
FDOOLQJPHWKRGV7KHPDLQWDLQHURIButtonCountObserverKDVWKHIUHHGRPWRFKDQJHWKH
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VLVWHQF\LQWKHXVHRISDUHQWKHVHVLVUHTXLUHGLIDPHWKRGGHILQLWLRQRPLWVSDUHQWKHVHV
7KLVLVRQO\SRVVLEOHLIWKHPHWKRGWDNHVQRDUJXPHQWV)RUWKH8QLIRUP$FFHVV3ULQ
FLSOHWRZRUNZHZDQWWRGHILQHILHOGUHDGHUPHWKRGVZLWKRXWSDUHQWKHVHV&RQWUDVW
WKDWZLWK5XE\ZKHUHPHWKRGSDUHQWKHVHVDUHDOZD\VRSWLRQDODVORQJDVWKHSDUVHLV
XQDPELJXRXV
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DOORZVLQYRFDWLRQVRIPHWKRGVZLWKWKLVIRUPDWWREHZULWWHQLQHLWKHURIWKHIROORZLQJ
ZD\V
obj.field_=(newValue)
// or
obj.field = newValue

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PHWKRGQDPHVLQWKHVDPHQDPHVSDFHZKLFKPHDQVZHFDQ¦WQDPHWKHILHOGcountLID
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ZRXOGQRWFRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/member-namespace-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

class IllegalMemberNameUse {
def member(i: Int) = 2 * i
val member = 2 // ERROR
object member { // ERROR
def apply() = 2
}
}

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SDUDPHWHUOHVV PHWKRG WKHQ D VXEFODVV FDQ RYHUULGH WKDW PHWKRG ZLWK D val ,I WKH
SDUHQW¦VPHWKRGLVFRQFUHWHWKHQWKHoverrideNH\ZRUGLVUHTXLUHG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-class-script.scala

class Parent {
def name = "Parent"
}

124 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 class Child extends Parent {
override val name = "Child"
}

println(new Child().name) // => "Child"

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-class-script.scala

abstract class AbstractParent {

def name: String
}

class ConcreteChild extends AbstractParent {

val name = "Child"
}

println(new ConcreteChild().name) // => "Child"

7KLVDOVRZRUNVIRUWUDLWV,IWKHWUDLW¦VPHWKRGLVFRQFUHWHZHKDYHWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-trait-script.scala

trait NameTrait {
def name = "NameTrait"
}

class ConcreteNameClass extends NameTrait {

override val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}

println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"

,IWKHWUDLW¦VPHWKRGLVDEVWUDFWZHKDYHWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-trait-script.scala

trait AbstractNameTrait {
def name: String
}

class ConcreteNameClass extends AbstractNameTrait {

val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}

println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"

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WKHWLFDOPersonInterfaceIURPVRPHOHJDF\-DYDFRGH

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 125

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 class Person(val getName: String) extends PersonInterface

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Companion Objects
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126 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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Apply
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VWDQGDUGOLEUDU\
type Pair[+A, +B] = Tuple2[A, B]
object Pair {
def apply[A, B](x: A, y: B) = Tuple2(x, y)
def unapply[A, B](x: Tuple2[A, B]): Option[Tuple2[A, B]] = Some(x)
}

6R\RXFDQFUHDWHDQHZPairDVIROORZV
val p = Pair(1, "one")

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MHFWPairZKLFKWKHQFDOOVTuple2.applyRQWKHTuple2FRPSDQLRQREMHFW

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UHWXUQDQLQVWDQFHRIDVXEFODVVRIWKHFRPSDQLRQFODVV+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHZKHUHZH
GHILQHDFRPSDQLRQREMHFW WidgetWKDWXVHVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVWRSDUVHDVWULQJUHS
UHVHQWLQJDWidgetVXEFODVV:KHQDPDWFKRFFXUVWKHVXEFODVVLVLQVWDQWLDWHGDQGWKH
QHZLQVWDQFHLVUHWXUQHG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget.scala

package objects

abstract class Widget {

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}

object Widget {
val ButtonExtractorRE = """\(button: label=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget\)\)""".r
val TextFieldExtractorRE = """\(textfield: text=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget\)\)""".r

def apply(specification: String): Option[Widget] = specification match {

Companion Objects | 127

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 case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))
case TextFieldExtractorRE(text) => new Some(new TextField(text))
case _ => None
}
}

Widget.applyUHFHLYHVDVWULQJ£VSHFLILFDWLRQ¤WKDWGHILQHVZKLFKFODVVWRLQVWDQWLDWH
7KHVWULQJPLJKWFRPHIURPDFRQILJXUDWLRQILOHZLWKZLGJHWVWRFUHDWHDWVWDUWXSIRU
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£([WHUQDO'6/VZLWK3DUVHU&RPELQDWRUV¤RQSDJH
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case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))

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VXFFHVVIXOLWH[WUDFWVWKHVXEVWULQJLQWKHILUVWFDSWXUHJURXSLQWKHUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQ
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+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVWidget.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget-apply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object WidgetApplySpec extends Specification {

"Widget.apply with a valid widget specification string" should {
"return a widget instance with the correct fields set" in {
Widget("(button: label=click me, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case b:Button => b.label mustEqual "click me"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
Widget("(textfield: text=This is text, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case tf:TextField => tf.text mustEqual "This is text"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
}
}
"Widget.apply with an invalid specification string" should {
"return None" in {

128 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 Widget("(button: , (Widget)") mustEqual None
}
}
}

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GHVLJQSDWWHUQIURP>*2)@1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHH[DPSOHLOOXVWUDWHVKRZDQ apply
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val a = Array(1,2,3,4)
println(a(2)) // => 3

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ZLVHQRGLIIHUHQWIURPDQ\RWKHUPHWKRG<RXFDQRYHUORDGLW\RXFDQLQYRNHLWGLUHFWO\
HWF

Unapply
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XVHGWRH[WUDFWWKHFRQVWLWXHQWSDUWVRIDQLQVWDQFH3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJXVHVWKLVIHDWXUH
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unapplyPHWKRGVDUHFDOOHGH[WUDFWRUV
+HUHLVDQH[SDQGHGbutton.scalaZLWKDButtonobjectWKDWGHILQHVDQunapplyH[WUDFWRU
PHWKRG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button.scala

package objects
import ui3.Clickable

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

Companion Objects | 129

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 def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}

def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}

override def toString() = "(button: label="+label+", "+super.toString()+")"

}

object Button {
def unapply(button: Button) = Some(button.label)
}

Button.unapplyWDNHVDVLQJOHButtonDUJXPHQWDQGUHWXUQVDSomeZUDSSLQJWKH label
YDOXH7KLVGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSURWRFROIRUunapplyPHWKRGV7KH\UHWXUQDSomeZUDS
SLQJWKHH[WUDFWHGILHOGV:H¦OOVHHKRZWRKDQGOHPRUHWKDQRQHILHOGLQDPRPHQW
+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVButton.unapply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button-unapply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object ButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"Button.unapply" should {
"match a Button object" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(false, "click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a non-Button object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case Button(label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the Button's label" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me"
case _ => fail()
}

130 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 }
"extract the RadioButton's label" in {
val rb = new RadioButton(false, "click me, too")
rb match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me, too"
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}

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DFWXDOButtonLQVWDQFHVRULQVWDQFHVRIGHULYHGFODVVHVOLNHRadioButton
6LQFHunapplyWDNHVDButtonDUJXPHQWLQWKLVFDVHWKH6FDODUXQWLPHW\SHFKHFNVWKH
LQVWDQFHEHLQJPDWFKHG,WWKHQORRNVIRUDFRPSDQLRQREMHFWZLWKDQunapplyPHWKRG
DQGLQYRNHVWKDWPHWKRGSDVVLQJWKHLQVWDQFH7KHGHIDXOWFDVHFODXVHcase _LVLQYRNHG
IRUWKHLQVWDQFHVWKDWGRQ¦WW\SHFKHFNDVFRPSDWLEOH7KHSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJSURFHVVLV
IXOO\W\SHVDIH
7KHUHPDLQLQJH[DPSOHVinFODXVHVFRQILUPWKDWWKHFRUUHFWYDOXHVIRUWKHlabelDUH
H[WUDFWHG7KH6FDODUXQWLPHDXWRPDWLFDOO\H[WUDFWVWKHLWHPLQWKHSome
:KDWDERXWH[WUDFWLQJPXOWLSOHILHOGV")RUDIL[HGVHWRINQRZQILHOGVDSomeZUDSSLQJ
DTupleLVUHWXUQHGDVVKRZQLQWKLVXSGDWHGYHUVLRQRIRadioButton
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button.scala

package objects

/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection botton on a radio.
*/
class RadioButton(val on: Boolean, label: String) extends Button(label)

object RadioButton {
def unapply(button: RadioButton) = Some((button.on, button.label))
// equivalent to: = Some(Pair(button.on, button.label))
}

$SomeZUDSSLQJDPair(button.on, button.label)LVUHWXUQHG$VZHGLVFXVVLQ£7KH
3UHGHI2EMHFW¤RQSDJH PairLVDW\SHGHILQHGWREHHTXDOWR Tuple2+HUHLVWKH
FRUUHVSRQGLQJspecsobjectWKDWWHVWVLW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button-unapply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object RadioButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"RadioButton.unapply" should {
"should match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {

Companion Objects | 131

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 case RadioButton(on, label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a Button (parent class) object" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"not match a non-RadioButton object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the RadioButton's on/off state and label" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => {
label mustEqual "click me"
on mustEqual true
}
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}

Apply and UnapplySeq for Collections

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DERXWWKHUHVWRILW"
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WKRVHPHWKRGVIURP6FDOD¦VRZQListFODVV
def apply[A](xs: A*): List[A] = xs.toList

def unapplySeq[A](x: List[A]): Some[List[A]] = Some(x)

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SDUDPHWHUL]HG WR FRQVWUXFW D QHZ List[A] 6HH £8QGHUVWDQGLQJ 3DUDPHWHUL]HG
7\SHV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHGHWDLOV0RVWRIWKHWLPHWKHW\SHSDUDPHWHUZLOOEH
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ALQVWDQFHVDVWKH\ZDQWLQFOXGLQJQRQH,QWHUQDOO\YDULDEOHDUJXPHQWOLVWVDUHVWRUHG
LQDQArray[A]ZKLFKLQKHULWVWKHtoListPHWKRGIURPIterableWKDWZHXVHGKHUH

132 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
 7KLVLVDKDQG\LGLRPIRU$3,ZULWHUV$FFHSWLQJYDULDEOHDUJXPHQWVWR
DIXQFWLRQFDQEHFRQYHQLHQWIRUXVHUVDQGFRQYHUWLQJWKHDUJXPHQWV
WRDListLVRIWHQLGHDOIRULQWHUQDOPDQDJHPHQW

+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHVFULSWWKDWXVHVList.applyLPSOLFLWO\
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-apply-example-script.scala

val list1 = List()

val list2 = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)
val list3 = List("1", "2.2", "three", "four")
println("1: "+list1)
println("2: "+list2)
println("3: "+list3)

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LQ5XE\IRUH[DPSOHZKHUHWKHVDPHV\PEROZRXOGEHZULWWHQDV:four6\PEROVDUH
XVHIXOIRUUHSUHVHQWLQJLGHQWLWLHVFRQVLVWHQWO\
7KLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
1: List()
2: List(1, 2.2, three, 'four)
3: List(1, 2.2, three, four)

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WKLVLVVXIILFLHQWIRUSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJDVVKRZQLQWKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-unapply-example-script.scala

val list = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)

list match {
case List(x, y, _*) => println("x = "+x+", y = "+y)
case _ => throw new Exception("No match! "+list)
}

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DQGWKHILUVWWZRHOHPHQWVZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWRxDQGy:HGRQ¦WFDUHDERXWWKHUHVWRI
WKHOLVW7KH_*PDWFKHV]HURRUPRUHUHPDLQLQJHOHPHQWV
7KHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
x = 1, y = 2.2

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3URJUDPPLQJ¤RQSDJH

Companion Objects and Java Static Methods

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mainPHWKRGWRXVHDVWKHHQWU\SRLQWIRUDQDSSOLFDWLRQ6FDODUHTXLUHV\RXWRSXWLWLQ
DQREMHFW+RZHYHUDWWKHWLPHRIWKLVZULWLQJ mainPHWKRGVFDQQRWEHGHILQHGLQD

Companion Objects | 133

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FRPSDQLRQREMHFW%HFDXVHRILPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOVLQWKHJHQHUDWHGFRGHWKH-90
ZRQ¦WILQGWKH mainPHWKRG7KLVLVVXHPD\EHUHVROYHGLQDIXWXUHUHOHDVH)RUQRZ
\RXPXVWGHILQHDQ\mainPHWKRGLQDVLQJOHWRQREMHFWLHD£QRQFRPSDQLRQ¤REMHFW
VHH>6FDOD7LSV@&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHRIDVLPSOH PersonFODVVDQGFRP
SDQLRQREMHFWWKDWDWWHPSWVWRGHILQHmain
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person.scala

package objects

class Person(val name: String, val age: Int) {

override def toString = "name: " + name + ", age: " + age
}

object Person {
def apply(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
def unapply(person: Person) = Some((person.name, person.age))

def main(args: Array[String]) = {

// Test the constructor...
val person = new Person("Buck Trends", 18)
assert(person.name == "Buck Trends")
assert(person.age == 21)
}
}

object PersonTest {
def main(args: Array[String]) = Person.main(args)
}

7KLVFRGHFRPSLOHVILQHEXWLI\RXDWWHPSWWRLQYRNHPerson.mainXVLQJscala -cp ...

objects.Person\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person.main([Ljava.lang.String;)

7KH objects/Person.classILOHH[LVWV,I\RXGHFRPSLOHLWZLWK javap -classpath ...

objects.Person UHIHU WR £7KH VFDODS MDYDS DQG MDG &RPPDQG/LQH
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FRPSLOHobjects/Person$.classWKHILOHIRUWKHFRPSDQLRQREMHFW¦VE\WHFRGHLWKDVD
mainPHWKRGEXWQRWLFHWKDWLWLVQ¦WGHFODUHG static6RDWWHPSWLQJWRLQYRNH scala
-cp ... objects.Person$DOVRIDLOVWRILQGWKH£VWDWLF¤main
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person$.main is not static

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FRPSLOLQJLWZLWKjavap -classpath ... objects.PersonTestVKRZVWKDWLWKDVDstatic
mainPHWKRG,I\RXLQYRNHLWXVLQJ scala -cp ... objects.PersonTestWKH PersonT
est.mainPHWKRGLVLQYRNHGZKLFKLQWXUQLQYRNHVPerson.main<RXJHWDQDVVHUWLRQ
HUURUIURPWKHVHFRQGFDOOWRassertZKLFKLVLQWHQWLRQDO
java.lang.AssertionError: assertion failed
at scala.Predef$.assert(Predef.scala:87)
at objects.Person$.test(person.scala:15)

134 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 at objects.PersonTest$.main(person.scala:20)
at objects.PersonTest.main(person.scala)
...

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EHYLVLEOHWR-DYDFRGHDVVWDWLFPHWKRGV7KH\DUHQ¦WVWDWLFLQWKHE\WHFRGH<RXKDYH
WRSXWWKHVHPHWKRGVLQVLQJOHWRQREMHFWVLQVWHDG&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJ-DYDFODVV
WKDWDWWHPSWVWRFUHDWHDXVHUZLWKPerson.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
// WON'T COMPILE

package objects;

public class PersonUserWontCompile {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100); // ERROR
System.out.println(buck);
}
}

,IZHFRPSLOHLWDIWHUFRPSLOLQJPerson.scalaZHJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU

$ javac -classpath ... objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java:5: cannot find symbol
symbol : method apply(java.lang.String,int)
location: class objects.Person
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
^
1 error

+RZHYHUZHFDQXVHWKHIROORZLQJVLQJOHWRQREMHFW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person-factory.scala

package objects

object PersonFactory {
def make(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
}

1RZWKHIROORZLQJ-DYDFODVVZLOOFRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUser.java

package objects;

public class PersonUser {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// The following line won't compile.
// Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
Person buck = PersonFactory.make("Buck Trends", 100);
System.out.println(buck);
}
}

Companion Objects | 135

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 'RQRWGHILQHmainRUDQ\RWKHUPHWKRGLQDFRPSDQLRQREMHFWWKDWQHHGV
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Case Classes
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&DVHFODVVHVKDYHVHYHUDOXVHIXOIHDWXUHVEXWDOVRVRPHGUDZEDFNV
/HW¦VUHZULWHWKH ShapeH[DPSOHZHXVHGLQ£$7DVWHRI&RQFXUUHQF\¤RQSDJHWR
XVHFDVHFODVVHV+HUHLVWKHRULJLQDOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala

package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}

class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}

class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}

+HUHLVWKHH[DPSOHUHZULWWHQXVLQJWKHcaseNH\ZRUG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case.scala

package shapes {

136 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example1-script.scala

import shapes._

val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))

val shape1 = shapesList.head // grab the first one.

println("shape1: "+shape1+". hash = "+shape1.hashCode)
for (shape2 <- shapesList) {
println("shape2: "+shape2+". 1 == 2 ? "+(shape1 == shape2))
}

Case Classes | 137

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7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
shape1: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). hash = 2061963534
shape2: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). 1 == 2 ? true
shape2: Circle(Point(5.0,2.0),3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(-2.0,-1.0),4.0,3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0)). 1 == 2 ? false

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example2-script.scala

import shapes._

val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))

def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {

case Circle(center, radius) =>
println("Circle: center = "+center+", radius = "+radius)
case Rectangle(ll, h, w) =>
println("Rectangle: lower-left = "+ll+", height = "+h+", width = "+w)
case Triangle(p1, p2, p3) =>
println("Triangle: point1 = "+p1+", point2 = "+p2+", point3 = "+p3)
case _ =>
println("Unknown shape!"+shape)
}

138 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 shapesList.foreach { shape => matchOn(shape) }

7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
Circle: center = Point(0.0,0.0), radius = 1.0
Circle: center = Point(5.0,2.0), radius = 3.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(0.0,0.0), height = 2.0, width = 5.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(-2.0,-1.0), height = 4.0, width = 3.0
Triangle: point1 = Point(0.0,0.0), point2 = Point(1.0,0.0), point3 = Point(0.0,1.0)

Syntactic Sugar for Binary Operations

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def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {
case head :: tail => ...
...
}

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case head :: tail => ...
case ::(head, tail) => ...

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def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {
case center Circle radius => ...
case ll Rectangle (h, w) => ...
case p1 Triangle (p2, p3) => ...
case _ => ...
}

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case arg Foo () => ...

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Case Classes | 139

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The copy Method in Scala Version 2.8
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LGHQWLFDOWRDQRWKHULQVWDQFHZLWKDIHZILHOGVFKDQJHG&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
VFULSW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example3-v28-script.scala
// Scala version 2.8 only.

import shapes._

val circle1 = Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2.0)

val circle2 = circle1 copy (radius = 4.0)

println(circle1)
println(circle2)

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case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {
...
def copy(center: Point = this.center, radius: Double = this.radius) =
new Circle(center, radius)
}

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H[SOLFLWO\

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WKLVILHOGLQShape/HW¦VPDNHWKHVHWZRFKDQJHVWRShape
abstract case class Shape(id: String) {
def draw(): Unit
}

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140 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 case class Circle(id: String, center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape(id){
def draw(): Unit
}

+RZHYHULI\RXFRPSLOHWKLVFRGH\RX¦OOJHWHUURUVOLNHWKHIROORZLQJ
... error: error overriding value id in class Shape of type String;
value id needs `override' modifier
case class Circle(id: String, center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape(id){
^

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-id.scala

package shapesid {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

abstract case class Shape(id: String) {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(override val id: String, center: Point, radius: Double)
extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(override val id: String, lowerLeft: Point,

height: Double, width: Double) extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(override val id: String, point1: Point,

point2: Point, point3: Point) extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-equals-ambiguity-script.scala

import shapesid._

case class FancyCircle(name: String, override val id: String,

override val center: Point, override val radius: Double)
extends Circle(id, center, radius) {
override def draw() = println("FancyCircle.draw: " + this)

Case Classes | 141

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 }

val fc = FancyCircle("me", "circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)

val c = Circle("circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)
format("FancyCircle == Circle? %b\n", (fc == c))
format("Circle == FancyCircle? %b\n", (c == fc))

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FancyCircle == Circle? false
Circle == FancyCircle? true

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142 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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The equals Method
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scala> Array(1, 2) == Array(1, 2)
res0: Boolean = false

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Equality of Objects | 143

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144 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 CHAPTER 7
The Scala Object System

The Predef Object

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Values Map, Set.

145

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 Objects Pair, Triple.
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146 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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val stateCapitals = Map(
"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")
// ...

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The Predef Object | 147

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IRUWHVWVDQGWKHPairW\SHDQGLWVFRPSDQLRQREMHFWZKLFKZHH[SORUHGLQ£7KH3UHGHI
2EMHFW¤RQSDJH
type Pair[+A, +B] = Tuple2[A, B]
object Pair {
def apply[A, B](x: A, y: B) = Tuple2(x, y)
def unapply[A, B](x: Tuple2[A, B]): Option[Tuple2[A, B]] = Some(x)
}

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Classes and Objects: Where Are the Statics? | 149

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Package Objects
6FDODYHUVLRQLQWURGXFHVDQHZVFRSLQJFRQVWUXFWFDOOHGSDFNDJHREMHFWV7KH\DUH
XVHGWRGHILQHW\SHVYDULDEOHVDQGPHWKRGVWKDWDUHYLVLEOHDWWKHOHYHORIWKHFRUUH
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EHIRUHWKHILQDOYHUVLRQLVUHOHDVHG
package object scala {
type Iterable[+A] = scala.collection.Iterable[A]
val Iterable = scala.collection.Iterable

@deprecated("use Iterable instead") type Collection[+A] = Iterable[A]

@deprecated("use Iterable instead") val Collection = Iterable

type Seq[+A] = scala.collection.Sequence[A]

val Seq = scala.collection.Sequence

type RandomAccessSeq[+A] = scala.collection.Vector[A]

val RandomAccessSeq = scala.collection.Vector

type Iterator[+A] = scala.collection.Iterator[A]

val Iterator = scala.collection.Iterator

type BufferedIterator[+A] = scala.collection.BufferedIterator[A]

type List[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.List[A]

val List = scala.collection.immutable.List

val Nil = scala.collection.immutable.Nil

type ::[A] = scala.collection.immutable.::[A]

val :: = scala.collection.immutable.::

type Stream[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.Stream[A]

val Stream = scala.collection.immutable.Stream

type StringBuilder = scala.collection.mutable.StringBuilder

val StringBuilder = scala.collection.mutable.StringBuilder
}

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1RWHWKDWSDLUVRIGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHtype List[+] = ...DQGval List = ...DUHHIIHF
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REMHFW
package scala {
object toplevel {
...
type List[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.List[A]
val List = scala.collection.immutable.List
...
}
}

...
import scala.toplevel._
...

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PHQWDWLRQGHWDLOV

Sealed Class Hierarchies

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HYHULW¦VQRWDOZD\VSRVVLEOHWRGHILQHUHDVRQDEOHEHKDYLRUIRUWKHGHIDXOWFDVH
7KHUHLVDQDOWHUQDWLYHVROXWLRQLI\RXNQRZWKDWWKHFDVHFODVVKLHUDUFK\LVXQOLNHO\WR
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Sealed Class Hierarchies | 151

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod()

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)
case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}

val methods = List(

Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))

methods.foreach { method => handle(method) }

7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
connect: connect body...
delete: delete body...
get: get body...
head: head body...
options: options body...
post: post body...
put: put body...
trace: trace body...

152 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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1RGHIDXOWFDVHLVQHFHVVDU\VLQFHZHFRYHUDOOWKHSRVVLELOLWLHV&RQYHUVHO\LI\RXRPLW
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FRPPHQWRXWWKHFDVHIRUPut\RXJHWWKLVZDUQLQJ
warning: match is not exhaustive!
missing combination Put

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

...

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IRUDQDSSURSULDWHGHILQLWLRQRI£IUHTXHQWO\¤

)LQDOO\\RXPD\KDYHQRWLFHGVRPHGXSOLFDWLRQLQWKHH[DPSOH$OOWKHFRQFUHWHFODVVHV
KDYHDbodyILHOG:K\GLGQ¦WZHSXWWKDWILHOGLQWKHSDUHQWHttpMethodFODVV"%HFDXVH
ZHGHFLGHGWRXVHFDVHFODVVHVIRUWKHFRQFUHWHFODVVHVZH¦OOUXQLQWRWKHVDPHSUREOHP
ZLWK FDVH FODVV LQKHULWDQFH WKDW ZH GLVFXVVHG LQ £&DVH &ODVV ,QKHUL
WDQFH¤RQSDJHZKHUHZHDGGHGDVKDUHGidILHOGLQWKHShapeKLHUDUFK\:HQHHG
WKHbodyDUJXPHQWIRUHDFK+773PHWKRG¦VFRQVWUXFWRU\HWLWZLOOEHPDGHDILHOGRI
HDFKPHWKRGW\SHDXWRPDWLFDOO\6RZHZRXOGKDYHWRXVHWKHoverride valWHFKQLTXH
ZHGHPRQVWUDWHGSUHYLRXVO\
:HFRXOGUHPRYHWKHFDVHNH\ZRUGVDQGLPSOHPHQWWKHPHWKRGVDQGFRPSDQLRQRE
MHFWVWKDWZHQHHG+RZHYHULQWKLVFDVHWKHGXSOLFDWLRQLVPLQLPDODQGWROHUDEOH
:KDWLIZHZDQWWRXVHFDVHFODVVHV\HWDOVRUHIHUHQFHWKH bodyILHOGLQ HttpMethod"
)RUWXQDWHO\ZHNQRZWKDW6FDODZLOOJHQHUDWHDbodyUHDGHUPHWKRGLQHYHU\FRQFUHWH
VXEFODVVDVORQJDVZHXVHWKHQDPHbodyFRQVLVWHQWO\6RZHFDQGHFODUHWKDWPHWKRG
DEVWUDFWLQHttpMethodWKHQXVHLWDVZHVHHILW7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHGHPRQVWUDWHV
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-body-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod() {

def body: String
def bodyLength = body.length

Sealed Class Hierarchies | 153

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 }

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod

case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)
case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}

val methods = List(

Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))

methods.foreach { method =>

handle(method)
println("body length? " + method.bodyLength)
}

:HGHFODUHGbodyDEVWUDFWLQHttpMethod:HDGGHGDVLPSOHbodyLengthPHWKRGWKDW
FDOOVbody7KHORRSDWWKHHQGRIWKHVFULSWFDOOV bodyLength5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWSUR
GXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
connect: connect body...
body length? 15
delete: delete body...
body length? 14
get: get body...
body length? 11
head: head body...
body length? 12
options: options body...
body length? 15
post: post body...
body length? 12
put: put body...
body length? 11

154 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 trace: trace body...
body length? 13

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FKLHVKDYHYHU\XVHIXOSURSHUWLHVEXWWKH\DUHQ¦WVXLWDEOHIRUDOOVLWXDWLRQV

The Scala Type Hierarchy

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O\LQJ£UXQWLPH¤LVGLVFXVVHGWKHSRLQWVPDGHDSSO\HTXDOO\WRWKH-90DQGWKH1(7
&/5H[FHSWZKHUHQRWHG

The Scala Type Hierarchy | 155

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7DEOH$Q\$Q\9DODQG$Q\5HI
Name Parent Description
Any none The root of the hierarchy. Defines a few final methods like ==, !=, isInstanceOf[T] (for type
checking), and asInstanceOf[T] (for type casting), as well as default versions of equals,
hashCode, and toString, which are designed to be overridden by subclasses.
AnyVal Any The parent of all value types, which correspond to the primitive types on the runtime platform, plus
Unit. All the AnyVal instances are immutable value instances, and all the AnyVal types are
abstract final. Hence, none of them can be instantiated with new. Rather, new instances are
created with literal values (e.g., 3.14 for a Double) or by calling methods on instances that return
new values.
AnyRef Any The parent of all reference types, including all java.* and scala.* types. It is equivalent to
java.lang.Object for the JVM and object (System.Object) for the .NET runtime. Instances
of reference types are created with new.

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7DEOH'LUHFWVXEW\SHVRI$Q\9DOWKHYDOXHW\SHV
Name Runtime primitive type
Boolean Boolean (true and false).
Byte Byte.
Char Char.
Short Short.
Int Int.
Long Long.
Float Float.
Double Double.
Unit Serves the same role as void in most imperative languages. Used primarily as a function return value.
There is only one instance of Unit, named (). Think of it as a tuple with zero items.

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Name Parent Description
Collection[+T] Iterable[T] Trait for collections of known size.
Either[+T1, +T2] AnyRef Used most often as a return type when a method could return an instance
of one of two unrelated types. For example, an exception or a “successful”
result. The Either can be pattern matched for its Left or Right
subtypes. (It is analogous to Option, with Some and None.) For the

156 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 Name Parent Description
exception-handling idiom, it is conventional to use Left for the
exception.
FunctionN[-T1, -T2, AnyRef Trait representing a function that takes N arguments, each of which can
..., -TN, +R] have its own type, and returns a value of type R. (Traits are defined for
N = 0 to 22.) The variance annotations (+ and -) in front of the types will
be explained in “Variance Under Inheritance” on page 251.
Iterable[+T] AnyRef Trait with methods for operating on collections of instances. Users
implement the abstract elements method to return an Iterable
instance.
List[+T] Seq[T] sealed abstract class for ordered collections with functional-
style list semantics. It is the most widely used collection in Scala, so it is
defined in the scala package, rather than one of the collection packages.
(In Scala version2.8, it is actually defined in scala.collec
tion.immutable and “aliased” in package object scala). It
has two subclasses, case object Nil, which extends List[Noth
ing] and represents an empty list, and case final class ::
[T], which represents a non-empty list, characterized by a head element
and a tail list, which would be Nil for a one-element list.
Nothing All other types Nothing is the subtype of all other types. It has no instances. It is used
primarily for defining other types in a type-safe way, such as the special
List subtype Nil. See also “Nothing and Null” on page 267.
Null All reference types Null has one instance, null, corresponding to the runtime’s concept
of null.
Option[T] Product Wraps an optional item. It is a sealed abstract type and the only
allowed instances are an instance of its derived case class
Some[T], wrapping an instance of T, or its derived case object
None, which extends Option[Nothing].
Predef AnyRef An object that defines and imports many commonly used types and
methods. See “The Predef Object” on page 145 for details.
Product AnyRef Trait with methods for determining arity and getting the nth item in a
“Cartesian product.” Subtraits are defined for Product, called
ProductN, for dimension N from 1 through 22.
ScalaObject AnyRef Mixin trait added to all Scala reference type instances.
Seq[+T] Collection[T] Trait for ordered collections.
TupleN ProductN Separate case classes for arity N = 1 through 22. Tuples support the
literal syntax (x1, x2, ..., xN).

%HVLGHV ListVRPHRIWKHRWKHUOLEUDU\FROOHFWLRQVLQFOXGH Map Set QueueDQG Stack

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FROOHFWLRQVDUHLQWKHSDFNDJH scala.collection.immutableZKLOHWKHPXWDEOHFROOHF
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The Scala Type Hierarchy | 157

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)RUH[DPSOHWKH byteWrapperPHWKRGFRQYHUWVD ByteWRD scala.runtime.RichByte
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/typehierarchy/either-script.scala

def exceptionToLeft[T](f: => T): Either[java.lang.Throwable, T] = try {

Right(f)
} catch {
case ex => Left(ex)
}

def throwsOnOddInt(i: Int) = i % 2 match {

case 0 => i
case 1 => throw new RuntimeException(i + " is odd!")
}

for(i <- 0 to 3)
exceptionToLeft(throwsOnOddInt(i)) match {
case Left(ex) => println("Oops, got exception " + ex.toString)
case Right(x) => println(x)
}

7KH exceptionToLeftPHWKRGHYDOXDWHV f,WFDWFKHVD ThrowableDQGUHWXUQVLWDVWKH

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0
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 1 is odd!
2
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 3 is odd!

158 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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$ FunctionNWUDLWZKHUH NLVWRLVLQVWDQWLDWHGIRUDQDQRQ\PRXVIXQFWLRQZLWK
NDUJXPHQWV6RFRQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJDQRQ\PRXVIXQFWLRQ
(t1: T1, ..., tN: TN) => new R(...)

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new FunctionN {
def apply(t1: T1, ..., tN: TN): R = new R(...)

// other methods
}

:H¦OOUHYLVLW FunctionNLQ£9DULDQFH8QGHU,QKHULWDQFH¤RQSDJHDQG£)XQFWLRQ
7\SHV¤RQSDJH

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy

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PL[HGLQWUDLWV:KHQWUDLWVDUHFRQVLGHUHGHDFKRIZKLFKPD\EHGHULYHGIURPRWKHU
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization1-script.scala

class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T1" :: super.m }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T2" :: super.m }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T3" :: super.m }
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}

val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m)

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 159

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5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1)

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WKHHQGRIWKHOLVW)LUVWOHW¦VVHHZKDWWKHLQYRFDWLRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHFRQVWUXFWRUVORRNV
OLNH
// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization2-script.scala

var clist = List[String]()

class C1 {
clist ::= "C1"
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T1"
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T2"
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T3"
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

clist ::= "C2"
}

val c2 = new C2
println(clist.reverse)

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List(C1, T1, T2, T3, C2)

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List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

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160 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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7KH£YDOXHW\SHV¤VXEFODVVHVRIAnyValDUHDOOGHFODUHGabstract final7KHFRPSLOHU
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LQVWDQFHLVRIWKDWW\SHC2.mFDOOVsuper.mZKLFKUHVROYHVWRT3.m7KHVHDUFKDSSHDUV
WREHEUHDGWKILUVWUDWKHUWKDQGHSWKILUVW,ILWZHUHGHSWKILUVWLWZRXOGLQYRNH C1.m
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization3-script.scala

class C1 {
def m(previous: String) = List("C1("+previous+")")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T1" :: super.m("T1") }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T2" :: super.m("T2") }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T3" :: super.m("T3") }
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m(p: String) = { "C2" :: super.m("C2") }
}

val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m(""))

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FDOOHGLW5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1(T1))

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LVJLYHQLQ>6FDOD6SHF@

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 161

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 Linearization Algorithm for Reference Types
 3XWWKHDFWXDOW\SHRIWKHLQVWDQFHDVWKHILUVWHOHPHQW
 6WDUWLQJZLWKWKHULJKWPRVWSDUHQWW\SHDQGZRUNLQJOHIWFRPSXWHWKHOLQHDUL]DWLRQ
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ScalaObjectAnyRefDQGAnyIRUQRZ
 :RUNLQJIURPOHIWWRULJKWUHPRYHDQ\W\SHLILWDSSHDUVDJDLQWRWKHULJKWRIWKH
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 $SSHQGScalaObjectAnyRefDQGAny

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization4-script.scala

class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T1" :: super.m }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T2" :: super.m }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T3" :: super.m }
}

class C2A extends T2 {

override def m = { "C2A" :: super.m }
}

class C2 extends C2A with T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}

def calcLinearization(obj: C1, name: String) = {

val lin = obj.m ::: List("ScalaObject", "AnyRef", "Any")
println(name + ": " + lin)
}

calcLinearization(new C2, "C2 ")

println("")
calcLinearization(new T3 {}, "T3 ")
calcLinearization(new T2 {}, "T2 ")

162 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 calcLinearization(new T1 {}, "T1 ")
calcLinearization(new C2A, "C2A")
calcLinearization(new C1, "C1 ")

7KHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
C2 : List(C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

T3 : List(T3, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

T2 : List(T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
T1 : List(T1, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
C2A: List(C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
C1 : List(C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

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# Linearization Description
1 C2 Add the type of the instance.
2 C2, T3, C1 Add the linearization for T3 (farthest on the right).
3 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1 Add the linearization for T2.
4 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1 Add the linearization for T1.
5 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1, C2A, T2, C1 Add the linearization for C2A.
6 C2, T3, T2, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicates of C1; all but the last C1.
7 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicate T2; all but the last T2.
8 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, Finish!
AnyRef, Any

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Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 163

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Recap and What’s Next
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164 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 CHAPTER 8
Functional Programming in Scala

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166 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
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Functional Programming in Scala | 167

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// code-examples/FP/basics/list-map-example-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map { _ * 2 }

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// code-examples/FP/basics/list-reduceLeft-example-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) reduceLeft { _ * _ }

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