Interplanetary Spacecraft 1

6 Interplanetary Spacecraft

6.1 Introduction
Consider an interplanetary trajectory from earth to mars. Near earth, the spacecraft is
primarily under the influence of the earth’s gravitational field. For most of the journey, it is
“in orbit about the sun,” and close to mars, mars is the primary influence.
The actual trajectory can be approximated by a series of “patched conics” or connected
two-body orbits:
(i) near earth: hyperbolic geocentric orbit (spacecraft escapes from earth);
(ii) between earth and mars: elliptical heliocentric orbit;
(iii) near mars: two-body orbit with mars as the primary.
We require a criterion to determine when to “turn off the earth” and “turn on the sun.”
This is captured by the notion of sphere of influence.
Sphere of Influence
This notion is not an exact concept since there is no actual boundary between the gravita-
tional fields of the planets and the sun.

13
~
6 12
 ~ test mass
 r
r-j


-
 11 R
M (sun) mp (planet)
~

Assume that a test mass is at the correct distance r from the planet so that the gravitational
forces of the sun and planet balance. Hence the test mass should remain a distance r from
the planet.
The gravitational force (per unit mass) exerted on a test mass by the sun and planet is

GM Gmp
fg = − 2
11 + 2 11 (1)
~ (R − r) ~ r ~

Both the planet and test mass rotate around the sun. For a circular orbit with radius R, the
angular velocity is s
GM
ω= 13
~ R3 ~
The centripetal acceleration of the test mass (directed towards the sun) is

GM
a = ω × ω × (R − r)11 = − 3 (R − r)11
~ ~ ~ ~ R ~
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 2

In order for the test particle to remain at this position,

a = fg
~ ~
or
GM GM Gmp
− 3
(R − r) = − 2
+ 2 (2)
R (R − r) r

We expect that r  R, i.e., the sphere of influence radius of the planet to be much smaller
than the planet-to-sun distance. Therefore,

1 1 r −2
 
= 1 −
(R − r)2 R2 R
1 r
= 2
(1 + 2 + · · ·)
R R
. 1 r
= +2 3 (3)
R2 R
Using (3) in (2), we arrive at

GM GM GM r Gmp
− (R − r) = − − 2 + 2
R3 R2 R3 r
and hence
r mp 1/3
   
= (4)
R 3M
This gives the radius of the sphere of influence, rp of the planet. It is also called the
Roche limit which gives the maximum size of a body of mass mp . If the body were larger,
gravitational forces from the sun would rip loose rocks away.
The usual expression for the sphere of influence is (r/R) = (mp /M )2/5 and is determined by
a more complex argument.

6.2 Patched Conics

The method of Patched Conics is characterized by the application of the following approxi-
mations:
1. The spacecraft is influenced only by the gravitational field of a planet when it is within
its sphere of influence.
2. The spacecraft is influenced only by the gravity of the sun when it is outside any planet’s
sphere of influence.
3. The spacecraft is always in a two-body orbit with the sun or a planet as the primary and
the point of view is switched when the influence sphere boundary is crossed.
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 3

Interplanetary Hohmann Transfers

Most planetary orbits have small eccentricities and nearly one common orbital plane. There-
fore the Hohmann transfer is the minimum ∆v route for interplanetary transfers but certainly
not the fastest.
The
q transfer time between two planets is half the period of the Hohmann ellipse: T12 =
π a3t /µ where

at = (R1 + R2 )/2, Ri = planetary orbit radii

µ = heliocentric gravitational constant

For, earth to mars, T12 = 258 days. For earth to jupiter, T12 = 2.5 years.
The departure point for the H.T. is earth and the arrival point is the target planet’s orbit.
An additional constraint requires that the planet be there.
Let
2π
n1 = = mean motion of earth0 s orbit
T1
2π
n2 = = mean motion of target0 s orbit
T2
Hence, the planet travels n2 T12 during the transfer. Therefore, the relative phase angle at
launch is
θ12 = π − n2 T12
This give the launch window for transfer to the target planet.

Launch windows occur at periodic intervals. The relative angular velocity of the earth with
respect to the target planet is n1 − n2 . The time between launch windows is called the
synodic period:
2π
Tsyn =
|n1 − n2 |

return trip
The earth must be at the arrival point when the spacecraft returns. The phase angle required
for departure from the planet is
θ21 = π − n1 T12
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 4

This is also the phase angle between the earth and the target planet at arrival at the planet
(but in the opposite sense).
Note that for a trip to Mars, the Earth will be |θ21 | ahead of Mars on arrival at Mars. The
crew must wait for the earth to be |θ21 | behind Mars before they can leave. The wait time is

2π + 2θ21
Twait =
|n2 − n1 |

The total trip time is

Ttrip = Twait + 2T12

Planet Tsyn T12 Twait Ttrip

(days)
Mercury 115.8 105.4 66.9 277.9
Venus 583.9 146.1 467.0 759.2
Mars 779.9 258.8 454.3 972.1
Jupiter 398.8 997.5 214.6 2209.6
Saturn 378.1 2209.1 363.2 4454.5
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 5

Patch Conditions
The crossing of a planet’s sphere of influence requires a change in viewpoint. Inside the
planet’s sphere of influence, we use planetocentric positions and velocities. Outside them,
we use heliocentric positions and velocities. At the interface we have

V = Vp + v (5)
~ ~ ~
R = Rp + r (6)
~ ~ ~
where

V = spacecraft heliocentric velocity

~
Vp = planet0 s heliocentric velocity
~
v = spacecraft planetocentric velocity
~
R = spacecraft heliocentric position
~
Rp = planet0 s heliocentric position
~
r = spacecraft planetocentric velocity
~
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 6

Review of Hyperbola Geometry

QQ 


QQ 
0
δ
Q
Q 
Q
Q
b
Q
Q
-

Q

Q 


Q
Q 
Q  θ∞ 
Q Q 
Q
Q
Qt γ

Q
 
Q JJ t
F  - QQ F0
 Q
 a0 Q
 Q
 Q
 Q
 Q
 Q
 Q
 QQ

p
a0 = −a = (7)
e2
−1
p
b0 = ib = √ 2 (8)
e −1
p
rp = a(1 − e) = a0 (e − 1) = (9)
1+e
As r → ∞, θ → θ∞ = cos−1 (−1/e). Hence,

γ = π − θ∞ = cos−1 (1/e)
δ = π − 2γ = 2θ∞ − π = 2 sin−1 (1/e)
q
Using the vis-viva equation, v = (2µ/r) − µ/a, we have that as r → ∞,
q
v → v∞ = µ/a0 = hyperbolic excess speed

The value of the energy,

E = 21 vp2 − (µ/rp ) = 12 v∞
2

gives the periapsis velocity s

2 +
2µ
vp = v∞ (10)
rp
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 7

Departure Hyperbola
Since the earth’s influence sphere is small on a heliocentric scale, V is speed at perihelion in
the Hohmann transfer ellipse.
Since the influence sphere is large compared to the earth, v ≈ v∞ , i.e., the hyperbolic excess
speed.

For a hyperbolic orbit,

µ µ
E = 12 v 2 − µ⊕ /r = 12 v∞
2
=− = 0
2a 2a
Hence,
µ
a0 = 2
v∞
Given rp , the velocity at periapsis in the hyperbola is given by (10). The eccentricity of the
departure hyperbola is
rp
e=1+ 0
a
Typically, the spacecraft
q is injected into the hyperbola from a circular parking orbit with
r = rp and vpark = µ⊕ /rp . The injection maneuver is performed at the desired perigee
of the hyperbola so that when θ = θ∞ , the hyperbolic velocity vector is aligned with the
planet’s velocity vector. The required ∆v for the injection maneuver is

∆vpark = vp − vpark
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 8

Arrival Hyperbola

The spacecraft arrives at the target planet’s sphere of influence with heliocentric velocity V1
~
and position R1 . The corresponding quantities with respect to the target planet are given
~
by
v1 = V1 − Vp
~ ~ ~
r1 = R1 − Rp
~ ~ ~
The quantities r1 and v1 establish the orbit around the planet.
~ ~

.
For a hyperbolic orbit, v1 = v∞ which gives a0 = µp /v∞
2
, and r1 established b0 . Using (7) and
~
(8), the eccentricity is given by s
b02
e = 1 + 02
a
0
Then, rp = a (e − 1) may be determined.
The collision radius (b0c ) is the value of b0 that produces a value of rp = R where is R is the
planetary radius. Using the above expressions,
s 
b02
R = a0  1 + c
− 1
a02

Hence,
√
b0c = R2 + 2Ra0
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 9

s
2µp
= R 1+ 2
Rv∞

which establishes a collison corridor which should be avoided. Note that for a pure Hohmann
transfer, b0 is zero since V1 is parallel to Vp .
~ ~

6.3 Planetary Flyby, Gravity Assist, Swingby, or Slingshot Ma-

neuver

The exit velocity of the spacecraft relative to the planet is v2 and v2 = v1 = v∞ . Therefore
~
the magnitude of the velocity is unchanged but it is turned through an angle

δ = 2 cos−1 (−1/e) − π

Therefore, v1 6= v2 and the planet exerts a ∆v on the spacecraft. The heliocentric exit
~ ~ ~
velocity is V2 = Vp + v2 . Hence, in general V2 6= V1 . The change in heliocentric energy
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(per unit mass) is
∆E = 12 (V22 − V12 )
which may be positive or negative. Positive ∆E is representative of a trailing-side flyby
(as drawn). This is a “gravitational slingshot” and can be used as an alternative to the
Hohmann transfer for trajectories to the outer planets (i.e., go to Saturn via jovian flyby).
A negative ∆E is typical of a leading side flyby which reduces heliocentric speed.
Voyager II has used this method to perform flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
(Grand Tour). Galileo went to Jupiter using the VEEGA (Venus-Earth-Earth-Gravity-
Assist) trajectory.
 Interplanetary Spacecraft 10

6.4 Optimal Planetary Capture

For long term study of a target planet, we must convert a hyperbolic orbit into a bound
(elliptical or circular) orbit. Assuming that the spacecraft enters a planet’s sphere of influence
with known v∞ , no manuevers are performed, and no collision (b0 > b0c ), it will exit from the
sphere of influence. In general, v∞ cannot be controlled, but the periapsis radius rp can be
via b0 .
Let us assume that capture is accomplished
q
by circularization at a given rp . The required
velocity in the circular orbit is vc = µp /rp . The energy constant of a hyperbola is

E = 12 v 2 − µp /r ≈ 12 v∞
2

At periapsis, q
vp = 2 + 2µ /r
v∞ p p

The required ∆v for capture is

q q
∆v = |vc − vp | = 2 + 2µ /r −
v∞ µp /rp
p p

For minimum ∆v, d∆v/drp = 0 which leads to an optimal capture radius of

2
rp = 2µp /v∞
√
and corresponding ∆v = v∞ / 2.
Note that if the desired orbit were elliptical, ∆v would be less than that given above which
corresponds to placing the spacecraft quite deep into the gravitational well of the planet.
Another option for planetary capture is aerobraking using the atmosphere of the target
planet.