Julius Caesar

Study Guide by Course Hero

What's Inside d In Context

j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1

The Power of Words
d In Context ..................................................................................................... 1
Much of the appeal of Julius Caesar lies in the author's use of
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 3 language. Development of the English language, in fact, owes a
great deal to Shakespeare's coining of words and phrases and
h Characters .................................................................................................. 3
the standardization of vocabulary, spelling, and grammar that
k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 7 occurred through the printing and distribution of his plays.
Shakespeare expanded English vocabulary largely by
c Scene Summaries ................................................................................... 11 borrowing from other languages and forming new words by
changing parts of speech, such as changing a verb to a noun
g Quotes ........................................................................................................ 22
or a noun to an adjective—a process known as a functional

l Symbols ...................................................................................................... 25 shift. An example appears in Antony's funeral speech, where

he uses two adjectives as nouns: "The evil that men do lives
m Themes ...................................................................................................... 26 after them. The good is oft interred with their bones." Phrases
from Julius Caesar that have entered common usage include "a
e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 28 dish fit for the gods," "[it's all] Greek to me," "an itching palm,"
"give up the ghost," "the dogs of war," and "Et tu, Brute?"

j Book Basics Rhetoric

AUTHOR Throughout the play Shakespeare makes use of rhetorical
William Shakespeare devices, and the manipulative use of words is central to the
drama. Antony's funeral speech provides a powerful example.
YEARS WRITTEN
His repetition of statements, such as "Brutus is an honorable
c. 1599–1600
man," sticks in his listeners' minds.
GENRE
Brutus's rhetoric relies on rational arguments. During his
Historical Fiction, Tragedy
funeral speech, he asks listeners questions with obvious
ABOUT THE TITLE answers: Would they rather be enslaved or free? He appeals to
Shakespeare's Roman plays are named after the reigning common desires, such as liberty and a unified Rome. Antony
leaders of the time in which they take place. Though Roman remembers what Brutus forgot—people listen to arguments
general Julius Caesar isn't onstage often, he is the highest- with their hearts as well as with their heads.
ranking official through most of the play, and his assassination
Manipulation also appears in the form of flattery. Decius
drives the plot.
Julius Caesar Study Guide In Context 2

convinces Caesar to go to the Senate by praising his authority. Julius Caesar would achieve.
Brutus is manipulated by Cassius and Antony, who both openly
admire him.
Elizabeth I and England's
Rome's Influential History "Golden Age"
Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BCE in a democratic Queen Elizabeth I ascended the English throne in 1558 and
Rome. An admired soldier, he rose to the rank of military made it her first priority to establish religious order. Although
tribune. In 60 BCE, with Pompey (106–48 BCE) and Crassus the Protestant faith was restored as the official religion, the
(115–53 BCE), he formed Rome's first triumvirate of leaders. A country's Catholics were allowed to worship in private.
triumvirate is a group of three individuals who share public
authority. Roman politics was divided between the Populares Elizabeth sought to improve social and financial conditions.

(the common people, or plebeians) and their supporters, and Laws enacted during her reign alleviated poverty through taxes

the Optimates (the wealthy people, or patricians). Caesar sided levied on each parish and regulated apprenticeships in various

with the Populares. occupations. Additional laws were passed to improve

agricultural production. Elizabeth reformed the nation's
After Crassus died in battle, Pompey and Caesar feuded over currency to bolster its worth and increased England's overseas
the right to rule supreme. Caesar famously crossed the trade by giving charters to organizations such as the East India
Rubicon River to defeat Pompey in 49 BCE. He then declared Company, which colonized India. With Elizabeth's
himself Roman dictator for life. encouragement, English explorers claimed land in North
America.
Under Caesar, Rome prospered. Caesar redistributed land to
veterans and to the poor. He eliminated the tax system and England became a powerful force in world affairs. Culture
relieved debt. One of his best-known changes was the flourished, and Shakespeare, Christopher "Kit" Marlowe
reformation of the Roman calendar; the new Julian calendar (1564–1593, an English playwright who was one of
had 365 days divided into 12 months. Shakespeare's contemporaries), and other authors, musicians,
and artists reaped the benefits.
Caesar was notoriously stubborn. Though he appointed more
Roman senators, ostensibly to include the people's voices in However, after England's 1588 defeat of the invading Spanish
government, he constantly passed laws without their input. Armada, which cemented England's role as a world power and
Senators feared he would eliminate their jobs entirely. naval force, Britain's economy plummeted. Unemployment,
inflation, and a series of poor harvests caused havoc. As
As many as 60 senators conspired to assassinate Caesar. poverty increased, people grew resentful. Leaders like the Earl
Among them were Cassius (d. 42 BCE) and Brutus (85–42 of Essex fostered rebellions. Elizabeth I never married and had
BCE). They killed Caesar on the Senate floor on March 15, 44 no heirs. She would not name a successor, leaving the situation
BCE. But the assassins made a crucial mistake: they didn't plan unsure regarding the next monarch. With military might came
what to do after Caesar's death. foreign enemies, and the English worried for their safety.

Antony (83–30 BCE)—Caesar's right-hand man—united with

Caesar's great-nephew and heir, Octavius, and Caesar's friend
Lepidus (d. 13 BCE) as the second triumvirate and defeated Leadership Changes
Brutus and Cassius in the 42 BCE Battle of Philippi. Later, the
second triumvirate divided. Lepidus lost power. Antony—who Conflicts between Catholic and Protestant rulers in

was involved with Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (69–30 Elizabethan England mirrored conflicts between Populares and

BCE)—took his own life. Left as sole ruler, Octavius became Optimates in ancient Rome. Tension affected every citizen.

Rome's first emperor in 27 BCE. He ruled as Augustus Caesar

England's sense of identity was wrapped up in the Church of
and enjoyed the absolute power that Rome's Senate feared
England and in Queen Elizabeth. Her reign is known as the

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Author Biography 3

Elizabethan Age. Similarly, for many historians, Julius Caesar's Censorship prevented Shakespeare from addressing
social and political reforms made him one of the most England's situation directly. He could, however, present a
influential leaders in history. distant tragedy with parallels to his own time and indirectly
counsel the audience to learn from history.
Shakespeare interested his audience in politics by making
Julius Caesar an intensely personal drama, revealing the

h Characters
characters behind the icons.

a Author Biography
Julius Caesar
Born in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, William Shakespeare
(1564–1616) was a celebrated playwright who acted with, wrote Julius Caesar is ambitious and shows tendencies toward

for, and managed a theater troupe called the Lord tyranny. He is a strong military and civic leader whose reforms

Chamberlain's Men. In 1599 Shakespeare and his business have benefited Rome, but many senators fear he will keep the

partners built the Globe Theater, which became part of his Romans enslaved to his whims. His inflexibility, even in the face

legacy. His play Julius Caesar, produced at the Globe that of death, causes conflict with those who want to protect him.

same year, may have been the first play to be performed there.

Shakespeare based Julius Caesar on Thomas North's 1579 Brutus

translation of Plutarch's Life of Alexander/Life of Julius Caesar
(Parallel Lives). The play initiated for Shakespeare a series of Brutus is the play's tragic hero. His moral conflicts provide the
three Roman plays. He followed Julius Caesar with Antony and main ethical dilemma of the play. He is manipulated by Cassius
Cleopatra (1607) and Coriolanus (1605–1608). Julius Caesar is into agreeing to take part in the plot to assassinate his friend
recognized as the first of Shakespeare's great tragedies. Caesar. Brutus is the last person to participate in the attack,
and his wound is the one that finishes the act. Caesar seems
The real events on which Julius Caesar is based took place
hurt more by Brutus's betrayal than by the wound itself. The
from 44 to 42 BCE. Shakespeare compressed the two-year
play's other characters, even Brutus's enemies, respect his
timeline for dramatic effect, and the play's action takes place in
loyalty and wisdom.
a matter of days.

He probably tackled the story of Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE),

one well known to theatergoers in his day, in response to Cassius
England's political climate. The powerful, and controversial,
Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) was about to leave the throne Cassius is devious and cunning. His morality is primarily
with no named successor. Shakespeare and his practical, and he makes tough moral decisions based on
contemporaries feared a more repressive government would whatever will lead to the best outcome for himself—killing a
mark the end of England's "Golden Age." leader or protecting greedy officials. He's also choleric, or
easily angered. Honor and loyalty have meaning to Cassius,
Shakespeare's audience would have known that after Julius though, which he shows by releasing his slave Pindarus on the
Caesar's death, Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son battlefield.
Octavius (63 BCE–14 CE, also known as Augustus Caesar)
took over and began Rome's transition from republic to
dictatorial empire. The assassination of Julius Caesar, an act Antony
meant to liberate Rome's citizens, put Rome in a worse
situation. The play hints at this outcome and its consequences, Antony is first shown to be a devoted follower of Caesar who
though the political oppression coming to Rome is left for the has little power himself. As the play progresses to its climax,
audience to imagine. the audience realizes that Antony has been hiding his true

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Characters 4

skills as a speaker, tactician, and soldier. His bid for power is

successful because he's willing to undertake daring political
moves. He is emotional and passionate.

Octavius
Octavius is Julius Caesar's great-nephew and is a skilled
soldier. Following the assassination he seeks vengeance for
Caesar's death. Octavius doesn't have Antony's way with
words or gift for long-term planning, but he has Caesar's
political acumen and respect for ritual. With Antony and
Lepidus, he forms the new triumvirate that leads Rome.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Characters 5

Character Map

Brutus
Senator and conspirator

Leader/
Conspirator

Cassius Calphurnia
Senator and conspirator Wife of Caesar

Leader/ Spouses
Julius Caesar
Conspirator
Roman political and
military leader

Father/
Adopted Son
Leader/
Supporter

Octavius
Antony Great-nephew and
Government official
adopted son of Caesar

Main Character

Other Major Character

Minor Character

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Characters 6

Full Character List Cinna the poet wants to go about his

business, independent of mob
Cinna (poet) mentality; however, he is killed by the
townspeople when they mistake him
Character Description
for Cinna the conspirator.

Julius Caesar is the Roman leader and

Claudius is one of Brutus's servants
Julius Caesar general whose assassination provides Claudius
and soldiers at Philippi.
the play's conflict.

Clitus, one of Brutus's servants and

Brutus is a respected Roman senator
Brutus Clitus soldiers at Philippi, refuses to kill
and friend of Caesar.
Brutus.

Cassius is the senator and general

The Cobbler speaks to Flavius in the
Cassius who organizes the assassination plot
The Cobbler first scene; he seems unconcerned
against Caesar.
with the danger of Caesar's rule.

Antony is a politician close to Caesar.

Dardanius, one of Brutus's servants
Antony He stages a coup to seize power after
Dardanius and soldiers at Philippi, refuses to kill
Caesar's death.
Brutus when asked.

Octavius Caesar is Julius Caesar's heir

Decius Brutus is the manipulative
Octavius and adopted son. He appears in the
Decius conspirator who volunteers to
final two acts of the play.
convince Caesar to go to the Capitol.

Artemidorus, a teacher of rhetoric,

Flavius is a tribune, or public official,
writes a letter to Caesar warning him
who—representing a growing
Artemidorus about the assassination plot, but he is
contingent of officials dissatisfied with
rebuffed when he tries to deliver the
Caesar—chides the Roman plebeians
letter. Flavius
for their praise of Caesar in the
opening scene and pulls the
Caesar's wife, Calphurnia, tries and decorations off Caesar's public
Calphurnia fails to dissuade him from visiting the images.
Capitol on the Ides of March.
Lepidus is a good soldier and the third
Sarcastic and superstitious, Casca is member (with Antony and Octavius) of
Lepidus
Casca the first of the conspirators to attack the triumvirate that comes to power
Caesar. after Caesar's death.

Cicero—a Roman senator known for Ligarius is a conspirator in the

his wisdom and intelligence—is killed Ligarius assassination and shares Cassius's
Cicero by the triumvirate of Antony, Octavius, desire to eliminate tyrants.
and Lepidus, despite the fact that he
did not participate in the conspiracy.
Lucilius is a friend of Brutus who fights
alongside him at Philippi; pretending to
One of the conspirators in the plot to Lucilius be Brutus, he encourages the enemy
Cinna assassinate Julius Caesar, Cinna to capture him in order to let the real
(conspirator) delivers Cassius's fake letters to Brutus live.
Brutus.
Lucius is Brutus's reliable servant,
Lucius appearing in his orchard and at the
Sardis camp.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Plot Summary 7

Marullus is a tribune, or public official, Volumnius, a friend of Brutus and a

Marullus who points out the hypocrisy of the Volumnius soldier in his army, refuses to kill
public's worship of Caesar. Brutus after their defeat at Philippi.

Messala is Brutus's friend who fights Young Cato is a soldier with Brutus's
alongside him in the Battle of Philippi Young Cato forces at the Battle of Philippi and dies
Messala
and reluctantly serves Octavius after there in combat.
Brutus dies.

Metellus Cimber, a conspirator in the

Metellus
Cimber
assassination, presents the first plea
to Caesar, giving the rest of the
k Plot Summary
assassins their opportunity to act.
In 44 BCE the general Julius Caesar returns to Rome
Pindarus is a devoted servant of victorious after defeating his rival Pompey. Roman citizens
Pindarus Cassius who is freed by his master cheer for him as he parades through the streets. But he's not
when Cassius dies. welcomed by everyone. Two tribunes, Flavius and Marullus,
fear Caesar has become too idolized; they strip Caesar's
Popilius Lena is a senator in Rome who statues of their ceremonial adornments. As Caesar prepares to
Popilius Lena doesn't take part in the conspiracy but
appears to support it. greet the public at the Festival of Lupercal, a soothsayer
approaches. "Beware the Ides of March [March 15]," he warns.

Stoic and noble Portia is Brutus's wife; Caesar ignores him.

distressed by the chaos in Rome, she
Portia Caesar's friends Cassius and Brutus discuss the leader's quest
commits suicide in the last half of the
play. for power. Cassius is concerned that Caesar will become a
dictator. He fears that the Roman republic would thus be
Publius is a senator and loyal friend of destroyed, taking the freedom of its citizens with it. Brutus
Publius
Julius Caesar. shares Cassius's concerns but remains loyal to Caesar.

The Soothsayer, similar to a prophet or Cassius concocts an assassination plot to kill Caesar. He
The fortune teller, warns Caesar to enlists Casca, Decius, Trebonius, Ligarius, Metellus Cimber,
Soothsayer "beware the Ides of March" in the first
and third acts. and eventually Brutus as conspirators. They contemplate killing
Antony, a close associate of Caesar, but decide against it.
Meanwhile, Caesar's wife, Calphurnia, has an ominous dream
Strato is a soldier in Brutus's army and
the only one to accept Brutus's that she believes predicts Caesar's death. Caesar dismisses
Strato
request to kill him; he is with Brutus at her misgivings and goes to the Senate anyway on the Ides of
his death.
March.

Titinius—a servant of Cassius and a On the Senate floor, Caesar refuses Metellus Cimber's petition
soldier in the Battle of Philippi—is at to repatriate a banished brother. On cue the conspirators rise
Titinius the center of a tragic
misunderstanding that affects the up and attack Caesar. When Brutus strikes, Caesar—shocked
story's outcome. at his friend's betrayal—says, "Et tu, Brutè?" ("You too,
Brutus?")
Trebonius is a conspirator in the
Trebonius Antony discovers the conspirators with Caesar's body. Antony
assassination.
grieves but convinces the conspirators he will take their side in
Varro is one of Brutus's servants who public.
appears in the camp at Sardis, but he
Varro
mentions that he does not see At Caesar's funeral Brutus speaks first. He tells the crowd he
Caesar's ghost. killed Caesar out of love for Rome and fear of Caesar's

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Plot Summary 8

dangerous ambition. The crowd believes Brutus and agrees

with him. Antony speaks next. He addresses the crowd as
"Friends, Romans, countrymen," gaining their favor, and says
that Caesar was a good ruler who died a cruel death. He gives
multiple examples of Caesar's lack of dictatorial ambition,
unveils Caesar's body, and reads the crowd Caesar's will,
which bequeaths money to every citizen. Antony's speech and
actions rile the crowd against the conspirators—just as Antony
planned. Cassius and Brutus are forced out of the city and
build armies to fight Antony's forces.

Octavius Caesar arrives in Rome. Octavius is Julius Caesar's

great-nephew and adopted son. He has also been named as
his great-uncle's successor. Following the funeral he meets
with Antony and the general Lepidus. The three plan to
overtake Brutus and Cassius's forces and rule Rome
themselves.

Brutus and Cassius quarrel while in camp preparing for battle.

Cassius refuses to punish a soldier who accepts bribes; Brutus
fears they will all descend into corruption if they don't act
honorably, and Caesar's death will be in vain. Eventually the
two reconcile. Brutus confesses that his wife, Portia,
committed suicide after Brutus's long absence.

Later that night, Brutus receives a visit from Caesar's ghost.

The ghost says Brutus will see him again the next day—at
Philippi, the site of the battle with Antony, Octavius, and
Lepidus's forces.

In Philippi the battle begins. Cassius's forces quickly lose

ground. Cassius sends his servant Pindarus to see how
Brutus's troops are faring elsewhere on the battlefield.
Pindarus brings back bad news—Cassius's friend and fellow
soldier Titinius has been captured. Titinius is actually
celebrating a victory with his troops, but Pindarus and Cassius
are watching from too great a distance to see this. Cassius, in
despair, asks Pindarus to kill him.

Brutus continues to fight but loses to the opposition. Antony

has called for Brutus's capture, dead or alive. Brutus falls on
his sword rather than return to Rome as a slave. He claims (as
did Cassius when he died) that Caesar is avenged.

Antony and Octavius, now victors, come upon the fallen Brutus.
Antony praises Brutus's nobility and decides to bury him as a
war hero.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Plot Summary 9

Plot Diagram

Climax

7
Falling Action
6
Rising Action
5 8

4
9
3
Resolution
2
1

Introduction

7. Conspirators kill Caesar; Brutus speaks at the funeral.

Introduction

1. Caesar returns triumphantly to Rome.

Falling Action

8. Antony turns crowd against the conspirators at the funeral.

Rising Action

2. Caesar refuses the crown at the victory parade.

Resolution
3. Cassius enlists Casca as a conspirator during the storm.
9. Cassius and Brutus lose the Battle of Philippi.
4. The conspirators meet with Brutus at his house.

5. Caesar ignores Calphurnia's warning, goes to the Capitol.

6. Caesar rejects Metellus Cimber's petition.

Climax

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Plot Summary 10

Timeline of Events

Before March 15

Feast of Lupercal; Caesar returns to Rome after

defeating Pompey and refuses crown.

Early March 15

Cassius enlists the conspirators, including Brutus.

Early March 15

Caesar ignores warnings and goes to the Capitol.

Midday March 15

The conspirators assassinate Caesar.

Late March 15

Brutus gives funeral speech.

Late March 15

Antony gives funeral speech.

Before Battle of Philippi

Caesar's ghost appears to Brutus.

During Battle of Philippi

Cassius kills himself on the battlefield.

During Battle of Philippi

Brutus kills himself on the battlefield.

During Battle of Philippi

Antony and Octavius declare victory in battle.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 11

aren't concerned with morals, honor, or loyalty—which means

c Scene Summaries they'll easily follow a corrupt ruler. And though tribunes and
senators can restore order and enforce rules, the working
people outnumber them, and the dictatorial leader outranks

Act 1, Scene 1 them all. A leader fresh from a battle victory is especially likely
to become a tyrant. His rise to power will be easier if the public
worships him.

Summary Flavius speaks directly to this fear at the end of the scene. He
voices his worry that if no one reminds Caesar of the limits of
Roman general Julius Caesar is returning home in triumph. He his power, Caesar will "keep us all in servile fearfulness."
has defeated the general Pompey in war. It's the Feast of Flavius is willing to defy custom and put himself at risk to stand
Lupercal, a celebratory time. Commoners fill the streets of up to Caesar. He foreshadows the other characters who will
Rome. Flavius and Marullus, two tribunes (public officials), take more drastic actions at greater cost.
chide the commoners for being outside doing nothing on a
workday. Flavius questions a cobbler, who tells the tribunes
everyone is celebrating Caesar. Act 1, Scene 2
Marullus becomes angry, calling the people who now admire
Caesar ungrateful and senseless. He says that when Pompey
was in power and rode by in his chariot, the commoners Summary
cheered. Now they're praising Pompey's death.
Julius Caesar enters for his celebratory parade through Rome.
Flavius sends the commoners home. He tells Marullus to strip His entourage includes his wife, Calphurnia, and his friends
the ceremonial decorations and trophies from any public Antony, Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and Cicero. Caesar tells
images of Caesar. Marullus asks if they are permitted to do so; Antony to touch Calphurnia during the parade, since elders say
Flavius doesn't care. He hopes removing the decorations—and a touch during the holy chase can cure her infertility. A
chasing the people from the streets—will help lofty Caesar soothsayer loudly cautions Caesar to "Beware the Ides of
realize he's only an ordinary man. March." Caesar brushes off the warning and leaves.

Brutus and Cassius stay behind. Cassius mentions that Brutus

Analysis seems troubled, and reminds Brutus how much the Romans
admire and respect him. They hear three separate shouts from
In the opening scene, Shakespeare doesn't introduce the the public, whom they think have chosen Caesar as king.
drama's major players; instead he introduces the everyday Brutus admits that although "I love him well" he doesn't want
working men of Rome. He shows the scope of Caesar's Caesar crowned. Cassius doesn't either. Cassius tells Brutus
influence at once. Everyone's talking about this heroic (and, that he's saved Caesar from drowning and seen him through a
judging by Flavius and Marullus's reaction, controversial) violent fever. Would the public, Cassius wonders, worship this
leader. But why? What's he really like? Is he a threat? Even man if they knew how vulnerable he really is? Brutus would be
before the audience meets Caesar, they're curious. Others' a better ruler, Cassius thinks. Brutus thanks him and says he
opinions and images of Caesar—as a dictator, as a hero, as a will think about what Cassius has said.
regular man—will become a constant theme. The town, for
Caesar and his entourage return. Caesar confides to Antony
instance, is filled with icons of Caesar's physical image.
that he doesn't trust Cassius; he's too thin, too cynical, and he
The power of a great leader to bend a crowd to his will, and the "thinks too much."
strong influence of that crowd, also recur as themes. Flavius's
Brutus and Cassius ask Casca what happened at the parade.
and Marullus's public anger masks a private fear that the
Casca relays that Caesar, strangely, refused the crown Antony
people will thoughtlessly worship whoever is in charge. They
offered three times. The crowd cheered his refusals. The third

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 12

time Caesar refused, he fainted and fell down. Brutus points Caesar."
out that Caesar has epilepsy ("the falling sickness"). Casca
thinks Caesar uses his infirmity to explain away anything odd Brutus, on some level, knows Cassius is flattering him for a

he does in public. He also mentions that Flavius and Marullus purpose. Like most people, though, Brutus appreciates hearing

have lost their jobs for desecrating Caesar's images. the praise of a friend. And Brutus does want the ability to be a
great ruler, even if he doesn't want the job. He loves Rome, and
Casca and Brutus leave, promising to meet with Cassius the like Cassius, he laments the lost age of Rome's nobility.
next day. Cassius tells the audience his plan to send Brutus Though Brutus never tells Cassius his specific worries, Cassius
forged letters, which Cassius will write as if they're from guesses that the current political situation isn't helping. The
Roman citizens. The letters will praise Brutus's ability and hint audience wonders if Brutus will fall for Cassius's fake letters of
at Caesar's dangerous ambition. praise or see through the ruse.

Caesar applies flattery, on a smaller scale, with Antony. When

Analysis Caesar tells Antony why Cassius makes him uncomfortable, he
says, "He loves no plays, as thou dost, Antony." By contrasting
Here Shakespeare sets the wheels of conspiracy in motion. sensitive Antony with brutish Cassius, Caesar praises Antony's
Brutus and Cassius reveal their character and intentions. character and further cements his loyalty. This manipulation
Cassius doesn't directly discuss assassination, but he's clearly technique—us versus them—will resurface as other characters
restless for a change. The audience, Brutus, and possibly use it, including Antony himself.
Casca see what's coming.
"Men at some time are masters of their fates," Cassius says to
The scene also introduces Caesar to the audience, though Brutus, bringing up the play's theme of free will versus fate. In
they're not yet sure what to make of him. He's smart not to times like these, Cassius believes, men shouldn't merely let life
trust Cassius, and he's quick to give commands—an efficient happen to them—they should take life by the reins and change
ruler so far but liable to make enemies. And if he's so their destinies. Will Cassius still hold to this belief once he's
ambitious, why did he refuse the crown three times? Perhaps done the deed and seen its consequences? The audience isn't
the refusal was a publicity stunt to appeal to the crowd. The sure.
people would think Caesar was too modest even to accept the
crown he'd earned, and they'd cheer his good nature.
Act 1, Scene 3
Or was he putting on a show? Casca says that the people
clapped for Caesar "as they use to do the players in the
theater." This sentiment echoes the tribunes' dim view of the
crowd in Scene 1. The crowd's emotions are easy to toy with;
Summary
first they wanted a hero, and now they simply want to be
Thunder and lightning fill the sky in Rome. Cicero meets Casca
entertained. Casca clearly despises the theatrical aspect of
on the street, and Casca describes the terrifying sights he's
Caesar's character and believes Caesar doesn't mean to
seen during the storm—men on fire but unburned, a lion
refuse power; he just wants the people to think he's humble.
walking the streets, a "bird of night" (an owl) shrieking in
He's happy to give orders to Marc Antony and others in private.
daylight. Casca thinks these are clear omens of doom, but

Cassius and Brutus sense the deeper consequences of Cicero isn't convinced.

Caesar's rule. This is the first scene where Cassius slyly edges
Afterward, Casca runs into Cassius. Hoping to enlist frightened
a colleague toward becoming a conspirator by appealing to
Casca as a conspirator, Cassius says Casca is clearly
that person's desires and character. Brutus wants to think of
overlooking that the omens point to "the lion in the Capitol."
himself as a wise man who values honor and loyalty. Cassius is
Casca's heard that the senators will crown Caesar king the
probably right that most Romans respect Brutus, but he's
next day. They both refuse to bow to tyranny, and resolve to
laying the flattery on pretty thick. He even mentions as an
defeat Caesar. Cassius says he's already gathered several
aside that all the Romans see Brutus's worth "except immortal
Romans for this cause.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 13

The two meet Cinna, a fellow conspirator who implores The conspirators discuss involving Cicero. When Brutus says
Cassius to convince Brutus to join them. Cassius gives Cinna to leave him out, they change their minds. Decius asks if any
the letters to deliver to Brutus, remarking confidently, "three man other than Caesar poses a danger and should be killed.
parts of him is ours already." Cassius says yes—Antony. Cassius fears Antony's shrewd and
scheming mind will cause them all harm. Brutus, again,
disagrees. He thinks they should strive for as little bloodshed
Analysis as possible; besides, he believes Antony will be powerless
without Caesar. Cassius is still concerned about Antony, but
When do bizarre events and strange sayings become omens? Brutus and Trebonius offer assurances and convince him not
Many ancient Romans believed otherworldly events—like men to worry. After planning the specifics of getting Caesar to the
shooting fire from their fingers and lions roaming the Capitol at the right time, the conspirators leave Brutus.
streets—reflected the future. A recurring theme in the play is
the interpretation, and misinterpretation, of omens by people Portia, Brutus's wife, enters the orchard worried and upset.
who see the same event differently. She knows Brutus hasn't been sleeping, but he won't tell her
what's wrong. She protests that she's noble and devoted, and
Cicero remarks that men often invent symbolism to explain deserves to know her husband's secrets. She has even cut her
strange events to themselves. The idea of invented versus thigh to prove it. A knock at the door interrupts them. Brutus,
actual meaning—a person or an event becoming larger than gently, says he'll tell Portia everything in due time.
life—recurs with Caesar and the circumstances surrounding his
death. The visitor is Ligarius, whom Brutus has enlisted as a
conspirator. Ligarius doesn't speak directly of Caesar, but
While Cassius played on Brutus's loyalty, here he plays on strongly implies that he knows about the assassination plot. He
Casca's fear. He says Casca should have expected the says he trusts Brutus enough to follow him anywhere. They
heavens to wreak this kind of havoc, and "those that have leave Brutus's house together for the Capitol.
known the earth so full of faults" aren't surprised. Cassius even
seems pleased about the storm, as its timing confirms his
mounting suspicions about danger to Rome. Cassius is an Analysis
Epicurean, a follower of a branch of philosophy that believes
the gods don't intervene in human affairs (by sending omens, Brutus's first monologue reveals his motivations clearly. He
for instance). Cassius is taking advantage of Casca's clear admits Caesar might change, becoming an unrecognizable
belief that the storm means something. Casca, with his own version of the friend he once knew. Power corrupts—Brutus
concerns about the monarchy, is easier than Brutus to convert knows this cliché; he's seen it happen before. In this frame of
to the conspiracy. mind, Brutus believes the fake letters from Cassius that
reinforce what he's already thinking. He's still concerned,
comparing his moral dilemma to "a phantasma, or a hideous
Act 2, Scene 1 dream." The audience may discern that despite Brutus's
convictions, he never really figures out the right thing to do in
this situation.

Summary The audience has heard that Brutus is a good man, and this
scene shows repeatedly how well regarded he is by all he
Brutus is in his orchard, where he's spent the night awake and
meets. Twice Brutus sways the conspirators easily to his side.
worried. His servant Lucius tells him it's March 15. He reads
He's right about Cicero, whose indifference to omens shows
Cassius's letters and decides they mean he's called upon to
he's not easily persuaded. But Brutus is catastrophically wrong
save Rome from danger. Lucius admits the six conspirators to
about Antony. After Caesar's death Antony will make a grab for
Brutus's orchard. Cassius, Casca, and Cinna are joined by
power that endangers all the conspirators and puts Rome's
Metellus Cimber, Decius, and Trebonius. Brutus welcomes
future at risk. No one onstage knows that yet. But since
them. He knows why they're there. He refuses to swear an
Shakespeare is dramatizing real events, the audience knows
oath, but he agrees to help.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 14

the outcome, and this conflict creates dramatic irony on the animal to ensure Caesar's success, they found no heart in the
stage. animal. Caesar reiterates that he's invincible, and he's still
going to the Capitol. Calphurnia continues to beg, and Caesar
Cassius, ever the skeptic, wants to err on the side of the worst agrees to stay home to pacify her.
in human nature—Antony loves Caesar, therefore Antony will
punish Caesar's killers. Brutus plans on the best in human Decius comes to bring Caesar to the Capitol. Caesar refuses
nature, believing the Romans will call Caesar's killers purgers to go, and Decius says he'll need a reason. Caesar tells him
(healers). Brutus is being tactical, not naïve. He understands Calphurnia had a dream that Caesar's statue ran with blood,
the importance of keeping the public's goodwill. Protecting which the Romans bathed in. Decius says the dream's a good
reputation in the face of the public, and winning the public's sign—Caesar's blood will revive Rome, and men will wear it
hearts, intertwine with themes of political manipulation honorably like armor. He also tells Caesar the senators plan to
throughout the play. give him a crown, but only if he shows up at the Capitol.

Brutus's respect for Caesar shows through when he implores Convinced to attend, Caesar dresses and meets with the
the conspirators to treat Caesar as a sacrifice, a "dish fit for senators/conspirators. They exchange friendly dialogue and
the gods." Brutus is also working to justify the assassination to go to drink wine together. To the audience Brutus regrets that
himself. He's become the manipulator now, telling himself what Caesar thinks the senators are his friends, when in fact they're
he wants to hear. His inner turmoil continues to be a driving his enemies.
force.

Portia's anguish shows that the assassination of Caesar will Analysis

come at a greater human cost than is anticipated. The
audience doesn't hear her opinion on Caesar's regime, but they While Cicero merely holds omens in disregard, Caesar mocks
know she is distressed by her current situation—a husband them, despite the fact that he asked Antony to bless
entangled in a murder plot and a country in peril. Brutus is, Calphurnia during the parade. Supposedly he and Calphurnia
naturally, conflicted. His loyal wife is upset at his evasion, and don't believe in divine intervention, although a bewildered
he wants to confide in her. But he can't make her an Calphurnia is changing her mind. The omen Calphurnia
accomplice by revealing the plot. Nor does he want to burden sees—the conspirators bathing their hands in Caesar's
Portia with more worries. blood—foreshadows his death as clearly as any image could. If
the gods are speaking, they're getting more specific.

Act 2, Scene 2 Like Brutus, Caesar tries to spin a nobler version of himself into
truth. While Brutus spoke with doubt and self-awareness,
Caesar speaks with unshakable faith. Caesar's a clear believer
in fate, despite his rejection of omens, so long as fate flatters
Summary him. Caesar knows he's going to die, but that knowledge
seems only to embolden him.
Caesar, in his home, prepares to go to the Capitol. The storm is
still raging, and Calphurnia had cried out "They murder Now that the audience knows Caesar better, they can form an
Caesar!" in her sleep the night before. Calphurnia begs Caesar opinion on the assassination that's about to happen. Caesar
not to leave the house. She's alarmed by the storm—which she discards the beliefs of others, even the priests who are experts
sees as directly related to death, with ghosts shrieking in the in their field—unless, like Decius with his dream interpretation,
streets and warriors drizzling blood on the Capitol. Caesar they play to Caesar's ego. Decius has anticipated this situation:
counters that he can't avoid his fate. If the gods say he's going Caesar refusing to go, perhaps citing a vision. There's no
to die, then he will, and he might as well do his job in the artifice in the soothsayer or Calphurnia's words—they are more
meantime. Besides, as he points out, every man dies, but only honest than any manipulator. Caesar doesn't care.
cowards worry about death. He won't waste time in fear.
Yes, Caesar is proud. This pride leads Caesar to his death, but
A servant enters with bad news. When the priests sacrificed an another aspect of pride—self-confidence—helps make him an

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 15

effective leader. Self-confidence, fearlessness, practicality—all

these traits help a general in battle or a ruler leading a country Act 2, Scene 4
through strife. However, Caesar's detractors do not care for
his ruling style. Here Shakespeare poses a question: Would the
assassination be a courageous act after all? Cautious Brutus Summary
makes reasoned (if flawed) decisions, and he includes others in
the decision-making process, suggesting that he might make a Portia asks the servant Lucius to go to the Senate and report
better ruler than Caesar. back on Brutus and Caesar. She wants to know which men
surround Caesar with requests, and how well Brutus looks,
As Caesar greets his friends, the audience may wonder how since he was sick that morning. She claims she's heard a rumor
unaware he really is about the conspiracy. Does he know he's from the Capitol but doesn't reveal what it is.
going to his death? Shakespeare never answers this question
but includes the ambiguity in a larger exploration of how much Later Portia talks to the soothsayer. She asks the soothsayer
an individual can do to avoid his fate. about Caesar and whether there are any threats against him.
The soothsayer says he doesn't know for sure, but he fears
there might be. The soothsayer plans to find a place along the
Act 2, Scene 3 road where he can speak to Caesar as he passes by. After the
soothsayer departs, Portia wishes for Brutus to have luck in his
enterprise.

Summary
Artemidorus, a teacher of rhetoric, reads a letter aloud on the
Analysis
street near the Capitol. The letter names all the conspirators
From this scene the audience can tell Portia knows about the
and warns Caesar to beware of each one. The letter's signed
assassination plot. They don't know how she reacted to the
"Thy lover, Artemidorus."
news. But she's suddenly become more significant, even
Artemidorus tells the audience that he plans to give the letter strategic. She knows her own presence, as a woman, might be
to Caesar as a petition. He laments the fact that friends turn unwelcome at the Capitol. But no one would think twice about
into traitors and rivals. If Caesar reads the letter, he says, he seeing a servant boy.
will live; if not, the fates will see him dead.
Is she, like Artemidorus, trying to prevent events from
unfolding? Or has she, like Caesar, accepted that fate is fate
and she can't change anything? The audience isn't sure. She
Analysis has a chance to ask the soothsayer to warn Caesar, but she
doesn't do it (not directly, at least). The soothsayer seems to
This brief scene takes a break from the dramatic action and
already know what will happen. These hints, combined with the
introduces the audience to an apparently omniscient observer.
scene with Artemidorus, might make the audience wonder how
How did Artemidorus learn about the conspiracy? Again,
many Romans know Caesar is going to his death.
Shakespeare isn't interested in providing the details; he simply
injects an air of mystery and authority. Portia's last lines reveal the depths of her caring for Brutus.
Like her husband, she's a conflicted but good person at heart,
The letter seems to raise more questions than it answers. Here
and her devotion to principle will prove to be her undoing.
is a citizen, a teacher, invested in keeping Caesar alive. If
Caesar is such a tyrant, it is unclear why someone like
Artemidorus would love and respect him. Artemidorus detests
treachery and evil. His presence is a sort of rational portent, Act 3, Scene 1
another sign that Caesar can choose to accept or decline.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 16

announce that Octavius Caesar—the great-nephew and

Summary adopted son of Julius Caesar—is on his way to Rome. Antony
tells the servant to send word to Octavius to wait, since Rome
Caesar and the senators/conspirators, along with others, enter
will be dangerous in the assassination's aftermath.
the Capitol. Caesar asserts, "The Ides of March are come,"
implying that despite the soothsayer's earlier warning, he's still
alive. The soothsayer points out that the day's not over.
Artemidorus attempts to give Caesar his letter. However,
Analysis
Caesar will not read it. Meanwhile Popilius wishes Cassius
This scene, along with the scene that follows, provides the
success in his endeavor. Cassius fears that the conspiracy's
climax and cements the traumas and loyalties that drive the
been revealed. Brutus assures him Caesar knows nothing.
falling action.

Caesar prepares to hear petitions. Metellus Cimber, as the

Caesar shows the audience his inflexible, unsympathetic
conspirators planned, presents the first request—for Metellus's
leadership style. He brushes off two warnings (possibly three,
banished brother to return to Rome. Brutus and Cassius join in
since we don't know what Popilius told him). When he insults
the request, to Caesar's surprise. Caesar refuses to grant the
Metellus Cimber, Caesar starts to lose any audience sympathy
petition. He made the banishment decree and he stands by it.
he may still have. It seems that Caesar truly is callous. The
His consistency and steadfastness are a matter of pride, which
audience members will have to decide for themselves to what
is odd given the way he changed his mind with Calphurnia in
extent his death is deserved.
the earlier scene.
The critical characters to follow during this scene are Brutus
Just as Caesar tells the senators their pleas are in vain, Casca
and Antony. Both have difficult decisions to make quickly, and
(as planned) strikes first with his sword. The rest of the
both struggle with where their allegiances lie.
conspirators follow. Caesar protests only once, when Brutus
strikes: "Et tu, Brutè?" ("You too, Brutus?") Antony knows he's a marked man. To save his own life, he
agrees to cooperate with the conspirators. Even though he's
After Caesar is dead, the conspirators rejoice and plan to tell
vulnerable in (seemingly genuine) grief, the audience senses
all of Rome the news. Brutus urges them to wait. He tells them
that Antony is a master manipulator. When Antony tells the
to kneel and wash their hands in Caesar's blood and to
conspirators to kill him too, he knows they won't do it—he has
"besmear [their] swords." They have done Caesar a favor,
already pledged his loyalty. Like Cassius, he appeals to Brutus
Brutus states, as he will no longer fear death.
as an honorable, respected leader. Antony knows, as the

A servant enters and says Antony pledges his loyalty to Brutus conspirators do, that if there's one senator to have on your

and wants to speak with the conspirators. Brutus allows side, it's Brutus. He's proven correct. After Brutus gives Antony

Antony to enter, though Cassius still doesn't trust him. Antony his trust, even skeptical Cassius follows along. Antony has also

grieves Caesar openly. He asks the conspirators to kill him too, figured out that the conspirators have no real plan in place for

but they refuse. Cassius and Brutus say Antony will have a role a new government. Leadership is up for grabs. Senators may

in the new government. Antony shakes each of their hands as have floated Brutus's name as the new Caesar, but he has not

an ally. When Antony asks to speak at the funeral, Brutus formally accepted the position.

agrees. Cassius pulls Brutus aside and says letting Antony

Still, Antony lets his real bewilderment at their actions escape.
speak is a bad idea, since his speech may prejudice the people
He claims he's affected by the sight of Caesar's dead body.
against the conspirators. Brutus says he himself will speak first
That claim makes sense—anyone whose friend is murdered
and explain the conspirators' reasoning.
might say things they don't mean out of emotion. Cassius is

Antony stays with Caesar's body after the conspirators leave. right to be concerned because none of them know what he will

He asks Caesar's pardon for allying with the "butchers," say at the funeral.

indicating that Antony is putting on a front for Brutus and

Brutus decides to handle Caesar's death with nobility and
Cassius. He laments the war and havoc that he's sure will
ceremony. He prevents Cinna and Cassius from running into
follow as Caesar's death is avenged. A servant enters to
the street with the news, encouraging everyone to wait and

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 17

walk together. Brutus falls easily into the role of leader, giving Antony then reveals he has found Caesar's will, which he won't
confident orders in a time of distress. He chooses to trust read. The crowd shouts for him to read the will. Antony
Antony, again against Cassius's advice. Brutus thinks reason protests that if the crowd knew what Caesar left them in his
will win and clear heads will carry the day. If he explains the will, how much Caesar loved them, they'd become angry. He
conspirators' actions to the people, of course they will doesn't want to wrong the "honorable men" who killed Caesar.
understand! Given both the number of portents of Caesar's Now firmly on Antony's side, the crowd says those men were
death and the number of people who believed them, his traitors. Antony leads the crowd to Caesar's body. He shows
attitude is naïve. each of Caesar's stab wounds and names each of the
conspirators. The crowd weeps and calls for revenge. Antony
Antony has darker thoughts. He foreshadows the dogs of war tells them to wait, and apologizes that he's not a great orator
that will soon upend the lives of all the major characters. like Brutus. Undeterred, the crowd vows to burn Brutus's
Antony has joined the many characters who give warnings and house. Antony says they still haven't heard the will, and reveals
predictions. Although Caesar did not listen, the warnings were that Caesar left each citizen 75 drachmas and left all his
still accurate, hinting that the audience should give some private lands to the people.
credence to Antony's suspicions.
The crowd, now a riotous mob, leaves to find the conspirators.
With such animosity rankling on the stage, the audience Antony watches them go with pleasure, saying "Mischief, thou
suspects more deaths to come. They also wonder how art afoot." A servant then tells Antony that Octavius is now in
Octavius's presence will change the dynamic. What kind of Rome and that both Cassius and Brutus have left town. Antony
leader will he be? leaves to meet with Octavius.

Act 3, Scene 2 Analysis

The audience is reminded of a pivotal force that was on stage
Summary at the start of the play—the townspeople, or the court of public
opinion. In one sense the scene at the Forum is a funeral for a
The Roman people (the plebeians) fill the Forum, the public beloved leader; in another it's a trial for the conspirators.
gathering space, crying for answers about Caesar's death. Brutus argues his defense concisely and logically, and the jury
Brutus calms the crowd, saying he loved Caesar as much as understands. Then Antony argues passionately for the
they did. But he loves Rome more. "Had you rather Caesar prosecution. The townspeople, earlier proven to be easily
were living, and die all slaves ... [than] live all free men?" he swayed by a triumphant victory or a strong personality,
asks. He praises Caesar's good qualities but says Caesar had ultimately side with the best performer, the last voice in their
to die due to his ambition. Brutus claims that he too will die if ear.
his country needs him to do so. The plebeians are visibly
Antony's funeral speech is one of the most famous examples in
moved by this speech and call for Brutus to be named the new
literature of rhetoric's power over the listener. Although he
ruler. They agree Caesar was a tyrant and his death was best
claims to be an inferior orator, Antony speaks with far more
for Rome.
skill than Brutus. Brutus speaks plainly and honestly. Antony
Brutus leaves after introducing Antony. Antony claims he won't says one thing, that the conspirators are "honorable," while
praise Caesar, who had many faults. He begins to address obviously intending another. He also deliberately withholds the
Caesar's alleged ambition. Caesar, he says, offered faithful will so the citizens clamor to hear it. His entire speech is a
friendship, provided for Rome by bringing in captives, wept blatant emotional manipulation, including when he shows the
when his people wept, and refused the crown three times. "But people Caesar's body. It proves that Antony has an important
Brutus says [Caesar] was ambitious," Antony repeats after skill for a politician—he knows how to work a crowd.
each example, "and Brutus is an honorable man." He stops his
Brutus's thoughtful speech and selfless reasoning—"Not that I
speech to weep, and the crowd grows sympathetic, agreeing
loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more"—appeal to the
that Caesar was wronged.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 18

crowd's patriotism and desire for unity. He keeps his diction

sparse, his ideas simple and vague enough to apply to any out-
Analysis
of-control leader. His sensible stance rubs off on the crowd,
This brief scene shows mob mentality at its worst. It's also a
for a little while. After the first portion of Antony's speech, the
tragicomic interlude before the main action picks up again. The
plebeians discuss reasonably among themselves whether or
plebeians in the crowd are now fueled by one another and by
not a worse evil will come after Caesar.
their own adrenaline. They'll willingly execute an innocent man
In contrast to Antony's funeral speech, Brutus isn't as specific for having the wrong name at the wrong time. "Tear him for his
in giving examples of Caesar's actions, and Brutus doesn't bad verses" is a bit of dark comedy on Shakespeare's part, in
weep. Not only that, but he tells the crowd what's best for which he makes fun of himself as the author of a rhyming play,
them. Antony leaves more room to let them decide for as well as a reminder of the crowd's thirst for violence.
themselves—or to think they're deciding for themselves.
As the crowd heads to the conspirators' homes with firebrands
Cassius employed a similar tactic when convincing
(burning torches), the audience wonders what will happen to
conspirators, letting them come to their own conclusion that
the characters they've come to know. Will Brutus survive?
Caesar should die.
Cassius? Portia? Rome itself? How much mischief has Antony
In his speech Antony is careful not to deliberately defame the instigated?
conspirators. On the surface he respects them. He says the
opposite of what he means. Many statements he makes have a
double meaning, particularly "Brutus is an honorable man," a Act 4, Scene 1
phrase that becomes more sarcastic and caustic upon each
repetition. When he calls himself a "blunt man" in contrast to
the senator Brutus, seemingly insulting himself, Antony is Summary
masterfully appealing to class anxieties. He's just a man who
loved a friend. He's ordinary, like the plebeians. Everyone in the Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus meet privately at a house in
crowd can relate to him in a way they can't to the aristocratic Rome. They review a list of Romans and mark the names of
Brutus, whose experience is suddenly a liability. individuals who will be killed. They also decide to divide the
assets in Caesar's will so there's money left for the state.

Act 3, Scene 3 Lepidus leaves. Antony tells Octavius that he doesn't think
Lepidus, a "slight unmeritable man," should be one of the three
leaders of the new Roman empire. Octavius agrees that
Lepidus isn't bright but says he's a good soldier. Octavius and
Summary Antony discuss their plans to form new alliances and deal with
their enemies.
As he walks to Caesar's funeral, Cinna the poet thinks of a
dream he had earlier. He dreamed that he dined with Caesar
and, though he feels drawn to the funeral, his dream makes
him uneasy. He wonders if the dream is an omen.
Analysis
Cinna runs into four plebeians who ask him his name and Antony leverages his newfound favor in the eyes of the

business. When he says his name is Cinna, the plebeians call Romans to join forces with Octavius, the next in line to

for his death, crying, "He's a conspirator!" Cinna protests that succeed Caesar. According to Roman history, these three are

they have the wrong man; he's Cinna the poet, not Cinna the the triumvirs who will jointly rule Rome in its new empire. A

conspirator. The plebeians say the name is sullied to them. triumvir is one of three officials forming a triumvirate to share

They attack Cinna and run with firebrands to the homes of public office in ancient Rome. The audience gets a glimpse of

Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators. what their rule will be like in this scene.

Their deliberations are brief, to the point, and menacing. They

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 19

don't think twice about marking a man to die if it benefits them,

or of turning on Lepidus once he's out of the room. Antony Act 4, Scene 3
even agrees to condemn his own nephew. An over-promising
politician, he takes the money he just offered the crowd and
uses it to further his own ends. He doesn't need their favor Summary
anymore—he's already won, and he knows it.
Brutus and Cassius talk in Brutus's tent. Cassius is upset with
By contrast, Brutus, Cassius, and the other senators Brutus for condemning a soldier (Lucius Pella) who took bribes
repeatedly referenced friendship and love and sought moral from the Sardinians. He feels that in such turbulent times, a
justifications for their choices. The men in this scene act bribe is a minor offense and should be overlooked. Brutus
differently, as politicians and warriors, willing to be insists he did the right thing. Why did they assassinate Caesar,
coldhearted. This is Rome's new ruling class: steadfast and he asks, if they're only going to condone bribes and endorse
filled with ambition, like Caesar, only without Caesar's fervor to corruption? The two argue spiritedly over who is the superior
please the people. soldier and leader. Cassius says Caesar would never insult him
the way Brutus does; Brutus replies that Cassius was too
afraid to provoke Caesar. Cassius claims that a friend would
Act 4, Scene 2 never see the faults that Brutus sees in him, and asks Brutus to
kill him. Brutus, calming down, asks Cassius to sheathe his
dagger. They apologize and reconcile.
Summary A poet tries to enter the tent, saying the quarreling generals
shouldn't be alone. Brutus and Cassius laugh him off.
Brutus has fled Rome and is in a camp near Sardis, preparing
for battle. He wants to speak to Cassius, but fears Cassius's Cassius points out that Brutus's worry is out of character,
distant formality toward Brutus's servant is a sign that their since he is a stoic, a member of a school of philosophy that
friendship is cooling. discourages emotion and promotes acceptance of life's ills.
Brutus confesses to Cassius the reason he's so upset: Portia is
He's right. Cassius, who enters the camp with his soldiers, is
dead. Distressed over the encroaching power of Octavius and
angry and claims Brutus has done him wrong. Brutus denies
Antony, and over her husband's absence, Portia choked herself
this claim. The two generals go to talk privately.
on hot coals like a true Roman stoic.

Titinius and Messala enter the tent with news. Antony and
Analysis Octavius have killed a hundred senators in Rome and are
marching toward Philippi. Brutus thinks they should go to
The audience knows that Brutus and Cassius have lost the
Philippi and meet them. Cassius disagrees, saying the enemy
battle before they've begun to fight. Brutus and Cassius know
will expend more resources seeking them instead. Brutus
this too. For the rest of the play, they'll focus less on idealism
counters that if they wait, the enemy forces will only grow
and more on battle strategy.
stronger. By fighting them at Philippi, Brutus and Cassius will
have the advantage. Cassius consents.
As the characters deal with the chaos after Caesar's death,
Shakespeare focuses on a turning point in Brutus's and
Brutus settles in his tent for the night. He doesn't get much
Cassius's friendship and prepares the audience for changes to
rest, because the ghost of Caesar appears to him. Brutus
come. Cassius is growing tired of Brutus's insistence on always
demands the spirit say what it is (god, angel, or devil), and
doing the right thing. Brutus's calm façade is crumbling under
Caesar's ghost replies, "Thy evil spirit, Brutus." The ghost says
anxiety. Nevertheless, Brutus maintains his resistance to
Brutus will see him at Philippi.
showing emotion by refusing to argue in front of his soldiers.
He wants them to see the noble Brutus he's trying to be. Alarmed, Brutus asks if anyone else has seen the ghost, but no
one has. He tells Cassius's forces to march ahead of him to
Philippi. He will meet them there.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 20

and Octavius challenges Antony's plan, questioning his

Analysis authority in the process.

Brutus and Cassius grapple with their guilt at killing Caesar, the The generals of the two sides meet and trade insults. Antony
meaning of their friendship, and their own mortality. Each reminds Brutus and Cassius of the brutal way they killed
man's insecurities are thrown into sharp relief, giving the Caesar. Octavius vows revenge. Cassius mocks Antony's
audience greater insight into their private selves. reputation for revelry and Octavius's youth.

Cassius is temperamental, theatrical, and After Octavius, Antony, and their troops leave, Cassius tells the
accusatory—"choleric," one of the four humors, or fluids in the soldier Messala that ravens and crows fly in the air, scavenger
body, believed in ancient times to determine the personality. birds casting shadows on the battlefield. Cassius thinks the
Choleric people were thought to be prone to rage and mood birds are omens of a loss for their army. Nevertheless, he says
swings. Cassius is a practical leader, as demonstrated by his he's ready to fight.
willingness to look the other way at the bribes.
Cassius and Brutus exchange final goodbyes. Brutus is
In this he and Brutus are opposed. As a stoic Brutus insists on determined to accept whatever fate has in store for him.
purity in all things. Brutus worries that the assassination has However, he refuses to return to Rome as a slave if captured.
been in vain; what was the point, if Rome is just going back to Brutus says, "This same day must end that work the Ides of
the status quo? Cassius is resentful, not wanting to follow March began." The two men and their armies march to the
Brutus's lead any longer, and aware that if not for Brutus, battlefield.
Antony would be dead. The men's long-standing friendship
wins out, but Cassius's feelings haven't gone away.

Shakespeare reduces the simmering tension on the stage by

Analysis
letting the poet enter. This gives the audience a much-needed
Foreshadowing is thick in this scene—the first prickles of
break. Its members have just learned that Portia, a blameless
tension between Antony and Octavius, the depth of Octavius's
character who has earned their sympathy, died in one of the
ambition, Brutus's resignation, and Cassius's uncharacteristic
most painful ways imaginable. Portia, like her husband, is
fear.
devoted to principle. Earlier she cut herself to prove her loyalty
to Brutus; now she commits suicide rather than live under the When Octavius challenges Antony, Antony seems surprised.
new regime. Here's a young man (Octavius was 21 at the time) asserting his
authority over an established leader. When chastised, Octavius
Caesar's ghost is both omen and warning. The ghost tells
responds with a vague threat. He appears to be as stubborn as
Brutus, obliquely, that he will die at Philippi. Will Brutus accept
the first Caesar.
this fate? The depth of what Brutus has done sinks in—maybe
he deserves to die. He sacrificed his morals for a deed he's Brutus's line "Words before blows" reinforces the power of
realizing was not a crime for the good of Rome but just a crime. words to signify what force cannot. Antony, fearless now, tells
As Brutus explains in his speech to the generals, though, he the conspirators for the first time what he really thinks of them:
must "take the current when it serves"; he can't turn back. "villains" and "flatterers." Cassius even gets in a bitter shot at
Brutus, saying of Antony, "This tongue had not offended so
today if Cassius might have ruled"—Brutus, if you had let us kill
Act 5, Scene 1 Antony as I advised, we wouldn't be here today.

Both Brutus and Cassius depart from long-held beliefs under

stress, signaling character change. Cassius abandons his
Summary Epicurean belief that the gods don't send omens. He even
compares himself to Pompey, who went to battle against his
Octavius and Antony arrive at Philippi. Octavius is surprised to
will with his freedom at stake. This battle is a consequence of
see the opposing forces advance. Antony thinks they advance
his actions, and he can only hope the gods will be friendly.
to show their bravery. The two discuss their battle strategy,

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Scene Summaries 21

Although Brutus is a stoic (a branch of philosophy that views marching to Philippi. This time it's a mistake. Why this change
the world with often negative realism and practicality, and that in the formerly cautious Brutus? Again, the acceptance of fate
sometimes acknowledges suicide as a viable option to moral plays a role. Brutus can't afford to take the long view, as he did
questions), he doesn't believe in suicide: he calls it "cowardly when contemplating the good of Rome in Act 2. He knows now
and vile" and submits himself to fate. Brutus will waver from that things won't end well. His new priority is saving himself,
this belief later. even if it means leaving Cassius's forces open to attack.

Cassius, meanwhile, abandons his previous belief in man's

Act 5, Scenes 2–3 ability to change his fate. The misinformation he receives from
Pindarus—that he has lost against Antony—leads him to
suicide. The irony is that by believing this loss to be true,
Cassius actually creates it: had he stayed alive, he would have
Summary had a chance at overcoming Antony's forces and joining in
Brutus's victory. Once he dies, his troops are
Brutus and Messala charge into battle. Brutus plans to attack
vulnerable—leading to defeat for his troops and for Brutus.
Octavius, in whom he perceives a lack of spirit. Cassius and
Titinius are soon encircled by Antony's forces. Titinius fears Messala's lament, "O hateful error ... Why dost thou show to
Brutus attacked too early. the apt thoughts of men the things that are not?" harkens back
to the misinterpretation of omens and warnings throughout the
Cassius sees tents on fire from a distance. He sends Titinius to
play.
the tents to see if they belong to a friend or an enemy.
Meanwhile, Cassius is convinced he has lost and prepares to
die. At his request the servant Pindarus goes to check on
Titinius. Pindarus reports that Titinius has been taken captive.
Act 5, Scene 4
Grieving Titinius, Cassius asks Pindarus to kill him, saying as he
dies, "Caesar, thou art avenged." Pindarus, now a free man,
runs from the battlefield. Summary
Titinius and Messala approach with good news—Brutus's Battle begins again. When Brutus's servant Lucilius meets the
forces have conquered Octavius. They see Cassius on the hill, enemy, he claims to be Brutus. He wants to be taken prisoner
dead. Titinius figures out that Cassius didn't trust his success. in the real Brutus's place. Soldiers bring the captive Lucilius to
The gathering Cassius saw was not Titinius being taken Antony (who, of course, knows he is not Brutus), and Lucilius
captive but Titinius in the middle of a celebration. Titinius puts declares Antony's forces will never take a noble man like
the crown of victory on Cassius's head and slays himself in Brutus alive. Antony instructs that Lucilius be treated well and
grief. orders his soldiers to search for Brutus. Is Brutus dead, or is he
still alive?
Brutus sees the two men dead. He says sorrowfully that Julius
Caesar's spirit is still mighty, turning men against themselves.
He resolves to fight again the next day. Analysis
The men ride into battle shouting their names, indicating the
Analysis importance of family lineage and patriotism in Roman culture.
Lucilius resists being taken as a prisoner of war, even after his
The tragic misunderstandings that mark these scenes show capture, indicating the importance of pride.
fate's power—Brutus and Cassius are destined for failure.
Brutus is going down fighting. Cassius's death shocked him
Scene 2 gives the important information that Brutus is and made him think victory was nearly impossible. But he puts
attacking Octavius, leaving Cassius vulnerable to Antony. on a brave face for his troops, and they respond with
Brutus continues the aggressive strategy he began by unswerving loyalty. When Lucilius says Brutus will be found

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Quotes 22

"like Brutus, like himself," he means that Brutus's actions will be While Antony's elegy for Caesar was grandiose and full of
honorable in any situation. flourishes, his elegy for Brutus is simple, eloquent, and
heartfelt. The tribute indicates that Brutus, not Caesar, was in
Antony knows the importance of loyalty, too. Like any good many ways the true leader of Rome.
politician, he's building allies.

Act 5, Scene 5 g Quotes

"Beware the Ides of March."

Summary
— The Soothsayer, Act 1, Scene 2
Brutus regroups with the soldiers Dardanius, Clitus, Strato, and
Volumnius after a harrowing day on the battlefield. When
another man of their company is captured, Brutus whispers a The Ides of March is a date on the Roman calendar. Certain
request in Clitus's ear. Clitus refuses, and later he and days of the month were given special names based on the
Dardanius confide to each other that Brutus has asked them lunar cycle (the original Roman calendar followed the lunar
both to kill him. year). The Ides denoted the full moon phase of the cycle and
fell on the 13th or the 15th day of each month. By the time
Brutus confesses to Volumnius that he has seen the ghost of Shakespeare wrote Julius Caesar, March 15 had become
Caesar two times—once at Sardis and once at Philippi. He asks infamous as the date of the historical Julius Caesar's
Volumnius to kill him, but Volumnius also refuses. Clitus urges assassination in 44 BCE. In the play Caesar ignores the
Brutus to run, as the enemy will soon overtake him. Brutus soothsayer's warning. But Shakespeare's audience would have
stays where he is. He says quiet goodbyes to his men and known the significance of the date. This is an instance of
sends all away but Strato, who agrees to help him die. dramatic irony, where the audience knows something the
character does not.
Antony and Octavius enter with their armies and two of
Brutus's former servants. They find Brutus dead. Antony
praises Brutus's nobility and virtue, saying he was the only
conspirator to act for the common good. Octavius promises to "The eye sees not itself But by
give Brutus honorable burial rites. Antony and Octavius exit to reflection, by some other things."
divide their victory spoils, and the war is over.

— Brutus, Act 1, Scene 2

Analysis
Brutus refers indirectly to a dilemma he shares with Julius
As the final dramatic event, Brutus's death symbolizes the Caesar: neither man can see himself as he truly is. Each relies
conclusion the play has been working toward—the fall of a on others to provide, by reflection, his identity. Caesar views
tragic hero, and the rise of an antihero in Antony. Brutus is himself as an invincible leader who always makes the right
determined to do the right thing. Now that circumstances have decision, because the Roman plebeians see him that way.
changed radically, this is the last noble action he can take. Brutus is also susceptible to the praise of others, particularly
his friend Cassius.
For stoics death brings rest. The motif of Brutus's exhaustion
runs throughout many of his major scenes. He was tired in his
orchard, tired in the camp at Sardis, and tired as he
approached his death. His exhaustion comes with worry.
"Why, man, he doth bestride the
Shakespeare emphasizes the weight of responsibility, and the narrow world Like a Colossus, and
punishing toll it takes.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Quotes 23

we petty men Walk under his huge He then unto the ladder turns his
legs and peep about To find back, Looks in the clouds,
ourselves dishonorable graves. scorning the base degrees By
Men at some time are masters of which he did ascend."
their fates. The fault, dear Brutus,
— Brutus, Act 2, Scene 1
is not in our stars, But in ourselves,
that we are underlings." As Brutus tries to justify joining the conspiracy, he
contemplates Caesar's ambition. Humility (lowliness) may be
— Cassius, Act 1, Scene 2 an admirable trait that makes a leader compassionate. But the
more authority the leader earns, the less humble he may be.
Once the leader reaches his goal, he doesn't need the
Cassius makes a case for free will triumphing over fate. At first,
leadership skills that got him there in the first place—he's
he alludes to the ancient Greek Colossus of Rhodes—a statue
proven himself and now has power. Brutus fears that authority
that stood more than 100 feet (30 meters) tall. Comparing
has gone to Caesar's head and that Caesar doesn't want to
Caesar's power to a physically gigantic Colossus creates an
put the effort into being a wise ruler any longer.
indelible image in the audience's mind. Then Cassius argues
that fate (our stars) has not forced the Romans to serve
Caesar. Instead the Romans are servants only because they
choose to be—they haven't risen up against Caesar yet. Casca
"Cowards die many times before
echoes this sentiment when he says "every bondman ... bears their deaths; The valiant never
the power to cancel his captivity."
taste of death but once."

"It was Greek to me." — Julius Caesar, Act 2, Scene 2

— Casca, Act 1, Scene 2 Explaining to his concerned, skeptical wife why he doesn't fear
death, Caesar doesn't shirk the inevitable. He refuses to think
about or imagine his death before it happens—to "die many
This phrase has become famous as an expression for not
times." This determined stance causes Caesar to ignore
understanding something written or spoken. In this scene the
warnings that could have saved his life, but it helps him face his
scholar Cicero was actually speaking Greek. But since Casca
death without anxiety.
doesn't understand the Greek language, he relates that he did
not understand what Cicero said. In essence he says, "It was all
gibberish to me."
"I could be well moved, if I were as
you: If I could pray to move,
"But 'tis a common proof That
prayers would move me. But I am
lowliness is young ambition's
constant as the northern star, Of
ladder, Whereto the climber-
whose true fixed and resting
upward turns his face; But when
quality There is no fellow in the
he once attains the upmost round,
firmament. The skies are painted

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Quotes 24

with unnumbered sparks; They are men groaning for burial."

all fire, and every one doth shine.
— Antony, Act 3, Scene 1
But there's but one in all doth hold
his place." Antony predicts that Caesar will rule even after his death. "The
dogs of war" is a famous phrase that evokes wild animals to
— Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1 describe the chaos of warfare. The imagery in this passage
activates multiple senses—hot from hell and the smell of
flesh—to depict the horror to come. Ate is the Greek goddess
Before the advance of navigation tools, travelers determined
of ruin, mischief, and havoc.
direction by the stars. Caesar compares himself to the one
fixed star in the sky—the north star that guides wanderers
home. The metaphor shows both Caesar's lofty self-image
("There is no fellow in the firmament": There's no one else like
"Not that I loved Caesar less; but
me) and the inherent danger in his style of leadership. He takes that I loved Rome more."
pride in his inflexibility, even when others suffer. Using the
stars as a metaphor also recalls discussions about fate in the
— Brutus, Act 3, Scene 2
play, since many people in Roman times thought the position of
celestial bodies determined the course of events. Caesar's
reference to the unchanging star may be an indication that he's Brutus justifies his killing of Caesar in a succinct, eloquent
accepting his fate. phrase. His patriotism is strong enough that he will put to death
a friend he loves dearly if that death is best for the country.
The other conspirators may have claimed they acted out of
concern for Rome, but as Antony points out later, Brutus is the
"Et tu, Brutè?—Then fall, Caesar."
only conspirator with pure motivations.

— Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1

"Friends, Romans, countrymen,

"You too, Brutus?" Caesar asks. The man he most trusted has
turned against him, and this blow finally kills him. Shakespeare
lend me your ears. I come to bury
writes the phrase in Latin for added emphasis. The phrase Et Caesar, not to praise him. The evil
tu, Brutè has become shorthand for betrayal by a formerly loyal
friend. that men do lives after them; The
good is oft interred with their
"And Caesar's spirit, ranging for bones."
revenge, With Ate by his side — Antony, Act 3, Scene 2
come hot from hell, Shall in these
confines with a monarch's voice The opening line of Antony's funeral speech ("Friends, Romans,
countrymen") is designed as a personal entreaty. The phrase is
Cry 'Havoc!' and let slip the dogs well-known, being widely used as a speech introduction today.
Antony's statement about the legacies of dead men—only the
of war, That this foul deed shall
evil deeds they've done are remembered—is a wry commentary
smell above the earth With carrion on the way the audience remembers historical figures, such as
Caesar himself. It's also in line with Antony's cynicism, implying

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Symbols 25

that evil actions have a greater impact than good ones.

"This was the noblest Roman of
them all. All the conspirators save
"This was the most unkindest cut only he Did that they did in envy of
of all. For when the noble Caesar great Caesar. He only, in a general
saw him stab, Ingratitude, more honest thought And common good
strong than traitors' arms, Quite to all, made one of them. His life
vanquished him." was gentle and the elements So

— Antony, Act 3, Scene 2

mixed in him that nature might
stand up And say to all the world,
Although Caesar was stabbed multiple times by men he 'This was a man.'"
trusted, Antony says the wound that really killed him was
psychological. When Brutus stabbed him, the loss of Brutus's
— Antony, Act 5, Scene 5
loyalty ended Caesar's life. When the plebeians hear this, they
become enraged at Brutus on Caesar's behalf.
Antony's elegy for Brutus comes at the end of the play, and
may surprise the audience. After all, Antony turned the Romans
"There is a tide in the affairs of against Brutus and fought against his armies at Philippi. Yet
once Brutus is dead, Antony can praise him sincerely and
men Which, taken at the flood, provide final thoughts on which the audience can reflect. In a
play where no one is purely good or purely evil, where
leads on to fortune; Omitted, all
characters are manipulative and their motivations are complex,
the voyage of their life Is bound in Shakespeare provides a clear, if tragic, hero in Brutus. "The
elements so mixed in him" refers to the four humors that
shallows and in miseries. On such
Elizabethans believed made up personalities. Brutus's humors
a full sea are we now afloat, And or elements were balanced, making him an ideal man.

we must take the current when it The elegy acknowledges Brutus's journey from morally
upstanding senator to reluctant murderer to expelled pariah to
serves Or lose our ventures."
battle martyr. Shakespeare, through Antony, quietly
acknowledges the fallen hero.
— Brutus, Act 4, Scene 3

Brutus, like Cassius, desires to be a master of his fate. He isn't

interested in waiting for omens to predict the future. As he l Symbols
prepares for war against the triumvirate, he tells his allies that
there are times when men need to take action. If they don't,
Brutus says, they'll regret it for the rest of their lives. The
action he's preparing to take—confronting the opposing forces
Storms
at Philippi—will have far-reaching consequences. The extended
metaphor refers to a sailor's journey—taking the tide "at the
flood" and floating on "a full sea." When the battle begins, Cassius says, "blow wind, swell billow
... the storm is up, and all is on the hazard [and everything is at

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Themes 26

risk]." Bad weather is a metaphor for devastation, a time when

humans must take initiative and act. The conspirators also Supernatural Elements
discuss the weather in Act 1, Scene 3, when they meet to
discuss Caesar's presumed coronation planned for the
following day. Speaking of the recent storm, Casca states that The ghost of Caesar materializes once (Act 4, Scene 3) and is
the gods must be angry: "When the most mighty gods by mentioned by Brutus once again (Act 5, Scene 5). Its brief
tokens send/Such dreadful heralds to astonish us." appearance, when Brutus is exhausted and everyone else is
asleep, almost seems like a figment of Brutus's imagination. A
symbol of Brutus's guilt and of revenge for Caesar's murder,
the ghost also foreshadows the military blunders that will lead
Animals and Insects to Brutus's downfall the following day.

A lion is used several times in the play to signify various omens:

In Act 1, Scene 3, Cassius describes Caesar as a destructive m Themes
storm and as a roaring "lion in the Capitol." Both symbols
represent a dangerous ruler.

Caesar likens himself to a lion in Act 2, Scene 2: "Caesar is Tyranny and Power
more dangerous than he./We were two lions littered in one
day,/And I the elder and more terrible."
Shakespeare explores the theme of tyranny throughout the
play and through the central question of the work: Is Caesar a
In Act 5, Scene 1, the honeybee Cassius and Brutus compare tyrant, and is his murder justified? Although the audience is
to Antony stands for duplicity—sweetness without and sting presented with no direct evidence of Caesar's tyranny, Cassius
within. uses figurative language to convince first Casca and then
Brutus that Caesar is indeed a tyrant who must be executed
The serpent Brutus speaks of in Act 2, Scene 1 symbolizes for his own good and for that of Rome. Cassius likens Caesar
Caesar and his possible evolution into a tyrant. Here the to a wolf that views the Romans as sheep. He states that were
serpent represents not only Caesar, but also evil and power. Caesar to become king and thus tyrant, Cassius would
Readers learn that Brutus believes such potential evil should consider himself a slave, and he would rather take his own life
be destroyed: "Think him as a serpent's egg/Which, hatched ... than live enslaved.
would grow mischievous/And kill him in the shell."
The pursuit of power—fueled by ambition—is closely related to
the theme of tyranny. Caesar's much-discussed ambition earns
The eagles Cassius speaks of in Act 5, Scene 1 represent him the leadership spot. As Antony points out in his funeral
strength and victory. The fact that the birds desert the soldiers speech, Caesar's rule kept Rome stable economically.
at Philippi is seen as a bad omen. Senators who envy Caesar or disagree with his methods all
show some form of ambition themselves. Although he accuses
Cassius also speaks of ravens and crows in Act 5, Scene 1. Caesar of ambition, Cassius pursues power himself. He sends
These are scavengers that feed on dead animals—and fallen false evidence regarding Caesar to trick Brutus into believing ill
soldiers. Several crows and ravens arrive at Philippi and circle of his friend. Using this falsehood and peer pressure, he
above Cassius's and Octavius's troops. Cassius views these persuades Brutus to accept the de facto role of conspiracy
birds as omens of defeat and death. leader in Caesar's assassination. Ambition leads Caesar, and
later Antony, to disregard the needs of others. Once his great-
uncle is dead, Octavius begins his climb toward power, defying
Antony regarding battle strategies at Philippi.

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Themes 27

that fate has carved out for them.

Communication and
Shakespeare's characters repeatedly try to seize control of
Persuasion events beyond their control, with mixed results. Flavius and
Marullus try to curb Caesar's soaring self-image by
desecrating his statues. Brutus attempts to manage public
perceptions at Caesar's funeral. Cassius sets in motion the
Communication in Julius Caesar is often a life-or-death affair.
events leading to Caesar's downfall, in the name of achieving
Shakespeare's characters communicate, or attempt to
liberty for Rome.
communicate, in several different ways: through private
conversation, public speeches, and written messages. Even Despite the frequent failures of their bold actions, the main
character interactions viewed from afar are interpreted as characters often endorse free will as imperative, the only way
messages. In Act 5, for example, Pindarus mistakenly reports out of a powerless, miserable life. Brutus, for instance, grows
that Titinius has been killed, and this miscommunication results bolder throughout the play. In the first act, he's unhappy with
in Cassius's death. Caesar's coronation but unconvinced that he can change
anything. By the fourth act, he's confidently giving commands
Earlier, in Act 2, Scene 1, Cassius uses rhetoric in conversation
in war.
and in his forged letters to persuade Brutus to join the
conspirators. Throughout the play Shakespeare demonstrates
the power of public speech and rhetoric to motivate groups of
individuals to readily act as one. Marullus describes this
phenomenon in Act 1 when he berates the Romans for
Honor
celebrating Pompey's defeat.

In Act 3, Scene 2, Brutus and Antony demonstrate the ease A person's honor—that is, integrity or high moral standards—is
with which public opinion can be manipulated. During the a concept that Shakespeare uses throughout the play. Brutus
funeral, under Antony's influence, the people grow from an thinks of himself as an honorable man, one who serves the
angry crowd into a pitchforks-and-torches mob willing to kill general good of the people. Cassius uses honor as a tool to
the innocent. The mob drives Brutus and Cassius from Rome, manipulate Brutus into joining the assassination conspiracy. He
instigating a war and paving the way for Antony and Octavius flatters Brutus's sense of honor, saying he wishes Brutus could
to seize power. see himself in the same praiseworthy light as others see him.
Once Cassius convinces Brutus that Caesar has become
dishonorable, Brutus agrees to take part in the assassination.
In his funeral speech, Antony uses honor as a means to
Free Will versus Fate discredit Brutus and the other conspirators and set the mob
against them.

Can humans employ free will to control the dates or manners

of their deaths? The play revolves around a major death, that
of Caesar, and questions whether it was inevitable or justified. Force and Brutality
Caesar himself believes firmly in fate. The strength of this
belief may be what kills him—if he'd heeded the intervention of
omens, he may not have gone to the Capitol. Shakespeare illustrates that Roman culture, especially for men,
dictated that physical force was proof of worth just as much as
Cassius, by contrast, believes he can change his destiny. And
intellectual acumen or political savvy. Arguments were solved
this belief starts a chain of events that leads to his death.
through battle. Characters willing to show force end up on top,
Cassius, Brutus, Titinius, and Portia all commit suicide. They
as in the case of Antony's and Octavius's killing 100 senators
take death into their own hands, on their own terms—a
(or 70, depending on which report is accurate). Characters
demonstration of free will, but perhaps in the face of a death

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Julius Caesar Study Guide Suggested Reading 28

reluctant to show force get taken advantage of, as when

Brutus resists killing Antony.

Shakespeare doesn't present it that simply, of course, and

allows each major character to define in his own way what it
means to be a leader. They each struggle to prove their worth:
Caesar by overturning his wife's argument, for instance, and
Brutus by holding back his emotions.

e Suggested Reading
Bloom, Harold, and William Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar. New York: Riverhead, 2005. Print.

Goldsworthy, Adrian. Caesar: Life of a Colossus. New Haven:

Yale UP, 2006. Print.

Plutarch, Thomas North, and T.J.B. Spencer. Shakespeare's

Plutarch: The Lives of Julius Caesar, Brutus, Marcus Antonius,
and Coriolanus in the Translation of Sir Thomas North.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1964. Print.

Wills, Garry. Rome and Rhetoric: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.

New Haven: Yale UP, 2012. Print.

Zander, Horst. Julius Caesar: New Critical Essays. New York:

Routledge, 2005. Print.

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