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Unit 4 – Chemistry of the Environment

The Soil Chemistry

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Describe the nature and composition of soil.
• Discuss the effects of different compounds in soil.
• Explore different pollutants in soil and remediation techniques for
the conservation of soil.



1.0 NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
It is known that soil has its importance in different aspects. For example, in the
production of food; maintaining the balance of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus; and for the
construction of building materials.
The chemical nature of soil is that, it is a mixture of weathered rocks and minerals;
decayed plants and animal material (humus and detritus); and small living organisms which
includes plants, animals and bacteria. Soil is also consists of water and air. A typical
productive soil has a solid fraction of almost five (5) percent organic matter and ninety five
(95) percent inorganic matter. There are other soils which has as at least one (1) percent
organic matter but some soil such as peat soils may contain as much as ninety five (95)
percent organic matter.

Distinctive Layers of a Typical Soil
A layer of a typical soil which is called horizon, is the product of complex interactions
between processes that develop during weathering. The rainwater that percolates through
the soil bring dissolved and colloidal solids to lower horizons where they are deposited.
Bacterial decay of residual plant biomass (biological process) produce slightly acidic
carbon dioxide (CO2), organic acids, and complexing compounds that are carried by
rainwater to lower horizons where they combine with clays and other minerals resulting to
the change in the properties of minerals.
The A horizon or topsoil which is the top layer of soil is several inches in thickness.
Maximum biological activity in the soil happens in this layer. This layer also contains most of

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the soil organic matter and is important in the productivity of plant. Figure 1 describes
numerous soils that may have a variety of horizons.
In determining the composition of soils, the parent rocks where soils are formed
definitely play an important role. There are other characteristics of soil which includes:
strength, workability, soil particle size, permeability and extent of maturity.



Vegetation (O) horizon from decayed and decaying plant biomass

(A) horizon, topsoil, rich in partially decayed organic
Regolith matter (humus), plant roots, high biological activity

(E) horizon, layer of elution of clay and aluminum and
iron oxides, generally weathered, leached

(B) horizon, subsoil, accumulation of organic matter,
salts, and clays eluted from upper layers

(C) horizon, weathered parent rock

Bedrock


Figure 1. Profile of soil showing horizons (Manahan, 2010).


Water and Air in Soil
For the production of most plant materials, large quantities of water is basically
important because large quantities of water are needed for the production of most plant
materials. Water is part of the three-phase, solid−liquid−gas system making up soil. It is the
basic transport medium for carrying essential plant nutrients from solid soil particles into
plant roots and to the farthest reaches of the plant’s leaf structure (Figure 2). The water in a
plant evaporates into the atmosphere from the plant’s leaves, a process called transpiration.

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Figure 2. Plants transport water from the soil to the
atmosphere by transpiration (Manahan, 2010).


Soil carries the nutrients to the plant extremities by this process wherein plants
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and add oxygen by photosynthesis. The reverse
of this process occurs during plant respiration.
The water phase is not totally independent of soil and matter because of the presence
of small capillaries and pores in the soil and generally because of its small size particles.
Water present in larger spaces of soil is relatively more available to plants and readily drains
away. Water held in smaller pores or between the unit layers of clay particles is held much
more strongly. Soils containing high organic matter may hold more water than other soils,
but it is somewhat less available to plants because of physical and chemical sorption of the
water by the organic matter.
A much strong interaction between clays and water in soil do exist, clay particles
absorbed water on its surface. Much amount of water may be bound in this manner because
of the high surface/volume ratio of colloidal clay particles. But as soils becomes saturated
with water, there will be a dire change in its physical, chemical, and biological properties.
Oxygen in such soil is immediately consumed by the respiration of microorganisms that
causes degradation of organic matter in soil. The bonds holding soil colloidal particles
together are broken, which causes disruption of soil structure. It is known that the excess
water in such soils is detrimental to plant growth, and the soil does not contain the air
required by most plant roots. Most important crops (exception of rice) cannot grow on soil
soaked with water.

2.0 THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL
The Inorganic Components Of Soil
The formation of inorganic colloids from the inorganic soil components are produced
from the weathering of parent rocks and minerals. These colloids are repositories of water
and plant nutrients which can be made available to plants as needed. Inorganic soil colloids
plays a role in the detoxification of substances that could harm plants because these colloids

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often absorb toxic substances in soils. In determining soil productivity, the abundance and
nature of inorganic colloidal material in soil are certainly an important aspect.
The uptake of plant nutrients by roots often involves complex interactions with the
water and inorganic phases. For example, a nutrient held by inorganic colloidal material has
to traverse the mineral/water interface and then the water/root interface. This process is
often strongly influenced by the ionic structure of soil inorganic matter.
The most common elements on the earth’s crust are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Therefore, minerals composed of these
elements—particularly silicon and oxygen—constitute most of the mineral fraction of the
soil. Common soil mineral constituents are finely divided quartz (𝑆𝑖𝑂!) , orthoclase
(𝐾𝐴𝑙𝑆𝑖+ 𝑂8 ), albite (𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑆𝑖+ 𝑂8 ), epidote {𝐶𝑎! }{𝐴𝑙! 𝐹𝑒 +N }(𝑆𝑖! 𝑂4 )(𝑆𝑖𝑂$ )𝑂(𝑂𝐻), goethite
¡𝐹𝑒𝑂(𝑂𝐻)¢, magnetite (𝐹𝑒+ 𝑂$ ), calcium and magnesium carbonates (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂+ , 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂+ ), and
oxides of manganese and titanium.

Organic Matter In Soil
Organic matter mostly determines soil productivity even though it typically
constitutes only less than five percent of a productive soil. Importance of organic matter in
soil are: (a) source of food for microorganisms, undergoes ion exchange chemical reaction,
contribute to the weathering of mineral matter (process by which soil is formed). An
example for this process is when oxalate ion (C2O42-) produced as a soil fungi metabolite
which occurs in soil as the calcium salts whewellite and weddellite. Oxalate in soil dissolves
minerals, therefore speeding the weathering process and increasing the availability of
nutrient ion species. Oxalate complexation of iron or aluminum in minerals which is involve
in the weathering process is expressed by the reaction:

3𝐻N + 𝑀(𝑂𝐻)+ (𝑠) + 2𝐶𝑎𝐶! 𝑂$ (𝑠) → 𝑀(𝐶! 𝑂$ )3 !N
! (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑎 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻! 𝑂

in which M is Al or Fe. Some soil fungi produce citric acid and other chelating organic acids
that react with silicate minerals and release potassium and other nutrient metal ions held by
these minerals.
The build-up of organic matter in soil is greatly influenced by temperature and by the
availability of oxygen. Since the rate of biodegradation decreases with decreasing
temperature, organic matter does not degrade rapidly in colder climates and tends to build
up in soil. In water and in waterlogged soils, decaying vegetation does not have easy access
to oxygen, and organic matter accumulates. The organic content may reach 90% in areas
where plants grow and decay in soil saturated with water. The organic compounds in soil
are summarized in Table 1.

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Table 1. Major Classes of Organic Compounds in Soil (Manahan, 2010)
Compound Type Composition Significance
Humus* Degradation-resistant Most abundant organic component,
residue from plant decay, improves soil physical properties,
largely C, H, and O exchanges nutrients, reservoir of
fixed N
Fats, resins, and Lipids extractable by organic Generally, only several percent of
waxes solvents soil organic matter, may adversely
affect soil physical properties by
repelling water, perhaps phytotoxic
Saccharides Cellulose, starches, hemi Major food source for soil
cellulose, gums microorganisms, help stabilize soil
aggregates
N-containing Nitrogen bound to humus, Provide nitrogen for soil fertility
organics amino acids, amino sugars,
other compounds
Phosphorus Phosphate esters, inositol Sources of plant phosphate
compounds phosphates (phytic acid),
phospholipids
*Humus - a water-insoluble material that biodegrades very slowly, makes up the bulk of soil organic matter.

Soil Humus
Humus is composed of a base-soluble fraction called humic and fulvic acids (an
organic material that remains in the acidified solution), and an insoluble fraction called
humin (is the residue left when bacteria and fungi biodegrade plant material). Humic
substances has an influence in properties of soil even though it has a small percentage in soil
composition. They have an acid-base character which serve as buffers in soil and they
significantly increase the water-holding capacity of soil. Humic substances also strongly bind
metals and serve to hold micronutrient metal ions in soil. The aggregates of soil particles can
also be stabilize by these substances and additionally, can increase the sorption of organic
compounds by soil.

The Soil Solution
The soil solution is the aqueous portion of soil that contains dissolved matter from
the chemical and biochemical processes in soil and from the exchange with the hydrosphere
and biosphere. This medium transports chemical species to and from soil particles and
provides contact between the solutes and the soil particles. It is also an important pathway
for the exchange of plant nutrients between roots and solid soil aside from water which is
vital for plant growth. Most of the solutes present in soil as salts are composed of:
𝐻N , 𝐶𝑎!N , 𝑀𝑔!N , 𝐾 N 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎N cations (with lower levels of 𝐹𝑒 !N , 𝑀𝑛!N , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑙 +N ) and

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𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 , 𝐶𝑂+3 , 𝐻𝑆𝑂$3 , 𝑆𝑂$!3 , 𝐶𝑙 3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 3 anions. The 𝐹𝑒 !N , 𝑀𝑛!N , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑙 +N cations are generally
present in hydrolyzed forms or bound with humic substances. Some anions become bound
with 𝐻N (e.g. 𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 - formed from 𝐶𝑂+3 ). Multicharged ions tend to form ion pairs in solution
such as 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂$ (𝑎𝑞).

Acid–Base And Ion-Exchange Reactions In Soils
The mineral and organic portions of soils both exchange cations. Clay minerals
undergo this process because of the presence of negatively charged sites on the minerals
resulting from the substitution of an atom of lower oxidation number for one of higher
number (e.g. magnesium for aluminum).
Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by which potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and essential trace-level metals are made available to plants. When nutrient metal ions are
taken up by plant roots, hydrogen ion is exchanged for the metal ions. This process, plus the
leaching of calcium, magnesium, and other metal ions from the soil by water containing
carbonic acid, tends to make the soil acidic:

{𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 }𝐶𝑎!N + 2𝐶𝑂! + 2𝐻! 𝑂 → {𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙}(𝐻N )! + 𝐶𝑎!N (𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑂+3

The buffering capacity of soil depends upon its type wherein the soil acts as a buffer
and resists changes in pH.

3.0 ADJUSTMENT OF SOIL ACIDITY
Most common plants grow best in soil with a pH near neutrality. If the soil becomes
too acidic for optimum plant growth, it may be restored to productivity by liming through
the addition of calcium carbonate:

{𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 }(𝐻N )! + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂+ → {𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 }𝐶𝑎!N + 𝐶𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂

In areas of low rainfall, soils may become too basic (alkaline) due to the presence of
basic salts such as 𝑁𝑎! 𝐶𝑂+ . Alkaline soils may be treated with aluminum or iron sulfate,
which release acid during hydrolysis:

2𝐹𝑒 +N + 3𝑆𝑂$!3 + 6𝐻! 𝑂 → 2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)+ (𝑠) + 6𝐻N + 3𝑆𝑂!!3

Sulfur added to soils is oxidized by bacterially mediated reactions to sulfuric acid:

3
𝑆 + 𝑂! + 𝐻! 𝑂 → 2𝐻N + 𝑆𝑂$!3
2

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and sulfur is used, therefore, to acidify alkaline soils. The huge quantities of sulfur now being
removed from fossil fuels to prevent air pollution by sulfur dioxide may make the treatment
of alkaline soils by sulfur much more attractive economically.
The concentrations of chemicals in soil are given in mass units: parts per million
(ppm), milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), or micrograms per kilogram (𝜇g/kg). The units
vary somewhat based on the magnitude of the mass of chemical present per unit mass
(usually kilograms) of soil. For example, when dealing with carbon, the concentration is
usually given in percent because carbon generally accounts for about 1 to 25% of soil
material. On the contrary, when working with nutrient concentrations (e.g., nitrogen,
phosphorus, etc.) units of milligrams per kilogram are used. When working with many
hazardous wastes, whose concentrations are usually small, we use units of parts per billion
or micrograms per kilogram.
The movement of ionic nutrients such as nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate is
governed by ion-exchange reactions. For example, sodium ions may be attached to the soil
surface by electrostatic interactions. If water containing calcium is passed through the soil,
the calcium will be preferentially exchanged for the sodium according to this reaction.

2 (𝑁𝑎N − 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙) + 𝐶𝑎!N = 𝐶𝑎!N − (𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙)! + 2 𝑁𝑎N

By this reaction, two sodium ions are released for every ion of calcium exchanged;
thus maintaining the charge balance. Thus, an important characteristic of soil is its exchange
capacity. Exchange capacity is, essentially, the extent to which a unit mass of soil can
exchange a mass of a certain ion of interest. Exchange capacity (reported in units of
equivalents of ions per mass of soil) is an important characteristic of soil in terms of its ability
to leach ions such as magnesium, calcium, nitrate, and phosphate.
Another important process that occurs in soils is sorption. Sorption is essentially the
attachment of a chemical to either the mineral or organic portions of soil particles and
includes both adsorption and absorption.
With low concentrations of pollutants, sorption can be described mathematically by
a linear expression.
𝐶C (𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑘𝑔3( )
𝐾] =
𝐶O (𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐿3( )

Where 𝐶O = the equilibrium concentration of the chemical in the water (mass per
volume of water)
𝐾] = a partition coefficient describing sorption equilibrium of chemical-
distribution ratio = (mass per mass of soil)(mass per volume of water)-1
𝐶C = the equilibrium concentration of the chemical on the soil (mass per mass
of soil)

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The partition coefficients of various organic pollutants can vary over at least eight
orders of magnitude, depending predominately on the chemical characteristics of the
pollutant, but also on the nature of the soil itself.
With most neutral organic chemicals, sorption occurs predominately on the organic
fraction of the soil itself (as long as the fraction of organic material on the soil is “significant”).
In these cases,
𝐶C ≈ 𝐶.' 𝑓.'

Where 𝐶.' = concentration of organic chemical in the organic matter of the soil
𝑓.' = fraction of organic matter in the soil.
68- @8-
Therefore, 𝐾] = 69







Example 1. A soil sample is collected and the soil water is analyzed for the

chemical compound 1,2-dichloroethane (DCA). The concentration in the

water is found to be 12.5 𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝐿3( . The organic matter content of the soil is

1.0%. Determine the concentration of DCA that would sorbed to the soil and

that associated with the organic matter. DCA has a 𝐾] of 0.724 (𝜇𝑔 ∙

𝑘𝑔3( )(𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝐿3( )3( .



Solution:

Using the equation:
𝐶C
𝐾] =
𝐶O



Solve for 𝐶C :

𝐶C = 𝐾] 𝐶O = [0.724 (𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝑘𝑔3( )(𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝐿3( )3( ](12.5𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝐿3( )

= 9.05 𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝑘𝑔3(



Lastly, solve for 𝐶.' :

𝐶C (9.05 𝜇𝑔 ∙ 𝑘𝑔3( )
𝐶.' = = = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟓 𝝁𝒈 ∙ 𝒌𝒈3𝟏
𝑓.' 0.01

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4.0 MACRO- AND MICRONUTRIENTS IN SOIL

Macronutrients In Soil
Elements that occur in substantial levels in plant biomass and fluids are called
macronutrients. The elements that are usually recognized as essential macronutrients
includes: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and sulfur. These macronutrients can be absorbed from the atmosphere (carbon, hydrogen
and hydrogen) while others which are also essential macronutrients can be obtained from
soil. But nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are commonly added to soil as fertilizers.
Calcium-deficient soils are relatively uncommon. Application of lime, a process used
to treat acid soils provides a more than adequate calcium supply for plants. However, calcium
uptake by plants and leaching by carbonic acid (𝐻! 𝐶𝑂+ ) may produce a calcium deficiency in
soil. Acid soils may still contain an appreciable level of calcium which, because of competition
by hydrogen ion, is not available to plants. Treatment of acid soil to restore the pH to near
neutrality generally remedies the calcium deficiency. In alkaline soils, the presence of high
levels of sodium, magnesium, and potassium sometimes produces calcium deficiency
because these ions compete with calcium for availability to plants.

Sulfur is assimilated by plants as the sulfate ion, 𝑆𝑂$3! . Lack of sulfur in soil do not
support plant growth well, largely because sulfur is a component of some essential amino
acids and of thiamin and biotin. Sulfate ion is generally present in the soil as immobilized
insoluble sulfate minerals or as soluble salts that are readily leached from the soil and lost
as soil water runoff. Unlike the case of nutrient cations such as potassium ion (K+), little
sulfate is adsorbed to the soil (i.e., bound by ion-exchange binding), where it is resistant to
leaching while still available for assimilation by plant roots.
Organic nitrogen content in soil is over ninety percent (90%) which is usually the
product of the biodegradation of dead plants and animals (see Figure 3). It is eventually
hydrolyzed to ammonium ion (𝑁𝐻$N ), which can be oxidized to nitrate ion (𝑁𝑂+3 ) by means
of bacterial activities in the soil. Nitrogen is an important component of proteins and other
constituents of living matter and its attachment to soil humus (serves as a reservoir of
nitrogen required by plants) is essential in maintaining soil fertility. Whereas, nitrogen is not
a significant product of mineral weathering, unlike potassium or phosphate.
Inorganic nitrogen from fertilizers and rainwater which is often largely lost by
leaching has the additional advantage that its rate of decay then can release nitrogen to
plants, roughly parallels plant growth. This is of great help since nitrogen-fixing organisms
generally cannot supply sufficient nitrogen to meet peak demand.
Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and other constituents of living
matter. Plants and cereals grown on nitrogen-rich soils not only provide higher yields, but
are often substantially richer in protein and, therefore, more nutritious. Nitrogen is most
generally available to plants as nitrate ion.

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Figure 3. Nitrogen sinks and pathways in soil (Manahan, 2010).

Phosphorus, like nitrogen must be present in a simple inorganic form before it can be
taken up by plants. Although it has a low percentage in plant material but still it is an
important component of plants. In the pH range that is present in most soils, dihydrogen
phosphate ion (𝐻! 𝑃𝑂$_ ) and hydrogen phosphate ion (𝐻𝑃𝑂$!3 ) are the predominant
orthophosphate species. Orthophosphate is most available to plants at pH values near
neutrality. It is believed that in relatively acidic soils, orthophosphate ions are precipitated
or sorbed by species of Al(III) and Fe(III). In alkaline soils, orthophosphate may react with
calcium carbonate to form relatively insoluble hydroxyapatite:

3 𝐻𝑃𝑂$!3 + 5 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂+ (𝑠) + 2 𝐻! 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎# (𝑃𝑂$ )+ (𝑂𝐻)(𝑠) + 5𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 + 𝑂𝐻3

In general, because of these reactions, little phosphorus applied as fertilizer leaches
from the soil. This is important from the standpoint of both water pollution and utilization
of phosphate fertilizers.
For potassium, its high levels are utilized by growing plants. Potassium activates
some enzymes and it is also essential for some carbohydrate transformations. Lack of
potassium in soil can generally reduce crop yields. Due to this, the higher the productivity of
the crop, the more potassium will be removed from the soil. When nitrogen fertilizers are
added to soils to increase productivity, removal of potassium is enhanced. Therefore,
potassium may become a limiting nutrient in soils heavily fertilized with other nutrients.

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Micronutrients In Soil
Essential plant micronutrients includes: boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese,
molybdenum (for nitrogen fixation), and zinc. Low levels of these elements are needed by
plants but usually higher levels of these micronutrients are toxic to plants.
Most of these elements function as components of essential enzymes. Manganese,
iron, chlorine, and zinc may be involved in photosynthesis. It is possible that sodium, silicon,
nickel, and cobalt may also be an essential nutrients for some plants.
Iron and manganese occur in a number of soil minerals. Sodium and chlorine (as
chloride) occur naturally in soil and are transported as atmospheric particulate matter from
marine sprays. Some of the other micronutrients and trace elements are found in primary
(unweathered) minerals that occur in soil.
Boron is substituted isomorphically for Si in some micas and is present in tourmaline,
a mineral with the formula 𝐴𝑙5 𝐵+ 𝐹𝑒+ 𝐻(0 𝑁𝑎𝑂+( 𝑆𝑖5 .

Copper is isomorphically substituted for other elements in feldspars, amphiboles,

olivines, pyroxenes, and micas; it also occurs as trace levels of copper sulfides in silicate
minerals.
Molybdenum occurs as molybdenite (𝑀𝑜𝑆! ).
Vanadium is isomorphically substituted for Fe or Al in oxides, pyroxenes,
amphiboles, and micas.
Zinc is present as the result of isomorphic substitution for Mg, Fe, and Mn in oxides,
amphiboles, olivines, and pyroxenes and as trace zinc sulfide in silicates.
Other trace elements that occur as specific minerals, sulfide inclusions, or by
isomorphic substitution for other elements in minerals are chromium, cobalt, arsenic,
selenium, nickel, lead, and cadmium.

Fertilizers
Major components of crop fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium but
magnesium, sulfate and micronutrients may also be added. Fertilizers are designated by
number, such as six (6) for nitrogen (equivalent to 6%) expressed as N, twelve (12) for
phosphorus (equivalent to 12%) expressed as 𝑃! 𝑂# , and eight (8) for potassium (equivalent
to 8%) expressed as 𝐾! 𝑂. Farm manure corresponds to an approximately 0.5-0.24-0.5
fertilizer. The organic fertilizers such as manure must undergo biodegradation to release the
simple inorganic species (𝑁𝑂+3 , 𝐻H 𝑃𝑂$H3+ , 𝐾 N ) absorbed by plants.

𝑁! + 3𝐻! → 2𝑁𝐻+

The anhydrous ammonia product has a very high nitrogen content of 82%. It may be
added directly to the soil, for which it has a strong affinity because of its water solubility and
formation of ammonium ion:

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𝑁𝐻+ (𝑔)(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) → 𝑁𝐻+ (𝑎𝑞),

𝑁𝐻+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻! 𝑂 → 𝑁𝐻$N + 𝑂𝐻3

A special equipment is needed because of the toxicity of ammonia gas, that’s why the
use of aqua ammonia which is a thirty percent (30%) solution of 𝑁𝐻+ in water must observe
greater safety. It is sometimes added directly to irrigation water. It should be noted that
ammonia vapor is toxic and 𝑁𝐻+ is reactive in some substances and it is considered as a
hazardous waste.
Ammonium nitrate, 𝑁𝐻$ 𝑁𝑂+, is a common solid nitrogen fertilizer which has 33.5%
nitrogen. It is made by oxidizing ammonia over a platinum catalyst, converting the nitric
oxide product to nitric acid and reacting the nitric acid with ammonia. Although convenient
for its application to soil, it requires considerable care during manufacture and storage
because it is explosive.
One of the common problem that can be produced from the use of fertilizer is water
pollution from agricultural runoff which is enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
from fertilizers. A process known as eutrophication can occur. It is the excessive growth of
algae in water body which is caused by the nutrients in fertilizers. Due to this, there would
be algal biomass decay that will consume oxygen, and bodies of water are seriously damaged
because of oxygen depletion. As a non-point source of pollution, fertilizer runoff presents a
challenging environmental problem.

5.0 SOIL POLLUTANTS
Pollutants from Livestock Production
Livestock production generates significant amounts of environmental pollutants.
Livestock manure has a very high BOD and can rapidly deplete oxygen when it gets into
waterways. Decomposition of animal waste products produces inorganic nitrogen that can
contaminate water with potentially toxic nitrate. Inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus
released to water from the decomposition of livestock wastes can cause eutrophication of
water. Nitrous oxide (𝑁! 𝑂) released to the atmosphere from livestock waste degradation can
be an air pollutant. Methane generated in the anaerobic degradation of livestock wastes is a
potent greenhouse gas.

Pesticides and their Residues In Soil
The following are four major concerns regarding pesticides in soil that need to be
considered with respect to their licensing and regulation:
a) carryover of pesticides and biologically active degradation products to crops
grown in later seasons
b) biological effects on organisms in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems including
bioaccumulation and transfer through food chains

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c) groundwater contamination
d) effects on soil fertility

Herbicides are considered as the most common chemicals that affect soil and
organisms that it supports because the effectivity of herbicides come into direct contact with
soil. It is well studied that these pesticides and other foreign compounds that remain in soil
for a long period of time have its effects. Some are listed below:
a) the substances become increasingly resistant to extraction and desorption process
b) they become significantly less bioavailable to organisms
c) overall toxicity is decreased

The bioavailability and extractability effects are usually associated to interaction of
the pollutant (a compound) with the organic matter in soil and are more pronounced for
soils that has high organic matter content. Micropores of the organic matter trapped these
molecules and become less environmentally reactive. The probable increase in binding time
may be due to the slow migration of molecules into smaller micropores and perhaps there is
a formation of covalent bonds to the organic matter.

Wastes in Soil
It is given that large quantities of waste products are received by soil. Sulfur dioxide
emitted in the burning of sulfur-containing fuels ends up as sulfate in soil. Nitrogen oxides
from the atmosphere that are converted to nitrates are eventually deposited in soil.
Particulate lead from the exhaust of an automobile is found at high concentration in soil
along heavily traveled highways. And also, elevated levels of heavy metals from mines and
smelters are found on soil near such facilities.
Soil is the receptor of many hazardous wastes from landfill leachate, lagoons, and
other sources. In some cases, land farming of degradable hazardous organic wastes is
practiced as a means of disposal and degradation. The degradable material is worked into
the soil, and soil microbial processes bring about its degradation.
The various constituents of soil have different affinities for organic contaminants.
Natural organic matter, primarily humic substances, have a relatively high affinity for
organic contaminants and heavy metal ions. Many soils contain elemental carbon, black
carbon, material in the ash left over from the burning of crop residues, including sugarcane
trash, wheat straw, and rice straw. This material is probably an important repository of
organic contaminants in soil.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene (𝐶5 𝐻5 ), toluene (𝐶4 𝐻8 ), xylenes
(𝐶8 𝐻(0 ), dichloromethane (𝐶𝐻! 𝐶𝑙! ), trichloroethane (𝐶𝐻+ 𝐶𝐶𝑙+ ), and trichloroethylene
(𝐶! 𝐻𝐶𝑙+ ), may contaminate soil in industrialized and commercialized areas, particularly in
countries in which enforcement of regulations is not very stringent. Some of the sources of

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these VOCs are: leaking underground storage tanks, landfills built before current stringent
regulations were enforced and improperly discarded solvents.
Soil receives enormous quantities of pesticides as an inevitable result of their
application to crops. The degradation and eventual fate of these pesticides on soil largely
determines their ultimate environmental effects. Among the factors to be considered are the
sorption of the pesticide by soil; leaching of the pesticide into water, as related to its potential
for water pollution; effects of the pesticide on microorganisms and animal life in the soil; and
possible production of relatively more toxic degradation products.

Soil Loss and Degradation
Soil is a fragile resource that can be lost by erosion or become so degraded that it is
no longer useful to support crops.
The physical properties of soil and, hence, its susceptibility to erosion, are strongly
affected by the cultivation practices to which the soil is subjected. Desertification refers to
the process associated with drought and loss of fertility by which soil becomes unable to
grow significant amounts of plant life. Desertification involves a number of interrelated
factors, including erosion, climate variations, water availability, loss of fertility, loss of soil
humus, and deterioration of soil chemical properties.
A related problem is deforestation, loss of forests. The problem is particularly acute
in tropical regions, where the forests contain most of the existing plant and animal species.
In addition to extinction of these species, deforestation can cause devastating deterioration
of soil through erosion and loss of nutrients.
Soil erosion is the loss of soil by the action of both water and wind; water is the
primary source of erosion.

6.0 SOIL PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION
Soil Preservation
Food as the most basic need of humans is an important aspect in order to have the
sustainability of means to produce food as a top priority. The preservation of soil and its
ability to support plant life is the most basic part of food sustainability and soil erosion is
considered as one of the problem that could affect our precious soil. The preservation of soil
from erosion is commonly termed soil conservation. There are numerous traditional
solutions to the soil problem which is a well-known agricultural practices such as terracing,
contour plowing, and periodically planting fields with cover crops. For some crops
conservation tillage (no-till agriculture) surely decreases erosion. This practice consists of
planting a crop among the residue of the previous year’s crop without plowing. In the newly
planted crop row, weeds are killed by application of a herbicide prior to planting. The surface
residue of plant material left on top of the soil prevents soil erosion.

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Agroforestry
Trees are a known perennial plants which are very effective in stopping soil erosion.
In the past, trees were often allowed to grow naturally with native varieties without the
benefit of any special agricultural practices such as fertilization. The productivity of biomass
from trees can be greatly increased with improved varieties including those that are
genetically engineered and with the improved cultivation and fertilization.
Agroforestry is a promising alternative in sustainable agriculture in which crops are
grown in strips between rows of trees (see Figure 4). The trees help to preserve or balance
the soil particularly on sloping terrain. For example, choosing trees with the capability to fix
nitrogen then the system can be efficient in this essential nutrient.








FIGURE 4. Alley cropping of crops between rows of trees running across sloping land can be
an effective means of practicing agroforestry sustainably.

Soil Restoration
Soil can be impaired by loss of fertility, erosion, buildup of salinity, contamination by
phytotoxins, such as zinc from sewage sludge, and other insults. Soil has a degree of
resilience and can largely recover whenever the conditions leading to its degradation are
removed. However, in many cases, more active measures called soil restoration are required
to restore soil productivity, through the application of restoration ecology. Measures taken
in soil restoration may include physical alteration of the soil to provide terraces and
relatively flat areas not subject to erosion. Organic matter can be restored by planting crops
the residues of which are cultivated into the soil for partially decayed biomass. Nutrients
may be added and contaminants neutralized.

Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
The practice of green chemistry may significantly enhance agricultural productivity
and sustainability.
The application of green chemistry to agriculture holds promise for preventing or
alleviating problems such as the following:
a) Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers and their products have accumulated on
agricultural lands and waters leading to adverse effects on wildlife, the environment, and
potentially humans as well.

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b) Nontarget organisms have suffered and insect and weed pests have built up
resistance to agents used in their eradication.
c) Poorly trained and inadequately protected personnel in less developed countries
have suffered adverse effects from modern agricultural products.
d) Disposal problems have arisen with respect to obsolete pesticides.

Agriculture is a science of living organisms applied to human needs for food and fiber
production. So in attempting to find more sustainable and environment-friendly approaches
to agriculture, it is reasonable to look to natural ecosystems that have evolved over the years
that enable various species of plants and animals to thrive. Such an approach is based upon
biomimetics in which humans attempt to mimic natural life systems.
Pesticides that come from natural sources such as plants or bacteria are called
biopesticides. These substances are usually more environmentally friendly than synthetic
pesticides, although the blanket assumption that anything from a natural source is
automatically safer than synthetic materials should not be made.
Biopesticides has its advantages which include a generally lower toxicity than
conventional pesticides, has high specificity for target pests, effective even in very small
quantities and rapid decomposition. Biopesticides are commonly most effective when used
in integrated pest management program.

LEARNING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Click the link below and watch the videos for more understanding about the topic.

[Link]

[Link]

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ASSESSMENT TASK





1: What are the composition of soil?



2. Briefly discuss and illustrate the distinctive layers of a typical soil.



3. What are the effects of inorganic components in soil?



4. How does temperature affect the organic matter in soil?



5. What are the major classes of organic compounds in soil? Briefly discuss

their significance.



6. What are the macro- and micronutrients found in soil that are important
to plants?

7. What are the sources of pollution in soil?

8. Briefly discuss the remediation techniques for the preservation and
conservation of soil.






References:


Manahan, S. E. (2011). Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry. CRC press.

Masten, S. J., & Davis, M. L. (2014). Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science.

McGraw-Hill Education.







SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY