Ref: S/Mabhena.

Secretary

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

VOLUME 2

HORTICULTURE CROPS

INSERT H/C PICTURES

Page 1 of 114
FOREWORD
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents

PLANTING CALENDAR FOR VEGETABLES .............................................................. 4

VEGETABLES
CABBAGE ......................................................................................................................... 6
TOMATOES ..................................................................................................................... 11
ONION .............................................................................................................................. 16
CARROTS ....................................................................................................................... 19
GREEN BEANS .............................................................................................................. 22
POTATO ........................................................................................................................... 25
CUCUMBER .................................................................................................................... 29
WATERMELON ............................................................................................................. 33
EGGPLANT ..................................................................................................................... 35
MUSHROOMS ................................................................................................................. 37
STRAWBERY .................................................................................................................. 41
PEPPER ............................................................................................................................ 44

INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES
NYEVHE /ULUDE .......................................................................................................... 46
MUNYEMBA, .................................................................................................................. 48
TSUNGA .......................................................................................................................... 49
OKRA ............................................................................................................................... 50
AMARANTHUS .............................................................................................................. 52

EXPORT PRODUCTION
MANGE TOUT ................................................................................................................ 54
SWEET CORN ................................................................................................................. 57
BABY CORN ................................................................................................................... 59
FINE BEANS.................................................................................................................... 61

FRUIT PRODUCTION
CITRUS ............................................................................................................................ 63
MANGO ........................................................................................................................... 70
APPLE AND PEAR ......................................................................................................... 75
AVOCADO PEAR ........................................................................................................... 79
BANANA ......................................................................................................................... 83
PEACH/APRICOT/PLUM ............................................................................................... 86

FLOWER PRODUCTION
ROSES .............................................................................................................................. 91
PROTEA ........................................................................................................................... 94

Page 2 of 114
HYPERICUM ................................................................................................................... 96
BUPLEURUM .................................................................................................................. 98
AFRICAN VIOLETS ..................................................................................................... 100
CORIANDER ................................................................................................................. 103
HERBS
ROSEMARY .................................................................................................................. 105
GINGER ......................................................................................................................... 107
GARLIC .......................................................................................................................... 109
LEMON GRASS ............................................................................................................ 111
TUMERIC....................................................................................................................... 112
MINT .............................................................................................................................. 113

Page 3 of 114
PLANTING CALENDAR FOR VEGETABLES

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Beet root
Brinjal
(egg plant)
Broccoli
Butternut
Cabbage
Carrots
Cauliflower
Chillies
Green
beans
Green
mealies
Lettuce
Marrow
(baby)
Onion
Peas
Peppers
Potato
Squash
Squash
(germ)
Squash
(marrow)
Tomato
Water
melon

Page 4 of 114
VEGETABLES
CABBAGE
TOMATOES
ONIONS
CARROTS
GREEN BEANS
POTATOES
CUCUMBER
SQUASH/PUMPKIN
WATERMELON
EGG PLANT
MUSHROOM
STRAWBERY
PEPPER
BROCCOLI
LETTUCE
Page 5 of 114
CABBAGE
Varieties
Variety Days to maturity Maturity Category
Golden Cultivar 65 – 90 Early
Cape Spitz 75 – 110 Medium
Copenhagen Market 70 - 110 Medium
Drumhead 120 - 160 Late
Rotan F1 Hybrid 70 - 80 Early
Star 3311 F1 Hybrid 75 - 85 Early
Green Coronet F1 Hybrid 120 - 140 Late
Star 3315 F1 Hybrid 90 - 100 Medium
Klabishi F1 Hybrid 90 - 100 Medium
Marcanta F1 Hybrid 70 - 80 Early

Soil Requirements
 Slightly acidic to neutral soils with good water holding capacity.
 pH 5 - 7

Climate
 Temperature, 160C - 240C.
 Mature plants can tolerate temperatures of 30C for a very short period

Land Preparation
 Deep plough and disc to a fine tilth.

Planting
 Highveld - August to April
 Lowveld - January to May.
 Use certified, disease-free seed.
 Heat treat at 500C for 25 minutes to eliminate seed borne diseases.
 Dry and dust with 2 g Thiram/kg seed.
 Sow seed in seedbeds at 300-450 g/ha. .
 Seed takes 7 - 14 days to emergence
 Emergence to transplanting takes 4 to 8 weeks depending on variety.
 Harden seedlings and transplant at 10 - 15 cm tall.

Spacing

Page 6 of 114
Variety In-row(mm) Between rows (mm) Population/ha
Early 300 450 74 000
450 450 49 300
Mid-season 450 500 44 400
500 600 33 300
Late 450 750 29 600
600 750 22 200

Fertiliser Requirements
 Basal dressing, 1000 kg/ha compound S
 Use manure 25-50 tonnes/ha.
 Top dress with 100 kg/ha. AN twice at three weekly intervals after
transplanting.

Weed Control
Weed Chemical/Rate Stage of application Comment
Annual and certain broad Trifluralin Cross-disced into soil
leaf weeds before transplanting.
Annual and certain broad Lasso After first transplanting
leaf weeds irrigation but before
weeds emerge
Annual and Perennial Fusilade Super Apply after weed
grasses emergence
Annual grasses and some Dual Magnum Pre- emergence for Rate depends on
broadleaf weeds. 960EC/0.7- grass weeds: crop % clay.
1.2L/ha planted. Spray after
transplanting irrigation.
Nut sedge purple; yellow. Dual Spray after transplanting Suppression only.
Magnum960EC irrigation.
/1.0 - 1.5 L/ha
Grass weeds Fusilade Forte Post-emergence Annual grasses –
150 EC depends on size
0.3-2L/ha and species
1.25-6.7L/ha Perennial grasses-
rate depends on
size of grass.
All weeds Gramoxone Post-emergence before Rate depends on
200SL/.5-2L/ha transplanting. size of weeds.

Page 7 of 114
Insect Pest Management
Pest Symptoms Control/Rate Pre Comments
Harvest
Interval
Bagrada Leaves wither -Dichlorvos 5% EC at 200 30days
bug and young plants ml/100 litres water, or
may die in Parathion 25 WP at
severe attack 125g/100 litres water.
Gamma BHC
Cabbage Feed on the crop -Dimethoate 40% EC at 14days Spray in 300-500
Aphids leaves and 75ml/100 litres water. L water/ha at 1st
stems Chess 50WG-200g/ha sign of
infestation.
Cutworms Slash young -Bait made up of 100 kg
plants stems at mealie meal plus 625 g
the base. endosulfan, 50% WP is
applied to the ground
before planting or near
plants in the late
afternoon.
-Use Mavrik 2 E, Carbaryl
85 WP and
Dursban . Karate 5EC
Red Causes silvering Same as for aphids.
Spider and mottling of
Mite the leaves
Diamond Irregular holes, -Karate5EC/5SC 2days Apply every 14
back Moth sometimes 8ml/100Lwater/ha. days in 500L
leaving the upper Match 600ml/ha water/ha when
surface of the 14days pest is noticed
leaf in place
(windowing) As for Karate
5EC Alternate
with insecticides
of different
groups. Do not
exceed 6 sprays.
Webworm Deformed growth Same as for
and the Diamondback moth.
formation of
many growing
points
Leaf miner Burrowing into Same as for aphids

Page 8 of 114
 leaves causing
them to fall or
become
unmarketable

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control/Rate Pre Comments
Harvest
Interval
Bacterial -Death of seedling leaves -Use resistant -Spray 3-4 times
Black Rot completely after they turn varieties after transplanting
dark in colour. When the -Use certified 7days every 2-3 weeks.
plants are larger, the disease free seed -Use lower level
disease causes yellow V- Bion 50WG when mixed with
shaped areas at the edge copper.
of the leaves, particularly
lower leaves near to the
soil.
Bacterial -Turns soft and rotten -Plant on ridges to -Avoid harvesting
Soft Rot with a bad smell prevent water under warm moist
logging around the conditions
plants -Wash and
-Prevention of other disinfect hands
diseases will reduce and harvesting
the ability of soft rot knives.
to penetrate the
crop.
-Avoid growing
cabbages in the
same field for at
least 3 seasons
Downy -Fluffy fungal growth on -Dithane M45 at -Spray after
mildew the underside of the leaf. 200g/100 litres cooper and Bravo.
water every 7 to 10 Max 3 sprays
days.
-Dip seedlings at
transplanting.
-Ridomil Gold Mz
68WG-1.5kg/ha
Damping -Damping off and wire -Sow seed thinly
off stem of seedlings in the and drench with
seedbed Thiram at 10 g/5
-Bottom rot and head rot litres of water each
in growing cabbage crops week.
or after harvest

Page 9 of 114
Harvesting
 Harvest 60 to 90 days after transplanting depending on variety.
 Harvesting may be for a period of 15 to 20 days.

Yield

 Open pollinated varieties yield 30 - 35 tonnes/ha

 F1 hybrids yield 50 - 75 tonnes/ha.

Market
 Local markets mainly as fresh or dried.

Page 10 of 114
TOMATOES

Varieties
Variety Growth Habit Fruit Shape/Quality
Alboran Determinate Round, Smooth and pleasant taste
Rodade Determinate Good quality with high grading
Roma Determinate Long red and almost plum shaped
Floradade Determinate Firm fruit
Money maker Indeterminate Round red firm fruit
Red Khaki Determinate Poor fruit firmness
Rossol Determinate Poor fruit firmness
UC82B Determinate Firm block fruit
Heinz Determinate Medium firmness
Fortune Maker F1 Determinate Square shaped, thick walled
Adelaide F1 Indeterminate Round, firm deep red
Thomas F1 Indeterminate Medium to large size, deep red
Raissa F1 Indeterminate Glossy fruit with constant size
Star 9030 F1 Indeterminate Round smooth fruit

Soil Requirements
 Optimum pH 5.0-5.5 CaCl2.
 Liming is done when pH is below 5.0.
 Grow best in sandy loam soils

Climatic Requirements
 Grown in frost-free areas
 Optimum temperature 18 - 25 oC.

Seed Rate
 Seed rate is about 120- 160 g
 Nursery seed bed of about 60 m2 /ha.

Spacing
 Use 300 mm to 500 mm in row and 1.5 - 2 m between rows.
 Emergence takes 7-10days.

Planting Time
 Transplant 6 -8 weeks after emergence.
 Harden seedlings with 3-5 true leaves, pencil thick and 12 cm tall.

Page 11 of 114
Fertiliser Requirement.
Stage Types Amount
Basal dress Compound S 1 000– 1 500 kg/ha (6:17:6
Basal dress Tobacco fertiliser (6:15:12) at 700 kg/ha
Top dress Ammonium Nitrate and Potassium Sulphate 100 kg/ha

Weed Management
Weed Chemical LR/SR (Long/short Stage of application
residual effect)
Annual and Fusilade super -Apply post-emergence to
perennial young and actively growing
grasses weeds

Broad leaves Sencor 480 8 – 12 weeks and Apply as directed. Spray at

and annual SC longer least 14 days after
grasses transplanting
Cross disc into soil before
Trifluralin (Trif) 5 months and longer transplanting

Pests
Pest Symptoms Control Post Comments
Harvest
Interval
Cut Cut young Carbaryl, Dursban, Pyrinex, Spray seedbeds or
worm plant stem at Karate 5EC/5CS transplants when soil is
the base moist in 150-300L of
water.
Aphids Suck plant Chess 50WG-200g/ha 3days Spray in 300-500 L
sap and water/ha at 1st sign of
reduce plant Actara 25WG – 200g/ha spray infestation. Alternate with
growth. or 0,02g/plant drench or, Actara.
4g/100m of row 600ml/ha 3days
Polo 500Sc

Dimethoate, Metasystox 25 EC, 7days Polo. Spray 3-4 times in

300-500 L water/ha at 1st
sign of pest. Alternate
with Chess, Polo. Mix
1.5-1.8 L water and
incorporate. Spray in
programme with Chess,
Actara. Also controls red
spider mites.
African Feed on Karate 5EC/5SC – 200ml/ha 2days Spray preventatively at
Bollwor leaves, (12-20ml) per 15 L water. fruit set or when eggs or
m flowers and Match 050 EC – 400-600 ml/ha caterpillars are found.

Page 12 of 114
 fruit (6-12ml per 15L water. Check pyrethroid dates.
Thionex 35 EC, Dedevap, Alternate chemicals.
Tamaron 600 SL, Carbaryl, 7days
Dipterex 95 SP
Red Leaves may Dynamec 18EC -280-560 ml/ha 3days Spray 1st sign of
spider become Polo 500SC – 600ml/ha infestation. Alternate
mite spotted, chemicals.
yellow, Curacon – 130 – 400ml/ha 7days
brown or Malathion, Dimethoate 40 EC,
silvery

Mitac, Armitraz 20 EC, 4days

Kelthane 18 EC, Dicofol
Leaf Causes Tamaron, Trigard 75 WP 3days Spray at 1st sign of
miners white infestation
spotting or Dynamec 18EC 3days
stippling in
leaves
Whitefly Suck plant Confidor, Naturell, DDVP
sap and
reduce plant
growth.

Diseases
Disease Symptom Control Pre- Comments
harvest
Interval
Bacterial Wilting of the foliage, stem Use healthy seeds, plant
canker splitting on ridges and crop
rotation
Bacterial Sudden wilting of the plant, Use crop rotation and
wilt browning of woody tissues avoid use of areas prone
to water logging.

Bacterial Dark brown raised pustules on Use healthy seed, crop

spot the fruit, later becoming slightly rotation.
sunken and scabby.

Bacterial Brown spots 2mm in diameter Use certified

Speck on leaf edges Copper oxychloride and disease free
On fruit black slightly raised Mancozeb seed.
superficial spots 3mm in
diameter
Early A dark reddish brown leaf spot Copper oxychloride 3days Repeat as
blight with concentric markings 500g/100L water necessary at
appearing first on the 7 days
lowermost leaves, causing Mancozeb 2kg/ha 3days interval, Full
defoliation. Cracks on fruit and Cover Spray.

Page 13 of 114
 other skin injuries
Late Greyish green water soaked Copper oxychloride 3days Full cover
Blight lesions on the leaves which 500g/100Lwater spray,
rapidly turning black. Lesions repeat at 7
on the stem are dark brown days interval.
and large mottled brown areas
develop on the fruit. Mancozeb 2kg/ha, 3days Full Cover
Spray repeat
Captan 200ml/100Lwater 7-10days
7days intervals.

Spray twice
in seedbeds.
Tomato Light and dark green mottling. Use resistant cultivars
mosaic Distorted young leaves , and Control vectors
virus stunted or elongated growth. Practice good hygiene
Rogue out and destroy
infected plants

Physiological disorders
Physiological Symptom Control
disorder
Blossom end Appears as small 3 water soaked area at Grow resistant cultivars
rot the blossom end of fruit. This enlarges, Foliar applications of calcium
becomes sunken and turns black and chloride at transplanting time
leathery and sometimes turning the core can be useful.
of the fruit brown.
Puffiness Fruits appear angular. Fruit feels lighter Apply sound nutrients
than it should be and when cut holes in
the flesh are seen.
Sunscald White or light tan discoloration of the fruit Care should be taken when
that has been over heated due to sun pruning fruits and harvesting
exposure. not to overexpose fruits to the
sun.
Fruit cracking In concentric cracking, the fruit normally Use cultivars tolerant to
develops circular, concentric cracks cracking such as Floradade
around the stem end of the fruit. Radial and Rodade.
cracking, the fruit cracks radiate from the
blossom end.

Harvesting
 Depends on proximity to market, package available and the variety of tomato
being harvested.

Page 14 of 114
Stages For Tomatoes Harvesting.
 Pale blossom-end stage-Cream coloured streaks at blossom end of the fruit.
 Pink blossom-end stage—Pink dull red colour at blossom end of the fruit.
 Pink stage—Dull red fruit
 Ripe stage—the fruit is virtually ripe but still firm.

Yields
 20-60 t/ha is usually achievable.
 100t/ha obtainable depending on cultural practices and cultivars.

Storage
 Ripe tomatoes may be stored for 7 to 10 days at 5 oC to 10 oC and humidity of
80 to 85%.
 Can be harvested at the mature green stage to increase shelf life

Marketing
 Local markets as fresh or dried and to processors, export market

Page 15 of 114
ONION

Varieties
Variety Days to maturity Yield
Radium 210 - 220 8 – 10 t/ha
Texas Grano 210 - 220 60 t/ha
White Lisbon 180 - 200 10 – 25 t/ha
Red Pinoy 120 - 150 20 - 25 t/ha

Soil Requirements
 Fertile well drained with high levels of organic matter
 Depth of 600mm.
 pH 5.0 to 6.8
 Lime a month before transplanting

Climate
 Temperatures 18—27° C.
 Bulbing is more rapid at warmer temperature
 Low winter temperatures induce bolting

Seed rate
 2.5-3kg/ha

Spacing
 Construct nursery bed 1- 1.5 metres wide, leaving a 50cm path between the
beds.
 Mark out rows 10 - 20 cm apart across each bed
 Transplant to 5-7.5cm spacing within row and 30 cm between rows.

Planting
 Plant between February - March
 Nursery area of 300m2 when the seed has been sown into the marked out
lines/ha
 Transplant 8-10 weeks when seedlings are pencil thick and 15-25cm long.
 Remove mulch gradually as seedlings grow.

Fertiliser Application (seedbed)

 Basal application Compound S, 450 to 550kg/ha
 Top dressing, 100kg/ha Ammonium Nitrate 2-3 weeks after emergence.
 Too much Nitrogen causes delayed bulbing.

Sets or Bulblets
 Method leads to early maturity .

Page 16 of 114
 Has advantage of harvesting early by 50-55 days.
 Sowing is in August-September.
 Bulbs mature in three months, are lifted and re-sown in January-February.

Transplanting
 Plough, disc and harrow field to a depth of 30 cm.
 Broadcast compound S at 800-1000 kg/ha and incorporate.
 Top dress with 100-kg/ha ammonium nitrate 4-6 weeks after transplanting.

Weed Control
Weed Chemical LR/SR Stage of application
(Long/short
residual
effect)
Annual and Fusilade super Apply early post-emergence of grass
perennial grasses and crop

Ronstar 3 months Apply immediately after planting

seedlings or sets
Broad leaves and Goal Apply to clean land at 10 to 18 days
grasses after transplanting

Pests
Pest Symptoms Control Pre Comments
Harvest
Interval
Thrips Silvery or blanched Actara 25 WG 7days Spray a 1st sign
appearance on leaves, 600g/ha 3days of infestation
tender centre leaves become Karate repeat after 2-3
curled and deformed, outer 5EC/CS120ml/ha weeks.
leaves turn brown at tips
Cutworm Cuts plants at the base Karate 2days Spray over
5EC/5SC transplants
150-200ml/ha
(Check
pyrethroid
dates)

Diseases
Disease Symptom Control Preharvest Comments
Interval
Purple Small irregular white Dithane M45 3days Spray at 1st sign of

Page 17 of 114
Blotch patches on
the Ridomil infection. Repeat 10-
(Alternaria) leaves Score 250 EC 14 days alternate
Ortiva 250 EC the 2 chemicals.
Downy Grey down covering Dithane M45. 3days Spray preventively 7
Mildew the leaves Bravo 720 SC 14days – 14 days. Maximum
White Tip MZ 68 WG 3days of 3 sprays.
Ridomil Gold
White bulb Black sooty like Benlate 14days .
rot mould between the Quintozene
scales
Neck rot Bravo720SC Spray preventively 7
– 14 days.
Seedling Apron Star 42 Mix with 40ml water
disease WS then seed, shake
/Soil borne well.
fungi

Harvesting
 Done when 50% of the tops have wilted/collapsed.
 Apply a light irrigation before harvesting.
 Sort and grade, removing all thick-necked onions.
 Store in a well ventilated shed with low temperature and low humidity.
 Inspect weekly and remove all spoiled bulbs.

Yields
 Vary from 20-100 t/ha

Market
 Local markets as fresh or dried, market to processors or export

Page 18 of 114
CARROTS (Daucus carota)

Varieties
Variety Days to maturity Maturity Category
Kuroda 70 - 120 Medium
Chantenay 70 - 120 Medium
Nantes 70 - 120 Medium
Laguna 85 - 95 Early
Star 3006 85 - 95 Early

Soil
 Plant in deep, rich light soils.
 Insufficiently decomposed manure and stony soils cause forking in carrots.
 Soil pH 5.5-6.8.
 Avoid acid soils.

Climate
 Optimum temperature, 15 –21 0C.
 Above 250C short thicker roots with pale colour are produced.

Seed Rate
 3-8 kg/ha

Spacing and Planting

 Carrots may be drilled in or broadcast and thinned after 1 month to leave 3– 6
cm between plants.
 Can be grown all year round.
 Best time is between April and September.

Fertilizer
 Basal application,100– 200kg / ha Compound D.
 Incorporate manure at 10-20 tonnes per hectare at sowing.
 Top dressing -150 kg AN

Water Requirement
 Supply 35 mm –55 mm every 7-14 days

Weed Control
 Care should be taken in weeding to avoid damaging roots
 Weeds can be kept under control by mechanical means.

Pests

Page 19 of 114
Pest Symptoms Control Pre Comments
harvest
Interval
Aphids Sucking pests Polo 5000. 3days Spray 3-4 times in
Leaves wilt and Actara 25WG. 300-500lwater/ha
turn yellow. at 1st sign of
infestation
Alternate
chemicals.
Nematodes Attack the root and Crop rotation and use of 7days
cause slow growth resistant plants and soil
Tubers are disinfection
deformed, forked or
stringy
Cutworm Slashing of young Band spray over crop at -
plants below or at emergence. Apply in 150-
ground level. 200l/ha
Leafminer Dynamec 18 EC Spray at 1st sign of pest 3days
Trigard 75 WP. presence. Repeat after 14
days. Alternate spray after 3days
every2 sprays. Dynamec
also control red spider –
mites.
Alternaria Bravo 720Sc 3days Spray
Alto 100Sl 3days preventatively if
Score 250 E.C 14days warm and humid,
repeat every 7-14
days.

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control Pre Comments
harvest
Interval
Powdery Whitish growth on Dithane M45 at 30g/15l 0 Spray at 1st sign
Mildew leaf and stem water or Benomyl at 30 of infection
surface. ml/15 l water 0 every 10-14
Thiovit 80 WG 3days days.
Topas 100 EC
Leaf Blackening of Dithane M45 20g/ 10L
Blight foliage which Copper oxychloride 85% wp
subsequently dies 200g/100L every 7 – 10
days
Bacterial Reduce the Grow in well drained soils,
Soft Rot carrots to a soft Rotation– do not follow
slimy mass carrots after lettuce or
cabbage.

Page 20 of 114
 The roots must be kept well
ventilated after lifting

Harvesting
 Done after 3 months when the roots are more than 2 cm diameter.
 Loosen soil with plough first.
 Harvest during cooler day times and keep in a cool place or sprinkle with
water to maintain the freshness.
 Cut off foliage and pack in transparent film bags to increase shelf life.

Yield
 25 tonnes /ha or more with good management.

Storage
 Carrots can store for 6 months at about 0 oC and 93-98 % relative humidity

Market
 Local markets as fresh produce.

Page 21 of 114
GREEN BEANS (Phaseolus Vulgaris)

Varieties
 Bush or dwarf beans
 Runner or pole beans

Climate and Soils

 A relative humidity of not less than 50 although dry, cool conditions are
required for harvesting.
 Best yields are obtained on sandy clay loams.
o
 Optimum soil temperature ,25 - 30 C
 Water logging causes flower and pod drop.
 Optimum soil pH is 5.0-5.5 (CaCl2).

Seed rates and spacing

 Sow at 80—100 kg/ha
 Plant bush beans in situ at 50 mm x 450 mm spacing.
 Double rows 200 mm apart and 700-750 mm apart in the row.
 Plant runner beans 100-150 mm apart, in rows 900mm apart.
 Planting depth up to 25 mm.
 Plant into fine tilth soil ,200-300 mm deep.

Planting Times
 Below 750m altitude-sow March, April and May
 750m-1200m altitude-sow early September to March
 Above 1200m altitude -sow mid-end September to early November and end
of February.

Fertiliser Requirements
 Basal dressing, 600 kg/ha Compound D
 A light top dressing if required of AN at 100 kg/ha.
 Band 75 mm to the side and 75 mm below the seed rather than broadcasting.
 Boronated fertilisers should be avoided beans are susceptible to high levels
of boron.

Weed Control
 Cultivation must be shallow as roots are in the top 200 mm of the soil.
 Linuron (Afalon), a pre-emergence herbicide, apply at 1.5-2.5kg/ha.
 Metalochlor (Dual) another pre-emergence herbicide apply at 1.75– 2.0 litres
for grass control.
Adjust rate to 2.0-2.5 litres/ha for nutgrass

Water Requirements
 Moisture stress from flowering on wards reduces yields.
Page 22 of 114
 1000mm required for production.

Pests and Diseases

Pests
Pests Symptom Control and Post Comments
Rate Harvest
Interval
Aphids Deformation of leaf Thiodan 35 2 days Full cover spray in
MO 70ml/100L 200l/ha
Water
Bean Mining through the leaf Diazinon E.C. 14days Repeat 3,6,13 and 20
Stem to base of stem. 300g/l days after germination.
maggots Swelling of stem near
base yellow and wilting
of leaves and plant
collapse at or near
ground level/
Cape Hollowing out of buds Cabaryl 14days Dust freely and repeat
mointain from which body as necessary.
Riffle extends.
beefle.
Loopers Damage from feeding Cabaryl 7days Repeat as necessary
on fruits and fruits. 85%WP full cover spray.
200g/100L
water
Red Five webbing on under Diazinon 14days Repeat at 10days
spider surface of leaves. 300g/l interval.
mite Silvering and mottling of
leaves.

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control/Rate Post Comments
Harvest
Interval
Antracnose Circular brown pits Dithane M 45 3days Repeat as
on pods containing 300g/ha in 100L necessary 7
pink spores. Water days before
flowering and at
flowering
Bacterial Small sots with Cooper 3days Repeat as

Page 23 of 114
blight green or yellow Oxychloride 85WP necessary at
holes on leaves 400g/100L water 10-14days
pods and seeds. interval.
Pre- Rotting of seed Thiram 80WP Seed dressing.
emergence before germination 170g/100kg seed.
damping off
Rust Brown pustules on Thiram 80WP 3days Repeat as
the lower leaf 200g/100L water necessary at 7-
surface with yellow 10 days interval.
halo of variable
width.

Harvesting
 Occurs about 14 days after flowering and lasts from 3 to 4 weeks
 Harvest by hand when the pods are nearly full size, straight and easily
snapped, and the seeds small with a jelly substance surrounding them.
 Beans are ready for the first harvest about 50 days after planting and this
continues for 21 to 30 days. Avoid harvesting during the hottest time of the
day. After rain or irrigation allow to dry before picking.

Yields
 8-10 tonnes/ha

Markets
 Local or export markets as fresh produce.

Page 24 of 114
POTATO (Solanum Tuberosum

Varieties
Variety Characteristics
Montclare  High yielding variety, produce medium quality tubers,
 Late maturing variety and is an uneven sprouted.
 Resistant to Late Blight but susceptible to virus diseases.

BPI  A medium-early variety, taking 3-4 months in the ground.

 White flesh, hard skin, good oval shape and very high yielding.
 Fairly resistant to Late blight.
 An even sprouter.
Pimpernel  Late maturing variety, medium yield, and red skinned, yellow fleshed
tubers for ‘chip’ trade.
 Keeps well, good field resistance to Late blight and fairly tolerant to virus
diseases.
Inyanga  Late maturing, white purple flowers.
Amethyst  White fleshed flat oval, shallow eyed, white skin with slight russet and
quick sprouting.
 Consistently high yielder, both in summer and winter. Good resistance to
Late blight.

New  Available on the market: Jasper and Garnet

varieties

Soils
 Medium textured loamy soils with good organic matter content and a pH of
between 5.0 and 5.5 (CaCl2).
 Deep plough to 600mm, disc and harrow land to a fine tilth which is
necessary for good tuber development.

Seed
 Seed is supplied in 30 kg pockets containing sizes from 25 to 56 mm and an
average of 400 tubers per pocket

Seed type Varietal Health:

purity
Grade ‘AA’ 99. 5% -Not more than 0.25% leaf roll or severe mosaic viruses.
-Not more than 2% visible mild mosaic
-No bacterial wilt at any growth stage
Grade ‘A’ 99.5% -Not more than 1% leaf roll or severe mosaic viruses
-Not more than 2% visible mild mosaic

Page 25 of 114
Grade ‘XX’ -Grade AA is available for a limited period (June-July) in any one
year, while Grade A is available throughout the year.
-Newly sprouted seed produce the most vigorous plants and
highest yield. Newly sprouted seed is used when the sprouts are
between 5 and 15 mm long.
-Tubers which are firm, disease free, reasonably free of damage
and which have strong sprouts should be selected. Seed is sorted
according to size and tubers smaller than 25 mm are discarded.

Sprouting
 On a commercial scale, seed potatoes are usually un-sprouted when
obtained. These should preferably be sprouted under daylight conditions.

Force sprouting
 A constant temperature of 30-35 o C will initiate sprouting. Merely covering
with a tarpaulin in moderate sunshine will help.
o
 The tubers may be stacked in an air-tight room at 21-27 C containing 0.1 per
cent acetylene gas. 30 g calcium carbide will generate sufficient gas for 2 m 3.
 Immerse in acetylene solution for 4-6 hours. For 45 litres of solution 230g
calcium carbide is added slowly.
 Sprouting can be retarded by storing the seed at low temperatures, for one
year at 3 o C, or by the application of a sprout inhibitor.

Spacing
 Plant 70-100 mm deep under irrigation.
 Dryland planting may be up to 150 mm deep.
 Inter-row spacing 900 mm and the in-row spacing 300 mm.
 Seed producers will use a spacing of 600-1200 mm between rows and from
150-160 mm in the row.

Planting time

Summer crop
 Normally planted in November to mature towards the end of the rainy season.
 Earlier planting leads to high yields but lifting can be difficult.
 Use late blight resistant varieties

First Winter Crop

 Planted from February to April to mature before frost according to area, but
later in the lowveld to take advantage of cooler weather.
 Grow varieties resistant to Late blight.
 Supplementary irrigation is essential.

Second Winter Crop

 Plant late July to early August.

Page 26 of 114
 Use flood irrigation to reduce Late blight.
 Overhead irrigation increase risk of late blight.

Planting
 Uniform tilth required and where flood irrigation is used ridging essential.
 Where overhead irrigation is used planting is done on flat land and ridging is
done later.
 Hand planting is done behind a tractor-drawn ridger, which opens the furrows.
 Tubers are placed in the open furrow and are closed by the soil thrown during
the following pass.

Fertiliser requirements
Fertiliser Nutrient Status Of The Soil
Nutrient
Good Medium Poor
Kg per Hectare Of Fertiliser Nutrient Required
Up to 70 70—110 110—160
Phosphate Up to 325 350—400 400—450
Potash Up to 70 70—110 100—135
 Compound S 1300-2100 kg/ha.
 100-150 kg/ha ammonium nitrate, top dressing 1-3 weeks after emergence.
 The top dressing should be applied between rows or per plant before the final
earthing up.

Water Requirements
 Irrigate to a depth of 600 mm at planting.
 No further irrigation is done during emergence.
 Water regularly from flower buds appearance until maturity.
 Excessive watering leads to undue leaching of nutrients and reduces the
keeping quality of potatoes

Water Requirements
Soil Type Hot Months Cold Months Irrigation required
Light soils 3-4 days 5-7 days 25-30 mm
Heavy soils 4-5 days 8-9 days 30-35 mm

Weed Control
 Avoid excessive cultivation, potatoes are shallow rooted.
 Earthing up by ridging is necessary to protect the tubers from greening, tuber-
moth and Late blight
 Re-ridging should be completed by the time the plant is 25 cm high.
 Make low ridges for efficient flood irrigation.
 Herbicides that can be used are Topogard, Dual, Sencor, MCPA and 2-4D.

Page 27 of 114
Harvesting
 Destroy haulms prematurely for production of seed potato.
 Harvest when 95% of the leaves have died off.
 When chemical haulm destruction has occurred lifting should be completed
Within 10 days to avoid attack by Black scurf (Rhizoctonia)
 Harvest when the potato skin has hardened sufficiently to reduce physical
damage during lifting.
 In hot dry conditions move tubers to a sheltered place immediately after
harvesting to avoid a reduction in quality.
 Wash very muddy potatoes only
.
Storage
o o
 Between 3 C and 5 C, potatoes will only start sprouting after 8-12 months.
 Dress clean pest free tubers s with 1% malathion and store in a clean room
treated with a suitable insecticide.
 Seed tubers are best stored in wooden trays called chitin trays.

Yields
 Yield of up to 40t/ha can be obtained
 Average summer yield is 17-20 t/ha
 Winter crop 24-27 t/ha.

Market
 Local markets as fresh produce.

Page 28 of 114
CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus)

Cultivars
 Short cultivars: Cherkee, Victory, Ashely and Fletcher
 Long Cultivars: Colorado, Marketer Long and Stono

Soil:
 Well drained soils and very sensitive to water-logging.
 Optimum pH 5.5-6.5

Climate
 Grow best in between August and April on the Highveld.
 They require 4-6 months of warm weather
 Winter production only possible in open field in the Low-veld.

Seed rate
 2.5-3.0 kg/ha

Planting depth

Spacing and Planting

 1.20 m between the rows and 30 cm within the row.
 Plant on raised beds 0.3 m high and 1.20 m wide, with 0,5m furrow in
between.
 Plant 2 cm, direct seeding is best.
 Best grown in August after frost in the Highveld.
 Best produced in winter in the lowveld.
 Growth period 4 months from planting.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Basal application: 400-600 kg/ha of Compound D
 Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN. Apply twice after the first fruit set

Pests and Diseases

Pest Symptom Control
Root-knot Swollen roots and Observe a 4 year rotation. Avoid
nematode stunted growth. Solanaceous crops like tomatoes and
potatoes.
Aphids Spray with dimethoate 40EC at 7.5ml/10L
water.
Red spider mite Leaves loose colour, curl Spray Nuvacron 40 at 50ml/10L water
and dry. when observed on the plant.

Page 29 of 114
Disease Symptom Control
Fusarium wilt Leaves wilt and develop necrosis Dust seed with thiram
on older leaves Use resistant varieties.
Anthracnose Black spots on leaves, stalks and Apply Dithane M 45 at 20g/10L
stems. Sunken lesions on the water.
fruits. Spores visible on mycelium.
Powdery Clear light green spots visible on Bavistin at 5g/10l of water once a
mildew the upper surface of the leaves that week.
turn to white powdery spots on the
leaves with brown colouring on the
leaves edge.
Downey mildew Circular brown spots on leaves with Ridomil MZ 72WP at 25g/10L water
yellowish halo, in advanced stage once a week., Copperoxychloride
attack looks like frost damage. 85% WP at 40g/10L water once a
week.
Cucumber Chlorotic mottling streaking pattern Rogue out and destroy infected
mosaic virus of yellow and green areas plants.
occurring on young leaves
developing into malformations and
stunting. Plants become bushy.
Fruits develop yellowish mottles at
stem end covering whole fruit.
Bitter taste of affected fruit.

Harvesting
 Harvested before they are physiologically fully mature
 Picking usually begins about 2 months after sowing and thereafter every few
days.

Yield
 10-15 tons/ha

Market
 Local markets as fresh produce

Page 30 of 114
SQUASH -PUMPKIN (Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata)

Class
 squash, pumpkin, marrow and courgette

Soil and Climate Requirements

 Well-drained soils and very sensitive to water-logging.
 Optimum pH 5.5-6.5
 Grow best in summer months, from August to April in the Highveld
 Require 4-6 months of warm weather.

Spacing
 Seed amount: 3-4 kg/ha
 Long-running cultivars: when using the furrow method, 2.5 m between the
rows and 1.2-2 m within the row.
 Small-vine and bush cultivars, 1.5 m inter-row and 1 m within the row.
 Planting on hills, 1.2 m apart for bush cultivars, up to 3 m apart for long
runners, can be practiced when the growing season extends into the rainy
season
 Planting depth: 2-3 cm

Planting time:
 Highveld, from end of August.
 Winter production possible in Lowveld.
 Temperatures not exceeding 25°C
 Growth to mature fruits take up to 4 months

Fertilizer Requirements:
 Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound D
 Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN after the first fruit setting and another 100
kg/ha of AN three weeks after the first one.

Pest and Diseases

Pest Symptom Control
Red spider mite Leaves loose colour curling and Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50ml/10L
drying of leaves. Water
Root-knot Swollen roots and stunted Observe a four year rotation,
nematode growth. avoiding the solanaceae family of
potato,tomato, paprika etc.
Aphids Stunted growth, inside curled Spray dimethoate 40EC at
leaves with aphids at growth tips. 7.5ml/10l of water.

Disease Symptom Control

Page 31 of 114
Fusarium Soil-borne disease, takes about 2 weeks to Dust seed with Thiram and
wilt by necrosis of older leaves. use resistant cultivars.
Anthracnose Black spots on leaf stalk, stem and sunken Apply Dithane M 45 at
lesions on the fruits. Spores visible on 20g/10L water.
mycelium
Downey Circular brown spots on leaves with a Use ridomil MZ 72WP at
mildew yellowish halo. Looks like frost damage in 25g/10L of water once a
advanced stages. week or use Copper-
oxychloride 85%WP 40g/10L
water once a week.
Cucumber Chlorosis of leaves. Rogue out and destroy
mosaic infected plants.

Harvesting
 For most of the Cucurbita, immature fruits are wanted (before the rind
hardens)
 Harvest first usable fruits 7-8 weeks after planting (for example baby marrows
or courgettes), bearing fruits for several weeks.
 Mature fruits take up to 4 months

Yield
 Squash: 11-16 tons/ha.
 Pumpkin: 18-22 tons/ha.
 Baby marrow: 2.2-4.5 tons/ha

Market
 Local market as squash, pumpkin or baby marrow fresh produce.

Page 32 of 114
WATERMELON (Citrullus lanatus)

Varieties
 Charleston Grey
 Congo

Soil and Climate Requirements

 Grow well in well-drained soils.
 Very sensitive to water-logging.
 Optimum pH is 5.5-6.5
 Hot, dry season is best.

Seed rate
 3-5 kg/ha

Spacing and Planting

 Furrow method: 2.5-3 m inter-row 2.5-3 m in- row.
 Beds: 1.2 m wide with furrows 0.50-0.60 m, plants spaced 2.5-3 m
 Early production seeds can be sown in July-August
 Growth period: 4-5 months

Fertilizer Requirements
 Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound D
 Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN after the first fruit setting and another 3 weeks
later

Pests
Pest Symptom Control/Rate
Root Swollen roots and stunted growth Observe 4 year rotation with other
Knot solanaceous crops.
Aphids Transmit mosaic virus. Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10
Poorly elongating vine with curled litres of water, when observed on plants
leaves with aphids
Red Small reddish insects on the Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of
Spider underside of the leaves, causing water, when observed on the plants
Mite leaves to loose colour , curling and
drying of the leaves

Diseases
Disease Symptom Control
Fusarium wilt Soil-borne disease, takes about 2 Dust seed with Thiram and use
weeks to develop resistant cultivars

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Anthracnose Black spots on the leaves, leaf Routine spray Dithane M45, at 20
stalks and stem as well as sunken g/10 litres of water
lesions on the fruits; spores on
mycelium visible
Powdery White powdery spots on the Bavistin at 5 g/10 litres of water, once
Mildew leaves a week
Downy Mildew Brown colouring of the leaves Use Ridomil MZ 72 WP, at 25 g/10
from the edge litres of water, once a week or use
Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40
g/10 litres

Harvesting
 Determining the maturity of watermelons can be difficult.
 Harvest with the stalk attached, when the green colour starts to turn yellow.
 Mature watermelons give a dull sound when tapped whereas immature give a
metallic sound.
 Others use the stalk that attaches the fruit: when it starts to dry the fruit can
be picked

Yields
 9-11 tons/ha

Market
 Local markets as fresh produce.

Page 34 of 114
EGGPLANT

Climatic Requirements
 Frost sensitive.
 Seed germinates in 7 – 14 days at temperatures of 21 – 24oC.
 Transplant when mean daily temperatures have reached 18 – 21oC.
 Maximum growth temperature is 26 – 32oC
 Night temperatures of not less than 20oC.
 Days to maturity 150 – 160 days

Soil
 Well-drained fertile sandy loams.
 In sandy soils add manure or compost to improve the organic matter content.
 It requires a pH of 5.5 – 6.5 (CaCl2).
 Liming is recommended if pH falls below 5.5
 Susceptible to root knot nematodes, avoid old tobacco lands or area with
previous history of nematode infestations.
 Soil fumigation is recommended before planting.

Land Preparation and Seedbeds

 Grown from seedlings and is not sown directly into the field.
 Prepare raised beds 40-50 mm above ground level.
 Apply 4-6 kg manure or compost per square meter, 60g single super
phosphate, 30 g sulphate of potash and lime if required.
 If manure is unavailable apply 100 -200 g/m2 Compound D.
 Seedlings are sown all year round in frost-free areas but in frost areas sow in
August to October.
 Seed is sown by drilling 130-300 mm apart at a depth of 10 mm.
 350 – 500 g of seed is needed to plant 1 hectare
 Transplanting is done 6 – 8 weeks after sowing.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Apply 100kg/ha basal dressing.
 Top dress at 100kg/ha (AN) and Potassium sulphate 100kg/ha

Water requirements
Stage Medium textured Sandy soils Comments
soils
First month Apply 30mm net per Apply 20 mm net In cloudy or cooler
week every 5 days weather increase cycle

Page 35 of 114
Second month to Apply 40 mm every Apply 25 mm net by 2 days for every 10
maturity 6 days every 3 – 4 days mm of rain experienced

 Irregular water supply during fruiting disturbs the calcium supply to the fruit
and results in blossom end rot or related symptoms

Pests and diseases control

Pest Symptoms Control/Rate Post Comments

Harvest
Interval
Aphids Infected leaves Actara 400g/ha 3days Spray 3-4 times in 500L/ha at
have distorted 1st sign of pest presence.
shape- Stunted Alternate with Polo and Chess.
growth.
Leaf Feed on plant Karate 5EC/5SC 2days Spray when eggs or
Eaters foliage distorting 200ml caterpillars are found.
the leaves.
Fruit Damage growing Match 050EC 7days Spray preventatively at fruit set
worms point and fruit. 400-600ml/ha (6- or when eggs or caterpillars
12ml /15 L water are found . Check pyrethroid
date.
Red Fine webbing on Dynamec 18EC 3days Spray at 1st sign of infestation.
Spider the underside of Alternate chemicals.
mites leaves causing Polo 500SC 7days
silvering and
mottling of leaves.

Harvesting
 Needs 85-90 days to the first harvest.
 Harvest when first fruit turn yellowish for seed extraction.

Yields
 Vegetables yield up to 4000 kg/ha
 Seed 80-100kg/ha 30-32t/ha

Market
 Local or export market as fresh produce.

Page 36 of 114
MUSHROOMS

Mushroom house
 Dimensions depend on the number of substrate bags the grower can handle
at any one time.
 Use farm bricks or poles and dagga or a wooden frame for walls and thatch.
Plastic or foam sheets may be used to line the walls
 A roof thatched with grass or banana leaves.
 Air vents and windows on the upper side of walls are required for ventilation
and lighting to initiate fruiting. Light sufficient to read a newspaper when in
the house is adequate.
 Wooden shelves for holding the bags or wooden racks for hanging spawned
substrate bags
 The mushroom house should provide optimum conditions for fruiting.
 Maintained temperatures at 18 – 25oC and relative humidity at 80 – 90%.

Incubation/Spawning Room
 Spawned substrate bags are kept in this room for the mushroom mycelium
to grow.
 Alternatively the spawned bags can be covered with a black plastic in the
mushroom house.
 If using the mushroom house for incubation the air vents and the windows
should be closed to provide dark conditions required for spawning.
 Light is not required in the incubation room. Temperatures should be about
24oC.

Mushroom Spawn
 Spawn or mushroom seed is mushroom mycelium growing on sorghum,
wheat or barley, used to seed substrate from Spawn laboratories.
 Substrate can be finely chopped wheat straw (about 6cm); Soya-beans
stover.; Shredded maize cobs;finely chopped maize stalks; banana leaves
 Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus sajor caju are the strains available locally
for Oyster Mushroom production.

Additives
 Wheat bran; Barley; Oats; Sunflowers
 Any of these substrates may be supplemented with rice or wheat bran at 15 –
20% and Lime at 1- 2%. Any substrate used must be pasteurised to eliminate
contaminants or undesirable organisms.

Steriliser
 Required for pasteurising the substrate to eliminate pests and diseases.

Page 37 of 114
 The steriliser can be a huge pot, container or metal drum to hold large
quantities of substrate for boiling in water at 100oC for a minimum of two
hours.
 Firewood or other local materials for fire.

Other requirements
 Thermo-meter- to check temperatures - Hygrometer and monitoring relative
humidity
 Sprayer -for watering the substrate during fruiting
 Watering can or bucket - for watering the floor.
 Plastic bags -for containing the substrate during the cultivation process,
should be 10 - 20 kg capacity and preferably transparent.
 String – required for tying the mouths of bags and hanging onto racks.

Production

Substrate Preparation and Pasteurisation

 Process of killing pests and diseases through immersion in boiling water.
 Prepare the substrate by chopping and shredding into small pieces.
 Soak the substrate in water overnight.
 Drain off the water and add the supplements
 Pack the substrate into a steriliser and fill with hot water.
 Heat and pasteurise by boiling for 1 hour.
 Transfer the substrate onto a sterilised sheet and cool to about 30 oC
 Pack the substrate into plastic bags not too tightly or too loosely.
 Add a handful of spawn after every 15cm of substrate.

Spawning:-process of planting the mushroom.

 Use about 1 kg spawn to plant 8-10; 1.2m tubing plastic of substrate.
 Distribute the spawn evenly in alternating layers with the pasteurised
substrate.
 Tie the mouth of the bag soon after spawning
 Substrate spawning is the most delicate operation in mushroom production.
 It must be done in a clean environment free of air movements
 Avoid contaminating the spawn and the substrate.

Incubation
 During incubation the mushroom mycelium grows to cover the whole
substrate.
 Place spawned bags at 24oC in the dark incubation room or cover the bags
with black plastic in the mushroom house.
 Bags are ready for mushroom formation when the substrate appears white.
 Full colonisation occurs in about 18 - 24 days.
 Transfer bags to the mushroom house or expose the bags by removing the
black plastic.

Page 38 of 114
Fruiting
 Fruiting is the formation of the mushrooms in the mushroom bags after 21 –
24 days.
 Open the air vents or windows in the mushroom house to provide light and to
initiate fruiting
 After one day open the bags by making long X 6cm apart around the bag
using clean sharp instruments.
 Pin heads will begin to form in 3 to 4 days and will be ready for harvesting in
the next 2 to 3 days.
 A temperature of 20 – 28oC and relative humidity of 80 – 95% is required .
 To provide adequate moisture, water the substrate daily avoid over watering.
 If temperatures rise to 30oC apply a light water mist to cool and to quicken
fruiting.
 The door and air vents or windows may be opened for an hour especially at
night to allow cool air to enter.
 Maintain high relative humidity by applying water on the floors and walls
several times a day.

Pests and Diseases

Pests
Pest Identification Symptoms
Scarid Small flies with yellow segmented Dead pinheads, browning of stem,
Fly abdomen. Maggots have distinct black, brown or black spots on pinheads
shiny head with creamy white body. of mushroom. Feed on mature
mushroom.
Dung fly Small flies with humped back with
yellow to reddish brown colour on
the back.

Diseases

 Moulds : most common are green, yellow and black.

 Damping off. (Fussarium)Fungal competitor inhibiting mushroom growth.
Infected remain small with disproportionately small caps and stems.

Weed Control
 Competitor Weeds : Inky Cap (Coprinus) should be controlled.

Harvesting
 Harvest gently by twisting the stalk and pulling out from the opened ends.
 Continue harvesting as long as the substrate appears white.
 The bags can be removed from the house when the substrate becomes
colourless and soft to touch.

Page 39 of 114
 A total weight of 10 to 20 kg of mushrooms can be harvested from 10 kg of
dry substrate.
 Mushrooms remain fresh for 3 to 6 days when kept in the refrigerator or in a
cool area.

Yields
 10-15kg per 10kg substrate.

Markets
 Local and/or Export as Fresh or dried.

Page 40 of 114
STRAWBERY

Varieties
Variety Characteristics
Rolinda High yielding with rather soft small berries. Is resistant to mites.
Rovelle Very firm among the hardest. Has a very good flavour.
Selekta It has firm, large, conical, berries. Good flavour in winter.
Tioga An early cropper, large firm berries throughout the year.
Tiobelle Has firm, conically shaped and dark coloured fruit .
Rolissa Fairly high yielding with good flavour small berries.
Rorine Medium sized berries with good flavour. Good yielder.

Nursery Establishment
Site
 Selected site should be far from other strawberry fields to reduce the
chances of infection with nematodes and viruses
 Frost free area.

Soil
 Deep well-drained soil is desirable.

Fertilizer Requirements
 300 kg/ha Tobacco Fert (6:18:15) should be broadcast and disced into the
soil before planting.
 3 - 4 weeks after planting top-dress with 200 kg/ha ZFC Coffee fert (14:5:20)
or 150 kg/ha ZFC Coffee Blend (16:5:22).
 300 kg/ha Ammonium Nitrate is sufficient.

Spacing and Planting

 Plants should be established on raised beds (1m - 1.2m wide) or ridges
spaced 0.90 cm apart.
 A spacing of 1m x 1m is best for runner production. Spacing for fruit
production is 30 cm x 45 cm or 30 cm x 30 cm.
 Trim roots to about 10 cm.
 Remove all leaves and leave 1 or 2 to minimise transpiration.
 Spread the roots before covering in the soil. The plant is then set with the
crown just above the ground level. It is best to plant in moist soil and irrigate
immediately.

Page 41 of 114
Pests and Diseases
 Aphids and other pests should be controlled by spraying every 2 weeks with
Dimethoate - Thionex, Thiodan, Carbaryl and Malathion can also be used.
 Bravo or Benomyl alternated and applied once or twice a week will control
most fungal pathogens.

Nursery harvesting
 Runners should be lifted in February/March.
 When lifting daughter plants, the mother plants (branch crowns) should
always be discarded.
 An average of 35-40 runner plants per mother plant can be expected.
 Runners should not be allowed to set flowers as this retards the vigour of the
newly-set plants and slows runner productions.

Field Planting
Soil
 Deep well drained, light soils with compost (20-30 t/ha).
 pH should be in the range of 5.5 - 6.5 (CaCl2 scale).

Field preparation
 Raised beds (1m - 1.2m) 0.90m apart or ridges are recommended.
 The strawberry crop should not follow after a crop susceptible to verticillium
wilt (such as tomato and potato).

Planting and Spacing

 February to April is the best time to plant.
 Straw mulch should be used where/when there is danger of frost e.g. during
winter.
 Spacing should be 30 cm x 45 cm on raised beds.
 Plant population of 45000 plants/ha.
 UV stabilised black or clear plastic or rye grass can be used as mulch.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Pre planting: 500 - 750 SSP/ha and 200 kg K2SO4/ha broadcasted and
mixed to a depth of 30 cm.
 After establishment (at 4 weeks):75 - 100 kg AN/ha as topdressing, then 75 -
100 kg AN/ha and 100 kg K2SO4/ha from commencement of active growth at
monthly intervals.

Irrigation Requirements
 Frequent light irrigations are recommended as strawberries are shallow
rooted. .

Page 42 of 114
Pests
 Nematodes are the most important.
 Aphids and mites might also cause problems. Morestan or some other
acaricide can be used against mites. Full cover sprays of Dimethoate at a
rate of 75 ml/100l water will control mites.
 White grubs - larvae of several beetles - feed primarily on grass roots but can
cause severe damage to strawberries. Thiodan (drench) can be used as a
control. It will also control cutworms.

Diseases
 Verticillium wilt, which is soil-borne, can be controlled avoiding planting after
a solanaceous crop.
Harvesting
 Fruit should be harvested at red-ripe stage (130 - 135 days after planting for
the early planted crop).
 Harvesting may last for 2 - 3 or more weeks.
 For shipping, berries should be harvested slightly earlier.
 The fruit will colour fully after harvesting.

Post - harvesting handling

 Harvesting should be done with minimal damage as the crop is very
perishable.
 The fruit should be picked with the stalk attached, placed in shallow punnets
and cooled to remove field heat.
 Flavour in strawberries depends on the cultivar but might be influenced by
other factors such as locality and cultural practices, in particular fertilisation.

Market
 Export or local markets as fresh fruit.

Page 43 of 114
PEPPER
Varieties
 Cal. Wonder
 Long Red Cayenne
 Zorro, Serenade

Soil Requirements
 Sands and sandy loams are preferred.
 Heavy soils should always be avoided because of their poor drainage. Ideal
pH lies between 5.5 and 7.0 CaCl 2 scale.

Seed Rate
 150-200 grams per hectare.

Spacing and Planting

 Spacing of 75 X 45 cm or 90 X 45cm (inter raw and intra raw)
 Transplant 4-6weeks after sowing when about 15cm tall.
 Seeds are sown in August to November and February to April after the
danger of frost has passed.
 Seed should be dressed with some fungicidal dressing such as thirum and
soil should be treated by solarisation.

Fertiliser requirement
 Adequate organic manure is necessary and recommended at the rate of
25- 35 tonnes of compost or manure per hectare.
 1.5 kg/m2 of manure should be added to land for field planting.

Harvesting and Storage

 Harvesting commences 2 or 3 months after planting and continues with
regular pickings at intervals of 1 to 2 weeks for a period of 3 months.
 Ripe pepper can be stored at 4.5-7 °C and will keep for 3 or 4 weeks at these
temperatures.

Yields????????

Markets
 Local or export markets as fresh produce.

Page 44 of 114
INDEGINOUS
VEGETABLES

NYEVHE/ULUDE
MUNYEMBA
TSUNGA
OKRA
AMARANTHUS

Page 45 of 114
NYEVHE /ULUDE ; Cat’s Wiskers (Cleome gynandra)

Climatic Requirements
 Require high light intensity and do well in sandy loam to clay loam soils.

Planting
 Spacings of 20-30cm row and 10-20 in row are recommended.
 Seed germination is erratic, occuring over an extended period because
seeds have a rest period extending 5 months after harvest collection.
 Active germination of seeds occurs 6 months after 12 months of storage.

 The dormancy can be broken by seed priming by.

Dipping in hot water.
 Place seed in mutton cloth and bring water to the boil.
 Suspend mutton cloth in boiling water for 30seconds and immediately dip in
cold water.
 Rapid heating and cooling breaks the seed coat. Plant seed immediately in
moist soil.
 Seed will germinate within 14days of sowing.
Roasting seed in direct sunlight.
 Place seed in a tray outside in direct sunlight for at least 5 hours.
 Seed will germinate within 4 days from sowing.
Wood Ash
 Prepare and water seedbed.
 Sprinkle wood ash over the marked planting area, sprinkle seed sparingly,
cover with ash and grass.
 Water seedbed.
 Germination occurs within 5-7days at 75-80%.

Seedbed
 Nyevhe seedbed should be well filled to 30cm depth.
 Seedbed should be brought to fine tilth.
 Crop can be planted in beds or on open field.
 Add 1 wheelbarrow of manure to every 2m2
 Leave prepared for 3-4 weeks to condition then irrigate and mark planting
stations.
 Sprinkle the seed and cover again with wood ash.
 Seeds germinate within 4-5 days.
 Transplant seedlings 3 weeks later and deflowering encourages lateral
growth, thus extending the harvesting seed production period.
 Harvesting starts 4-6 weeks after seedling emergence and may last 4-5
weeks.
 Only 3 harvests are recommended where a crop is grown for seed.

Page 46 of 114
 Fruit development and maturation usually takes 3-4 months.

Fertilizer Requirements
 As a weed, Nyevhe is commonly found growing on fertile soils especially in
previously mixed with manure or with homestead refuse.
 Does well in areas where wood ash has been deposited.
 Seed yield is not responsive to nitrogen application because at higher rates,
stems become too succulent and regeneration is reduced, a disadvantage
where plants are periodically harvested.

Pests dnd Diseases

 Because of its hairy nature few pests have been observed. Jassids which
hide under the leaves have been noticed and under organic production
control with onion spray.
 Curacon and Karate can also be used. The plant is also host to powdery
mildew especially in ho conditions.

Harvesting and Storage

 Seed matures 4 months from planting date
 Harvest up to 4 times and leave to develop into seed if in seed production.
 Pods are ready for harvesting when they have just started to dry while still on
the plant.
 Pods assume yellow to light brown colour.
 Pull off stem from the field and spread out on a clean plastic or rock to dry.
 Thresh and winnow seed when dry.
 Apply fungicides on seed sealed in tight seal containers.

Yields
 Seed yields are about 500kg/ha.

Markets
 Local markets as fresh or dried vegetables.

Page 47 of 114
MUNYEMBA, COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)

Varieties
 Zai redahwa
 IT18
 CBI

Climatic and Soil Requirements

 All cultivated cowpeas are warm season adopted to heat and drought
conditions growing well in summer from November to January.
 Perform well on rich well drained soils.

Planting
 80-100kg/ha is recommended at 45-70cm.
 Inter-row and 10-20 cm in-row spacings.
 Where Rhizobium is available inoculation of seed should be 15g/100kg seed.

Fertilizer Requirements
 In the absence of manure 150-200kg/ha Compound D can be applied at
planting.
 Top dress with 50kg nitrogen where deficiencies show.

Pest and Disease Management.

 Diseases and pests have not been a major problem in traditional cowpea
varieties.
 Aphids during dry weather conditions at vegetative stage require attention.
 Chess 25WP/50wp can be used to control aphids.
 Bean Stem Maggots bore into stem weakening it.
 Actara 25WG can be used to control them.
 Anthracnose causes rotting and poor development of pods and it can be
controlled by chilli or spray in organic production.

Harvesting and Storage

 Harvest at 12-13% moisture content.
 Temporarily store grain in a smoking kitchen to condition and reduce moisture
to 8-9%.
 Smoke treat seed against been weevils which are most common post harvest
pest.
 Seed can be stored at a dry place with gum tree leaves in storage containers
 This is effective for 3 months. Chemical seed treatment can also be used.

Page 48 of 114
TSUNGA

Climate and Soils Requirements

 Require soils rich in organic matter, leaf size and quality improves where
organic manure is added.
 Soil pH should range between 5- 6 (CaCl2).
 Avoid waterlogged soils.
 Grow during the rainy season December-April and on anthills.
 The highest yields are obtained when planting is done in April to August, as
the cold winter temperatures delay flowering and induce the production of
bigger leaves.

Spacing and Planting

 Space rows at 30-50 cm with 30 cm in row.
 Mark the rows and planting stations and plant 3 to 4 seeds per station.
 Thin to one plant per station when the seedlings are 2-3 weeks old.
 Apply the manure and basal fertiliser and mix it in the soil.
 Thin to one plant per station and apply the first top dressing after.
 Irrigate before and after thinning to allow soil around the seedlings to settle.

Fertilizers Requirements
 50 t/ha manure, no basal fertiliser except top dressing
 30 t/ha manure and 150 kg/ha Compound D or 450 kg/ha Compound D
 Top dressing 290 kg/ha ammonium nitrate split 3 times.

Diseases and pests

 Fungal diseases may appear if the crop is produced during the rainy season.
Spray with a fungicide at least once a week if conditions remain humid.
 Aphids have been observed on Tsunga and are controlled using Malathion or
Dimethoate.
 Bagrada bugs (vanaRudo) suck the sap from the leaves and leave dry spots
on the leaf making them unsightly and unmarketable.
 Bagrada bugs are controlled using Carbaryl, Dichlorovos (Dedevap) and
Parathion.

Harvesting
 Harvest leaves after 6 weeks of growth.
 Do not remove all the big leaves, leave one for subsequent growth.
 Harvest once per week and the number of leaves per harvest per plant will
depend on the plant growth conditions.

Yields

Markets
 Local markets as fresh or dried vegetables.

Page 49 of 114
OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus)

Varieties
 Clemson Spineless.
 Lotus

Soils and Climate

 Well drained sandy loam soils
 pH range 5.8-6.5(CaCl2).
 Optimum temperature is 250C
 Time seed crop to ripen during dry weather.

Seed Rate
 8-10 kg /ha

Spacing and Planting

 Inter row spacing 60-90 cm and in row spacing of 20-30 cm
 Highveld plant from August to December under irrigation or December to April
during the rainy season.
 Low-veld, plant all year round where irrigation is available.
 Direct seeding or raising seedlings in the nursery as transplants in seedling
trays.
 Germinates within 5-14 days.
 Pre-soaking seeds in water a day before planting increases the germination
percentage.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Apply 100-200 kg/ha Compound S or Compound D
 290 kg/ha Ammonium Nitrate.
 20 to 30kg/ha of potassium nitrate

Pests and Diseases

Pest Symptom Control/Rate Pre Comments
Harvest
Interval
Aphids Curled leaves and growing Chess 3 days
tips resulting in retarded 50WG/200g/h
growth. a
Heliothis Boring of the fruits or Start heavy Not many chemicals
bollworm. damage to the blossoms. scouting once are registered for
podding okra.
starts.
Root knot Stunted growth and Observe a 4
nematodes swollen galls on the roots. year rotation
excluding

Page 50 of 114
 susceptible
crops.
Powdery White powder on the Dithane M 45 Common disease
mildew leaves and stems. 20g/10Lwater especially when
Malathion plants are fully
25%WP mature.
20g/10Lwater
Cercspora Brown spots on leaves with Dithane M 45
leaf spot white middle part at 20g/10L
water
Verticillium Yellowing of older leaves Observe crop
Wilt which often develop a rotation and
burnt appearance destroy
particularly around the diseased
margins then plant wilts. plants.

Harvesting
 Ripening of pods on the plant is sequential.
 Harvest the young pods 5 to 10 days after flowering.
 Harvesting can continue once per week for more than 2 months.
 Seed maturity is associated with pods turning brown or grey according to
variety.

Yields
 Up to 2-3 t/ha are obtainable.

Market.
 Local or export markets as fresh or dried vegetables.

Page 51 of 114
AMARANTHUS

Varieties
 Unza A1 and Unza A2

Climate and soil requirements

 Plant thrive in all soil types.
 Plant August to April
 Prepare land to a fine tilth

Seed rate : 1.5 to 2kg/ha

Spacing : 20-30cm between rows and 20cm within rows.

Fertiliser Requirements.
 Apply 200-300kg/ha of basal dressing Compund D
 200kg/ha top-dressing AN, split application 2 and 4 weeks after emergence.

Pest and Disease Control

Pest/disease Control
Leaf eating caterpillars
Cercospora leaf spot Apply Dithane M 45 at 2.5g/litre.

Harvesting
 The leaves are ready for harvesting at 6 -10 weeks .

Yields
 7-10 tonnes.

Market
 Local market as fresh vegetables.

Page 52 of 114
 EXPORT
PRODUCTION

MANGE TOUT
SWEET CORN
BABY CORN
FINE BEANS

Page 53 of 114
MANGE TOUT (Pisum sativum)

Varieties And Cultivars

 Consult exporter on varieties to grow.
 Most cultivars take 14-20 weeks in the field.

Climatic and Soils Requirements

 Monthly temperatures between 13-200C
 Temperature below 50C inhibit growth and germination and above 270C
cause poor pollination.
 Medium to heavy loam soils are
 Well drained of 900m depth with a pH of 5.5.
 Early plant in sandy soils and lime before planting.

Planting
 Plant on ridges1.5m apart, especially early crops to assist with drainage.
Plant in twin rows 30cm apart with 7-10 cm in row spacings to achieve 133
333 – 190 000 plants per hectare.
 Plant 30mm – 5-mm deep depending on soil type.

Irrigation
 Wet soil to a depth of 450mm at planting.
 Apply to field capacity when peas start to flower and keep soil moist until
harvest.
 Apply 16-36 mm per week depending on weather and season. Drip is best
for trellised peas.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Correct Phosphorous and Potassium deficiencies before planting.
 Apply 300-500kg/ha Compound S (6.17.6) or (8.14.7) Compound D before
or at planting.
 Top dress at 50-100kg/ha every 3 weeks up to flowering. Crop needs 2
top dressing at 50kg/ha at first pick and around 2 weeks later. Apply
50kg/ha potash source like Murate of Potash after flowering and repeat
after first pick.
 Manure may be used at 25-50 tonnes/ha and reduce nitrogen levels
accordingly.

Trellising
 Put 25mm butt poles every 4m.
 Poles should be 2.2 m high and 500mm deep.
 75-100mm butt straining poles should be put at the end of rows.
 Nets should be fixed to the top and bottom wires which are fixed to
poles.(1.5m wide netting is best.)

Page 54 of 114
 If netting is 500mm above soil bridge gap with a couple of lengths of wire or
baling string.
 Pea vines should be trained onto the netting and side shoots can be
contained and anchored to the trellis by horizontal strings at 300mm, 600mm
and 900mm above the ground.
 Train plants in the upwind side of trellis to prevent prevailing wind from
blowing the growing plant off the trellis.
 Innoculation may be done for trellising peas that have a life span of up to 20
weeks.

Weed Control
 Keep seedbed weed free before planting and to avoid damage to plants from
later cultivation.
 Exporter’s advice is required on choice of herbicides.

Disease
Disease Symptom Control

Black –Spot. Small light brown to black Dress seed with Benomyl at 300g/100kg
sports o leaves stalks and seed. Apply preventive fungicides copper
pods. Spots are slightly Oxychloride and Mancozeb. Consult
sunken, tan and sharply agronomist at first sign of disease.
delineated by dark border. Control early as pods with ascochyta can
not be exported.
Powdery Forms a whitish powdery Benomyl 50g in 100L water. Repeat after
Mildew myceliumunder leaves . 10-14 days.
(Erysiphepisi)

Pests
Pests Symptoms Control and Rate
Heliothis Bollworm hollows out buds Scout buds regularly for eggs and spray at first
Bollworm and penetrates pods sighting. Apply chemical control before worms
are 6mm long and repeat after 10-14 days.
Thrips Cause cosmetic damage Scout regularly from onset of flowering. Check
to the pea pods and with your exporter on chemical to use.
circular pale rings or
haloes up to 5mm in
diameter.) around the egg
laying hole.
Pea leaf Make straight mines along Few chemicals sprays can be used while pods
miner leaf vines margins and the are being harvested due to lack of tolerance
pod. for such products in export countries.
Nematodes Stunted growth Use of EDB is not permitted for use on peas
destined for export.

Page 55 of 114
Harvesting
 Production period varies between 8-11 weeks depending on time of the year
and location.
 Reaping lasts for 4-6 weeks. Reap when pods reach their full length, but
before they seed start to enlarge. Pods should be flat at picking. In two to
three days seeds enlarge and render pea out of grade.
 One worker picks 30kg/day and 12-20 workers are required per hectare.

Yields
 Yields of 3 to 5 tonnes/ha can be expected and about 60% or more would
normally be exportable.

Market
 Export market as fresh produce

Page 56 of 114
SWEET CORN

Climatic requirements
 Optimum monthly temperatures ;20 -24 degrees C.
 Planting done September to December.

Soil Requirements
 Grown anywhere that maize can be grown but for early production it should
be on well drained loam to clay loam soils.

Planting
 Plant in moist soil or irrigate soon after planting to ensure germination.
 Spacing 750mm row and 250mm in row spacing 300mm deep to give
50 000 plants per hectare.

Irrigation
 Needs adequate water supply especially when it is 30-40cm in height.
 Plant water requirement reach a peak when pollen is being set free and can
be up to 10mm per day. If water supply is insufficient during this period then
the size and filing of the ear will be negatively affected. Pollen will not be set
free under high air humidity conditions and is damaged at too high
temperatures.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Nitrogen split application required to avoid leaching; 10-15% is taken up in
the first 30 days. The second 30 day period is much more important as
about 70% of nitrogen is taken during this period. Apply 100kg/ha
ammonium nitrate at 4 weeks and same again at 8 weeks.
 Basal fertiliser recommendations are 350-400kg 10:20:10. Sensitive to
Zinc deficiency, ensure sufficient zinc content in the soil.

Cultural Practices
 Plant subsequent crops upwind of one another to minimise transmission of
disease. Put sweet corn field away from maize fields to avoid contamination
by cross pollination.

Weed control
 Use pre-emergence herbicides to minimize weed challenge or hand weed as
crop is very sensitive. Test herbicides on a small portion as crop sensitivity
vary from variety to variety

Page 57 of 114
Disease
Disease Description
Maize streak Problem where plantings are continuous. Early infection appear as fine
virus chlorotic striping of the leaves. Can prevent good cob development.
Common Brown lesions up to 5mm diameter which split releasing numerous spores
rust
Grey leaf Narrow grey-brown lesions 2mm wide by 20mm long)
spot

Pests
Pests Description
Cutworms c Apply a band of synthetic pyrethroid over the rows.
maize stalk borer Apply a pinch of granules to the funnels of young plants when about
10% of crop shows leaf damage.
Heliothis bollworm Spray insecticides on cobs and observe required harvesting interval

Harvesting
 Optimal harvesting time is the milk ripe stage when moisture of cob is about
75%.

Yield
 45 000 to 50 000 cobs per hectare.

Market
 Export or local market as fresh produce.

Page 58 of 114
BABY CORN

Soil Requirements.
 Loamy to clay loam soils of pH 5.3-6.5.

Planting
 In row spacing of 100mm and 700mm inter-row spacing , plant population
143 000 p/ha.
 Inter-row spacing may be increased to 900mm for ease of movement for
pickers. This reduces plant population to 110 000 plants per hectare.
 Best grown between September and February in the highveld and throughout
winter in the low veld.

Irrigation
 An average of 300mm is applied per cycle. Soil should be kept moist during
germination and emergence 24-32 mm per week may be applied increasing
to 40-50mm as crop develops depending on soil type and weather.

Fertilizer requirements
 Correct Phosphorous and Potassium before planting. 300-450kg/ha basal
dressing of 10:20:10, 7:16:5 or 8:16: 8 applied. Fertiliser should be banded
50mm below and to the side of seed.
 Top dressing of 100kg/ha of Ammonium Nitrate applied at week 3, 7, and 9.
50kg/ha Murate of Potash supplied as a top dressing at week 9.

Detasselling
 Plants must be detusselled at weeks 9-10 from emergence when 20% tussels
have emerged to ensure pollination does not take place.

Pests
Pests Symptoms Control comments
Cutworm Slashing of seedlings Gaucho -0.20kg/ha Apply a pyrethroid before
at or below soil Karate 0,20L /ha planting
surface.
Maize Shot hole or window Dipterex 16kg/ha Major babycorn pest. Apply
stalkborer damage to uncurling Carbaryly 2.5% pinch of granule into each funnel
leaves. granule when 5% of plants show
symptoms.
Heliothis Boring of emerging Natural pyrethrum Short residual insecticides should
bollworm cobs. sprays. be used.

Diseases

Page 59 of 114
Disease Symptoms Control/Rate Comments
Maize streak Virus Yellow chlorosis Major problem in baby corn
lines run along the production.
veins of leaves.

Harvesting
 Start within 7 days from detusselling when about 1cm of silk is showing and
done daily as cobs grow fast.
 Cobs should be of 10-15mm thickness and 70-120 mm length.
 Reaping takes 2 to 3 weeks and 10 pickers per hectare are required at peak
harvest.

Yield
 A gross yield of 6-11tonnes/ha including sheaths is expected to net 700-
1100kg/ha export yield.

Storage and Marketing

 Place cobs in the shade and cover with wet Hessian to keep them cool soon
after harvesting.
 Store in the cold room at 10-15oC.
 Cobs can be sent to pack house in sheaths if within 10km radius to reduce
transport costs.
 If pack house is at a considerable distance from field, process and pack baby
corn on farm, and should have a cold room.
 Picked product is sensitive to bruising, chilling injury, freeing injury, moisture
loss, ethylene damage and odours.
 Storage life is one week.
 Export bound cobs should be fresh, firm and straight, lightly trimmed at the
base with even lines of kennels and unbroken pointed tips.
 There should be no silks sheaths or butts and colour should be light cream or
pale yellow.
 Grading must be uniform in punnets with tips pointing in the same direction
and neatly laid in rows.

Page 60 of 114
FINE BEANS

Climatic and Soil Requirements.

 Sensitive to frost and temperature about 300 for extended periods may cause
flower drop.
 Plant between August and March.
 Well drained soils with a pH of 5.5 – 6.8

Planting
 Fine beans do well on ridges spaced 1,5m apart centre to centre.
 Three rows may be planted on each ridge with in-row-spacing of 65mm to
give a plant population of 300 000plants/ha.
 Seed should be planted 10-25mm deep.

Irrigation
 Frequent light irrigation is required during germination, thereafter
approximately 25-35mm per week is required depending on crop stage and
weather.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Correct phosphorous and potassium deficiencies before planting. Apply
500kg/ha basal dressing of Comp S (7. 21. 7) or similar fertilisers. Band into
ridge before planting.

Weed Control
 Use Aflon pre-emergence at 1.5 to 2.5 kg/ha to control annual grasses and
broad leaf weeds.
 Herbicide should not be used in clays with less that 20% and a plant depth of
less than 25mm.
 Spray 2.4-4l/ha over the post emergence to control grasses.

Diseases and Pests

Disease/pest Symptoms Control
Anthracnose Sunken brown lesions on the Use disease free seeds. Preventive
leaves and stems. fungicide programme as per exporter’s
advice.
Rust Raised red dish-brown spots on Preventive programme holds disease in
leaves and pods. check.
Plant new crops upwind to avoid disease
spores.
Heliothis Damage developing pods Insecticidal spray with advice from

Page 61 of 114
bollworm exporter.
Nematodes Disfiguring of roots causing Avoid conventional bromide preparations
fluid blockade that kills the and consult exporter for advice on
plants acceptable nema-ticides.
Cutworms Damage emerging seedlings by Poisoned bait or synthetic pyrethroid
cutting stems close to ground band spray over row.
level.

Harvesting
 Planting to first milling takes 8 weeks.
 Twenty pickers/ha should be sufficient during peak periods. Fine beans are
highly perishable and should be moved to shade within half an hour of picking
and be placed in a cold room same day.
 Harvesting can take 2 to 3 weeks.

Yield
 Gross yield of 15t/ha with 10 tonnes exportable.

Market
 Export or local market as fresh produce.

Page 62 of 114
 FRUIT
PRODUCTION

CITRUS
MANGOS
APPLES AND PEARS
AVOCADOS
BANANAS
PEACHES/APRICOT/PLUMS

Page 63 of 114
CITRUS

SPECIES VARIETIES
Sweet orange (C chinensis) Valencia
Navel
Blood
Mandarines/ Naartjies (C Clementine
reticulate) King
Satsuma
Grape fruit Two groups includes white and pink
Lemon (C limona) Eureka
Genoe (seedless)
Lisbon
Lime Two groups includes sour (West Indian limes and Tahiti)
and sweet types

Climatic Requirements
 Generally 100mm per month effective rainfall is ideal.
 15°C annual mean is the coldest limit and optimum of 25-30°C daily
maximum needed
 Cold dry period is needed to initiate colour and stressing
 Rainy season is necessary for bloom and fruit set
 Too low humidity induces dry fruit, too high humidity causes scabs and other
diseases

Soils
 For commercial production, light sand to medium loam soils should be
chosen. pH 5.5 to 7.0

Altitude
 Require frost-free areas.
 Effect of temperature varies with the type of citrus being grown, e.g.Soft citrus
prefer the cool climate of the highveld around Mvurwi and Nyanga.
 Grapefruit and Valencias prefer the hot climate of the lowveld, while Navels
and Lemons prefer the Middleveld.

Land Preparation
 The area should be thoroughly prepared by levelling off any high spots and
filling in depressions.
 Ploughing deeply and sub-soiling is definitely desirable on heavier types of
soil.

Page 64 of 114
 In order to guard against possible incidence of phytophora root disease, it is
essential to remove as many roots as possible when clearing land carrying
woody vegetation.
 Citrus can be grown on slopes. The ridges should be prepared running down
the slope and should be angled slightly so that they act like contours. Reaping
and discing are the major land preparation. Pegging, Ridging and levelling
then follow. Ridge height is about 0.5m and width is 1m to 1.5m.

Spacing
Citrus Between row spacing In row spacing
Orange 6 m – 7.5m 2.5m-3 m
Lemon 6m 2.5m-3 m
Naartijies 4.5 – 5 m 2.5 – 3 m

Cultivar Selection
Cultivar selection is dependant on: Rootstock and Citrus type to be grown (also
affected by altitude)

Types of rootstocks
Rootstock Advantage Disadvantage
Rough Lemon Rapid tree growth Poor internal fruit quality i.e. low
(Used on all citrus Big fruit size sugar content
varieties) Susceptible to Phytophthora root
rot
Troyer (used on all Big fruit size
citrus varieties) Resistant to Phytophthora
Better internal fruit quality than
Rough Lemon
Swingle Good internal fruit quality Low fruit yield
The scion used depends on the altitude.

Nursery Practices
 Purchase from established nurseries.

Planting and Method

 Plant from Mid August to February when there is active growth.
 A planting board is used for double pegging
 Dig hole 40cm to 50cm deep
 Mix 100 g Single Super Phosphate (SSP) with the soil per hole.
 Trees should be planted with the base of the stem slightly higher than the
surrounding soil surface (2-3cm) , when settled no part of the stem is below
ground level to avoid phytophthora root rot.

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 Once the tree has been placed in position the hole should be filled with top
soil, pressed down firmly and irrigated immediately to remove air pockets.
 Remove all flowers and fruits produced in the first t3 years from planting.

Irrigation
 A citrus need an all year round water supply and irrigation is essential to
supplement rainfall. Watering depends on:- age of the tree and time of year
 The younger the tree the less water it requires, as the tree grows the water
requirements increase.
 A productive tree of about 10 to 15 years requires up to 120 litres of water per
day during the hot summer season around September/November and during
the cooler seasons from January to April it needs about 20-40 litres a day.
 Daily water requirement is calculated by multiplying Canopy Area by an
evaporation.

Fertiliser Requirements
Applications done from August to End of May (10 applications/year)
Ammoniun Nitrate Application Programme
YEAR 1 2 3 4
AN(grams/tree/month) 30 60 90 120

MOP Application Programme

YEAR 1 2 3 4
MOP(grams/tree/month 5 5 10 10

 Two weeks later apply a foliage spray of zinc, copper, boron and manganese
in the following proportions;
 Zinc Oxide 150 g/100 litres water
 Solubor 100 g/100 litres water
 Copper oxychloride 150 g/100 litres water
 Manganese sulphate 150g/100litres
 Urea with low Buret 1000grams/100litres

NB: Can mix the above in one tunk

 Take soil and foliar samples for analysis before applying fertilisers especially
on mature trees.
 Timing is important for Nitrogen affect colour on mature trees, and in October
cell division gypsum is required.
 The recommended fertilisers should then be applied from July to January split
into equal amounts.

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Weeding Control
 Use of herbicides is strongly recommended in citrus growing.
 The hoe can also be used on young trees .
 The area covered by the drip line should be kept weed free, and this is a 1.25
m band on either side of the tree.
 The grass in between the plant rows should be cut short.
 For trees 3 years and above Round up and Gramozone can be used, this is a
non-systemic post emergent herbicide.
 Diuron a pre-emergent herbicide can also be used on trees 3 years and
above.

Diseases
Disease Description Symptoms Control
Phytophthora Water born fungal Leaves turn Spray using recommended
root rot disease, attacks the yellow, roots die fungicides
roots. Should be and the bark
controlled early. starts cracking
from the ground
level to the
canopy.
Citrus Black Viral disease that is Spray 2 to 3 prophylactic
spot wind borne. No sprays every year.
tolerance for this Spray copper oxychloride in
disease on the export September. The copper also
market. benefits the tree.
In mid-November or when
rains start spray Dithane M45
.6 weeks after the November
spray, apply Benomyl/Benlate.
When spraying add an oil e.g.
Orchex to ensure a good
coverage.

Pests
Pest Description Control
Thrips Problem from September to Tartox plus suger, Abamectin plus
Harvesting. summer oil, Pholdrin
Citrus Psylla Causes greening disease, where Dimethoate or Thiodan, Dusban
the tree does not produce fruit
and bumps on the leaves.
Red Scale The levels of this pest should be Spray with an oil such as Orchex or
controlled as high levels can kill Lannate, and Ultracide .
the tree.

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Mites Leave marks on the fruit e.g. the Neoron, Torque or Tedion
(Redspider, rust mite causes the fruit to get a (Tetradiofon) .
grey, silver, red colour which is undesirable.
rust, lowveld, Defoliate the tree.
flat etc.)
Orange Dog Citrimet stem paint
Aphids Phosdrin, Citrimet
Bollworm Drills holes onto the fruit
False Larvae feeds inside hanging fruits Alsystin 30ml/100litres
codling moth Creamy white to dark brown
(young larvae) and Pinkish red
(adult)
Fruit fly Causes premature fruit drop, fruit Baiting with Malathion plus suger or
decay in packed fruits. Bait with trichlorfon + sugar + water.

Labour requirements
 Labour requirements are seasonal.
 For harvesting and packing there is a high labour requirement: 30 people for
harvesting; 30 – 35 people for packing ;1person harvests 50 to 70 bags
(13.5kg) which converts to 600kg - 1000kg.

Harvesting
 Harvesting is done at different times of the year depending on the citrus
variety being grown.
 An internal analysis is done to determine sugar content, juice content (45%),
and acid levels then harvesting commences.
 Lemons are harvested all year round
 Oranges have different varieties that ripen at different times of the year. For
example Navels are harvested from April to May while Valencia’s have
varieties such as Delta that is harvested in June, Midnight is harvested in
June/July and Valencia late harvested in August.
 Requirements for harvesting are cotton gloves, Harvesting bag, Clipper and
ladder.
 Avoid fruit injuries and oleosis because these are areas for disease entry
(Injuries should be less than 2%).
 Oranges are dipped in indico camine (5g/20liters) and Hydrochloric acid (few
drops in 50litres water) for injury testing (injured change colour).
 Soft citrus have varieties that ripen at different times of the year.
 Citrus can be stored for 2 to 3 months at a temperature of 4 oC.

Yields
 Mature trees can produce 40 to 60 t/ha.

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Pack House
 Green mature oranges will be de-greened and pass through the drenching
unit were chemicals such as techno, citricure, Decotine, 2,4D Ester and
Decomone will be drenched to prevent rotting decay inside chambers and
increase their shelf life.
 They are left to dry over night and then transferred into the cold rooms.
 In the cold rooms humidity is controlled, carbon dioxide is 0,5 or less,
ethylene gas is applied, Temperatures are between 18 -23oC, the bins are
350- 400kg and are left for 73hours (3days)
 After that they are transferred in to the pack house were cleaning, waxing,
grading and packing takes place.

Marketing
 Export or local market as fruit or processed juice.

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MANGO (Mangifera indica)

Cultivars
Cultivar Characteristics
Tommy High-quality fruit and excellent scarlet red colour. Suitable for growing in most
Aktins mango growing areas. Fruits weigh up to 450 g. Harvesting period mid-
December to end January
Zill Scarlet to dark red when mature, excellent internal quality and a long shelf life.
The fruit tends to ripen prematurely around the seed. The flesh becomes
watery, soft and yellowish around the seed before fruit ripens fully on the
outside.
Resistant to bacterial black spot infection. The fruit weight is about 350g.
Harvesting period early December to early January.
Produces fruit that is scarlet to dark red, medium-sized fruit, good internal
Fascell quality.
Good and regular fruit bearer, resistant to black spot.
Harvesting period mid-December to end of January
Van Dyke Good cropping cultivar with excellent external colour and flesh quality.
Medium-sized fruit and is produced in mid-season
Produces beautiful coloured 250 g oval fruit of excellent quality, but which
does tend to ripen unevenly on trees prone to biennial bearing. Very resistant
to bacterial black spot. Cropping season is from the end of January to mid-
March.
Kent A late cultivar with greenish-yellow fruit colour with a dark overall blash,
excellent flesh quality, and a heavy regular bearing. Recommended only for
warm areas where the season is long enough for the fruit to mature. Very
susceptible to bacterial black spot, and is harvested early March to end of
April

Soil and Climate Requirements

 Light, friable soils.
 Depth of 75 cm. with good drainage, sensitive to acid soils
 Frost-free with high temperatures from early August to April
 Mango should be free of fibre, of attractive quality: colour and good flavor and
should be without the turpentine taste.

Orchard
 Select a warm lying, frost-free area where irrigation is possible.
 Plant the orchard on an establishment: warm northern-facing side to avoid
frost.
 In high altitude areas, young plants can be protected from frost by sheltering
them with grass.
 Avoid mulching the trees, since mulch attracts frost.

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 Soils should be loose and friable sandy loams with a minimum depth of 75cm.
 Avoid heavy soils.
 pH values of 6.0-7.2

Land preparation:
 The land must be ripped to a depth of 60 cm and level.
 If the slope is more than 2%, soil conservation measures are necessary.
 Windbreaks are not recommended, there must be free flow of air

Tree spacing
 Since mango trees bear fruit on the outside, they require a free space of 1.2
m all round, otherwise fruiting is greatly inhibited.
 The recommended space when the trees are 12 years old should be 10.5 m x
10.5 m.
 The cultivar ‘Tommy Atkins’ can be spaced at 7 m x 7 m to 8 m x 8 m
eventually.
 Once trees to supply bud wood are available, propagate own trees.
 After 12 years, remove filler trees.
 For double density plant along the rows, interplant with three rows of paw
paws which have a life of 4 years

Orchard layout
 Square system, best on flat land
 Mark out the base line and at the same time putting a peg for each plant
position.
 Set out rows at right angles to the baseline

Planting the trees

 Each hole is dug in the exact position where the marking peg was.
 Size of hole 75 cm x 75 cm on top and of sufficient depth to allow the tree to
be planted at soil level.
 The soil to be put back into the hole should be mixed with ½ kg Single Super
Phosphate.
 Place plant (still in the plastic container) in the hole and raise if necessary,
by putting soil underneath to about 5 cm above the surrounding ground level
to allow for settling.
 Carefully remove plastic container and fill hole with soil.
 Best planting period is in October, which allows the trees to be well
established during the coming rainy season

Care of young Trees.

 To encourage rapid growth, for the first 3 years give more nitrogen in
proportion to their size than bearing trees.

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 Split nitrogen into 4 applications during the growing season and apply in a
circle 0.5 m away from the vase of the stem the first year and afterwards in a
circle around the drip area.
 Provide regular irrigation all year round and keep ground clean from weed
growth well outside the drip area.
 Paraquat herbicide can be used to keep the root area of young trees free
from weeds.
 3 year old trees are treated as mature trees

Care of mature trees.

 Most of mango tree roots are in the first 60cm of soil, several strong roots will
penetrate more than 4 m deep.
 Clean cultivation over the root spread should be shallow and regular.
 Mature trees give a dense shade underneath to suppresses weed growth.
 Mulching the root area restricts the release of heat from the soil and may
result in frost and damage to the trees

Fertiliser Requirement.
Nutrient Requirements
Phosphate Should be at least 20ppm
No reaction to phosphate application above 50ppm.phosphorous.
Potash 80-200ppm
AN 5kg/tree/year for more than 20year old trees.

 Application: 220 g of AN and 220 g of SSP per tree per year of age, up to a
maximum of 5 kg AN per tree per year for old trees (> 20 years). Mangoes
are sensitive to chloride ion

 Application time: during the first 3 years apply in at least 4 split applications
throughout the growing season. From the 4th year onwards, phosphate is
applied in the winter, the potash in September and the nitrogen in split
applications: (i) just before flowering, (ii) immediately after harvest and (iii)
after harvesting

Pruning
 Framework of the young tree is formed so that 3-5 leaders grow from the
trunk.
 Strong cropping branches are suitably spaced, growing outwards from these
leaders.
 Branches that are too near the ground are removed.
 Formative pruning should be done before the shoots get too long, otherwise
large branches must be removed and the trees suffer a setback.
Tree size control
 Topping the main leaders controls the tree height.

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 The shoots, which develop near the apex of the topped leaders, must be
thinned out.
 Where trees are touching, cropping will decline.
 It is better in this case to thin out trees rather than trim back

Pests and Diseases

Pests Symptom Control
Fruit flies Feed on infected fruit Exercise orchard hygiene, bury all decaying
fruit.
Bait with Malathion 25% WP + sugar at 30g
+ 800g/10L water from maturity of fruit to
harvesting.
Mango Larvae tunnels fruit damaging Bury 60cm deep fruit seed in the orchard.
weevil and exposing to infection.
White Immobile insects appear as Parathion 25% WP at 200g/litre of water in
mango raised white spots on under winter just before flowering.
scale and upper surface of leaves,
branches and fruits.
Diseases Symptom Control
Anthracnos Fungus invades skin of young Copperoxychlorideand Copper/Zineb
e fruit and is latent until fruit mixture.
Ripe rot. ripening begins and present
black spots which join and rot Mancozeb 80% WP
extensively. Maneb 80% WP 220g/100litres of water.
First spray 3 weeks after petal fall (marble
size fruits), second spray when fruit is full
size. Dipping fruits in 520C for 5 min in
water with fungicide. Dipping fruits in
Benomyl 500ppm.
Bacterial Surface lesions have raised Use clean seed for propagation. Copper oxy
black spot. cracks. chloride 85%WP at 300g/100litre of water.
(green rot)
Powdery White powdery growth on the Bupitimate 23% EC at 40ml/100 litres.
mildew flower clusters and Pyrazophos 30% EC. Spray flowers with
undersurface of the young Copper oxychloride/Sulphur.
fruit. Flowers die.
Flower Development of a swollen Remove infected shoots by pruning back,
malformati apical bud. Malformation which seal wound and burn pruning. Remove
on cause a number of flowers with badly infected trees and burn.
shortened inter-nodes and
scale-like leaf. Formation of a
compact mass resembling a
cauliflower.

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Harvesting
 The fruit is picked when the outer ground colour development has reached
the correct change for the particular cultivar.
 When harvesting, the fruit should be clipped from the trees leaving about 1
cm of stalk on the fruit.
 The picked fruit is gently placed in crates and kept under shade.
 It may be necessary to carry out up to10 pickings per tree per season.

Yields
 15-25 tons/ha annually from the 6th year from intensive mango orchards.

Storage
 Store at 13°C and 85-90% relative humidity and fruit will keep 2-3 weeks in
storage.

Market
 Export or local market as fruit or processed juice.

Page 74 of 114
APPLE AND PEAR (Pome Fruits) (Malus domestica and Pyrus communis)

Varieties
Types Cultivars
Low Chill Apple Annah, Maayan, Michal, Ellah, Goldjon and Mutsu. Ellah and Annah
Cultivars: act as pollinators
High Chill Apple Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Starking, Marjorie Pie
Cultivars:
Pear Cultivars Hood, Wilder, William Mild Winter, Pineapple, Cares and LeConte.
Hood and Pineapple require pollinators

Soil and Climate Requirements.

 Deep and well-drained soils are the best, with a pH of 5.0-5.5.

 Soil must contain high organic matter that can be amended by addition of
compost or kraal manure
 Pome fruits are indigenous to cool temperate conditions.
 They are dormant in winter and drop their leaves, and begin to grow again
when it gets warm in spring.
 They require a cold winter to enable them to break buds and produce leaves,
flowers and fruits.
 Different Pome fruit cultivars have different chilling requirements.
 There are low-chilling requiring cultivars that can be grown in Zimbabwe in
the Highveld

Orchard layout
 Establish pome fruits in the coolest part of the land.
 South-facing slopes are cooler than slopes that face in other directions.
 Most apple and pear varieties are self-sterile and need a different variety for
cross-pollination.
 Preferably, varieties which flower at the same time should be planted

Soil preparation
 Dig planting holes of 0.75 m x 0.75 m.
 Pile soil on one side of the hole with the topsoil on a separate heap from the
subsoil.
 Mix topsoil with compost/manure and basal fertilizer and reserve subsoil for
making basins
 Tree spacing 5 m between the rows and 5 m within the row (= 5 m x 5 m
between the plants)
 Planting trees-The best time for planting is during the dormant season (late
June to mid August).

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 The trees are planted bare (root with no soil covering the roots. Drying of the
roots should be avoided by covering the plants or roots with a moist sacking
between uprooting from the nursery and planting.
 Trees should be planted to the same depth as they were in the nursery.
 Cut back trees to a height of about 60-75 cm from the ground

Fertilizer Requirements
 Year 1: Either 750 g of Compound C per planting hole + one 20 litre bucket of
compost or 500 g SSP + 300 gKCL.
 Top dress with 200 g/tree of AN about 6 weeks after planting
 Years 2 and 3: 200 g/tree of AN in mid August and 100 g/tree in mid
November
 Year 4 and subsequent: 360 g/tree of Compound J in August, December and
March-April

Pruning
 At planting: Cut back trees to about 60-75 cm from the ground.
 During the first growing season, remove all suckers arising from below the
graft union.
 This is best done when the shoots are still small (when they can be rubbed off
with the fingers).
 Removal of larger shoots may result in wounds that serve as entry points for
disease-causing organisms
 If trees are to be trained to the centre leader from the top, most shoots should
be trained vertically.
 The other common training system is the vase-shaped (or open centre,
which means no middle shoot).
 Any diseased, damaged or dead wood should be removed ( keep pruning to
the necessary minimum, unless trees are weak and small)
 Hard pruning during the early years will delay cropping of the trees

Types of pruning cuts

 Thinning cut: removal of an entire branch by cutting cleanly (flush with the
trunk) from its point of origin.
 The result is a more open spreading canopy.
 This system is more suited to pruning vigorous dense trees
 Heading cut: Involves cutting back a shoot immediately above a bud, will
stimulate growth of the remaining buds into a compact canopy
Fruit thinning
 Do not allow the trees to bear fruit before the 4th year after planting.
 Remove all flowers during the first 3 years while building a robust canopy.
 This is required to improve fruit size and remove misshapen fruits.
 The best time of thinning is 2-4 weeks after full bloom and should be
completed 30-40 days after full bloom.

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 2-3 fruits per cluster should be left

Appearance of fruit
 The colour of the cultivar must be fully developed.
 The pips or seeds of the fruit should be light brown or brown.
 If the seeds are white, it is too early to harvest the fruit.
 Once the seeds become too dark brown it is too late to harvest.

Pests and Diseases

Pests
Pest Symptoms Control/Rate
Aphids Distorted leaves Diamethoate 10ml/10 litres of water.
at tips Malathion 25WP 20g/10 litres water.
Codling Tunneling into the Spray with Lebaycid WP, 10g/10 l water when 75% of
moths fruits are filled flower petals have dropped.
with crumpy
brown excrement.
Fruit flies Boring of fruit by Spray a mixture of Malathion + sugar at 10 + 60g/10litres
larvae and of water, in large drops.
feeding. Sugar attracts insect to poison.
Scale insects Dead braches Prune and burn infected shoots and spray fungicides like
starting from the Morestan 25%WP at 4g/10l water once a week until mid-
growing tips, December.
rough greyish
bark.

Diseases
Disease Symptom Control
Scab Leaves and fruit develop faint Spray Dithane M 45 at 15g/10Lwaterevery
olive green spots that 7days until 30 days after full bloom.
gradually turn black.
Bitter pit Sunken dark on the fruit Adequate irrigation and avoid excessive
surface live green sports that nitrogen and apply foliar sprays of calcium
gradually turn black nitrate around October-November.
Erratic and delayed bud burst Select coldest site.
Delayed and a prolonged bud break Use dormancy braking chemicals.
Foliation period. Some buds fail to Plant well adapted cultivars.
open altogether to leave long
bare branches sometimes with
die back.

Page 77 of 114
Pruning and staking of an apple tree during the 1st season

 Stake:-At planting, appearance to be aimed for in 1st year, head back at

planting (prune to about 1 m)
Graft
 Stake: Tie new leading branch to stake to make them vertical; Tie down to
pegs or weigh down all other branches to these type of angles; Remove
branches that are so low that they will have fruit to the ground.

Harvesting:
 Harvest apples at the right time.
 Apples should be sweet and not floury or starchy.
 If picked too early or too late, they will not store well and will be of poor
quality.
 Pears, on the other hand, must be mature before picking, but will never ripen
until after picking.
 Avoid bruising the fruits at picking, use bags or basket to put the fruit in during
picking.
 Picked fruits should be placed in shade and stored in a cool place.

Yield???

Market
 Export or local market as fresh or dried fruit or processed juice.

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AVOCADO PEAR (Persea Americana)

Cultivars
Cultivar Ripening Period
Fuerte April to August
Pinkerton August to October
Hass September to November
Ryan October to January

 The selection of cultivars must be based on their suitability for the export
market.
 A cultivar should have a long storage life, travel well and be of acceptable
quality.
 The maturity period of the cultivars must have a spread to cover the most
suitable export season and give the longest possible season on the local
market.
 The trees must be regular bearers, giving commercial crops.

Soil and Climate Requirements

 Deep well-drained alluvial soils with a slightly acid pH.
 On heavier soils, die back due to phytophthora rot can be severe.
 A sub-tropical fruit, requires frost-free areas. The upper limit for production is
1 100 m.

Orchard layout
 If the orchard is planted on a slope, plant the trees on the contour lines.
 Grass waterways should be selected to take the surplus flow of water during
heavy rains.
 If planting is done on the flat, the trees may be laid out on the square system

Tree spacing
 To use land to maximum advantage and obtain the highest and fastest return
possible on capital, close initial spacing with tree pruning or removal 10-12
years later should be carried out, otherwise there will be significantly
decreasing yield due to mutual shading.
 This can be indicated by large numbers of ‘cukes’ (seedless cucumber
shaped fruit) which are formed due to overcrowding.
 Fuerte, which is strong grower and forms a spreading tree, requires a wider
spacing than the upright Hass, Pinkerton or Ryan.
 Spacing between rows should be 9-12 m

Planting trees
 Plant in September/October.

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 Transplant towards the beginning of the rainy season to reduce initial
irrigation costs and give a long warm season to become well established.
 The depth of the hole should be the same or slightly shallower than the
container.
 The width of the hole should be 20 cm wider than the pot to be able to
manipulate the plant in the hole. Remove the pot by cutting one side with a
knife and pulling it from the ball of the soil.
 The soil for filling the hole should be mixed with a handful and a half of SSP
in the row (m) (m) of trees per ha
Fertilizer Requirements
 Spread over the entire root area, about 30 cm from the stem to about 45 cm
outside the drip area.
 Follow each application of fertilizer with a light irrigation.
 Hass generally requires almost double that required for other cultivars.
 Foliar analysis before flower burst and also in March will aid in fixing the
fertilizer programme.
 The fertilizer application for the first year is given in 6 dressings during the
summer season
 After that, nitrogen and potassium are applied in 3 equal applications in July,
December and April.
 Apply phosphate in December.
 Apply heavy nitrogenous fertilizers closer than 6 weeks before or after
blossoming, as fruit yield can be impaired
 Since most soils are naturally low in zinc or the zinc is not available, this
element must be applied every year.
 Spray trees annually to drip with a 0,2% solution of zinc oxide.

DiseasesG
Disease Symptom Control
Phytophthora Use root rot tolerant rootstocks.
Sun Blotch Stunted growth, yellow depressed Uproot tree and use clean material.
virus areas at the stem end of fruit

Anthracnose: Brown to black lesions at maturity

producing a greenish-black decay
Diplodia stem Fungal colonisation of fruit stem A post-harvest dip of Thiabendezole
end rot that develops to the flesh largely eliminates Diplodia rot

Super- P) (60% K2
 Maturity of avocados is related approximately to the moisture content.
 Fruit is ready to be picked when it has a moisture content of 80% or less.

Determination of moisture maturity.

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 A random sample of at least 10 fruits is taken, the avocado is bisected
lengthwise and the seedless half is peeled on one side.
 A portion of this side is grated with a reasonably fine household grater.
 This is repeated with the other fruits and a representative sample of exactly
100 grams is obtained.
 The sample is spread in an open dish and dried in an oven at low
temperature for about 6 hours.
 If sample weight is more than 80 grams, the fruits should not be picked

Ripening time
 Apply after moisture determination procedure;
 Pick a representative sample of fruits of average size.
 Store this fruit at room temperature until it ripens.
 An avocado is ripe when it yields slightly to light pressure applied on the
surface.
 If the samples ripen within 8-10 days and show no sign of shriveling, the fruit
may be considered mature.
 If the fruit takes more than 10-12 days to ripen, the ripeness test may be
repeated in a week

Fruit Appearance
 Purple or dark-coloured cultivars usually turn from green to dark colour at
maturity.
 Green cultivars are mature when a yellowish tint appears on the stem, close
to the fruit.
 Fruit has a smooth peel, particularly on the part furthest from the stem

Appearance of Cut Open Fruit

 On immature fruit, the seed membrane is fleshy and its colour varies from a
yellowish white to light.
 Mature fruits have a membrane that is usually thin and its colour varies from
brown to dark brown

Harvesting
 Starts 4 years after planting for grafted trees.
 Handle fruits carefully; any scratches on the fruit are entry points for post-
harvest diseases

Picking
 While the fruit is on the tree, it remains hard, it becomes soft and edible only
after picking.
 Mature fruit ripens evenly.
 The edible part acquires a smooth, buttery texture and the peel shows no sign
of shriveling.

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 Immature fruit that is picked too early will not ripen properly and the skin will
eventually become shriveled

Storage
 Sensitive types should not be stored at less than 13°C;
 Tolerant ones can be stored at as low as 4.4°C.
 Storage temperatures for Hass and Fuerte have been experimentally
determined at 7.2°C.
 Chilling injury will be seen as a greyish brown discolouration in the flesh and
scalding and pitting of the skin.
 Failure to soften properly after removal from storage is also a symptom
 Maintain relative humidity of 85-90% in the cooler

Yields
 Vary from 4 to 11 t/ha per year, depending mainly upon the age of the
avocado tree

Market
 Local or export market as fresh fruit or processed juice.

Page 82 of 114
BANANA (Musa Cavendish)

Cultivars
 Giant Williams,
 Dwarf Cavendish
 Mature in about 5 years.

Soil and Climate Requirements

 Deep soils of at least 1 m.
 Sandy loam soils are the best, but bananas can grow on a wide range of well-
drained soils.
 pH should be 5.5-6.5.
 Soil should be free from nematodes
 The banana has a high heat and water requirement.
 The best temperature range is between 20 and 30°C, with evenly distributed
irrigation or rainfall.
 Very sensitive to frost attack.
 Cold weather negatively affects the bunch development

Planting material
 The sword suckers are the best planting material, they must be as uniform as
possible.
 Remove all roots before planting.
 Select planting suckers from a healthy orchard.
 In altitudes less than 1000 m above sea level, select suckers of Dwarf
Cavendish and plant between July and November.
 The bunches will emerge between February and April and are harvested in
July-October.
 Suckers selected between December and March produce bunches of poor
quality

Tree Spacing and Weed Control

 2.4 m x 2.7 m or 4.0 x 2.0 m
 Keep plantation free of weeds and avoid deep weeding, which damages the
shallow root system

Desuckering
 Growth of suckers is greatest in August to April and low during winter.
 This is the period to select the suckers, which must be sword suckers (young
suckers on which the first narrow leaves have begun to unfold) since they
have a stronger attachment to the rhizome.
 Water suckers, which are small suckers growing around the main shoot, are
unsuitable for followers and should be removed.

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Propping
 Wind, old age and poor sucker selection may result in falling.
 Use single wooden stakes and prop against the throat of the plant.
 Williams is prone to wind damage due to its height and heavy bunch weight.

Trimming of leaves
 Removal of dead leaves helps to reduce diseases.
 Trimming is best done in April and August, avoid winter trimming.
 Withered floral remnants at the end of the banana fingers are removed, which
improves appearance and reduces spread of the cigar-end rot infection.
 The bell is removed to increase average finger weight

Bunch covers
 Blue polythene bunch covers, open on both sides.
 Loosely tied above the first hand of the bunch and hanging about 15 cm
below the lowest hand, they protect the fruit from hail damage.
 To control pests, spray the bunches before covering.
 Apply bunch covers at the onset of the rains and remove them 3 weeks from
maturity

Windbreaks
 In areas where wind is a problem, windbreaks minimize losses due to wind
damage and leaf tearing.
 Use wind breaks available within your area

Fertilizer Requirement
Fertilizer Rate
Manure 10-20t/ha before planting
Nitrogen 400-700kg/ha AN in four equal amounts, January, March, September and
November.
Potassium 250-750kg/ha Muriate of Potash
Phosphate 200-350kg/ha SSP –before establishment, Apply again 150-300kg/ha each
year in August and September.
Lime 0.5-2t/ha when pH is below 5.5. range should be: 5.5-6.5.

Pests
Pests Symptoms Control
Burrowing Causes toppling disease that Fenamis-asystemic nematicide.
nematode destroys plant roots resulting in Practice rotation.
plants falling over.
Cigar end - rot Rotted portion of banana finger is Remove the pistil and perianth parts
dry and tends to adhere to fruits. of the flower 8-11 days after bunch
emergence

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Harvesting
 Bunches are harvested when the fruit is about three-quarters full and the fruit
starts to change colour from green to yellow.
 Packing bunches in boxes padded with a thick layer of foam rubber minimizes
bruising.

Yields
 50 tons/ha per year

Market
 Local or export market as fresh or dried fruit or processed juice.

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PEACH/APRICOT/PLUM

PEACH
Cultivar Description
Babcock White Semi-free Fresh, export
Boland White Semi-free Fresh
Earlibelle White Semi-free Fresh
Safari Yellow Free Fresh
Sunray Yellow Semi-free Fresh
Kakamas Deep yellow Cling Canning
APRICOT
Alpha Light yellow Fresh, drying
Early Cape Light orange Fresh, drying
Late Cape Light orange Drying
Piet Cillie Orange Fresh drying
PLUM POLLINATOR
Eclipse Red on Yellow Santa Rosa
Methley Red No pollinator
Satsuma Red Santa Rosa
Harry Pickstone Yellow No pollinator needed
Songold Yellow No pollinator needed
Ruebennel Red No pollinator needed

Tree spacing
 Peach and Nectarine: 7 m x 7 m.
 Apricots and Plum: 5.5 m x 5.5 m.
 Plum trees need pollinators, plant in alternation, if the commercial cultivar and
pollinator are of equal commercial value.
 If the pollinator is of no commercial value, plant one pollinator for every nine
trees.

Planting the trees

 The dormant season (late June to mid-August) is best time for planting. The
trees are planted bare root with no soil covering the roots.
 Drying of the roots should be avoided by covering plants or roots with a moist
sacking between uprooting from the nursery and planting.
 Trees should be planted to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Cut
back trees to a height of about 60-75 cm from the ground

Care of Young Stone Trees

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 Fruit trees should be allowed to produce fruit in the 4th year, after the tree
structure is well made.
 Stone fruit trees must be pruned every year to increase the size of fruit
(pruned trees produce fewer but larger fruits) and reduce/ control the height of
the tree, so that all the fruits can be reached when picking
 Remove diseased and dead wood

Management of trees
 At planting: Cut back trees to about 60-75 cm from the ground.
 During the first growing season, remove all suckers arising from below the
graft union.
 This is best done when the shoots are still small (when they can be rubbed off
with the fingers).
 Removal of larger shoots may result in wounds that serve as entry points for
disease-causing organisms.

First winter after planting,

 Select 3-4 scaffold (main) branches, evenly spaced around the main trunk.
 These are the main branches and will be maintained throughout the
productive life of the tree.
 If trees are to be trained to the centre leader from the top, most shoots
should be trained vertically.
 The other common training system is the vase-shaped or open centre
training, meaning that there is no middle shoot.
 Any diseased, damaged or dead wood should be removed and care should
be taken to keep pruning to the necessary minimum, unless trees are weak
and small.
 Hard pruning during the early years will delay cropping of the trees.

Second winter after planting

 In peaches, fruit are borne on one-year old wood.
 It is important to encourage new growth by cutting back alternate side
branches to about a 1/3 of their original length and to a weaker shoot.
 All water shoots are cut out cleanly at their point of origin (thinning out).

Fertilizer Requirements
Stage Application
Initial -Either 750-1000 g of Compound J per planting hole, mixed with the topsoil
Application plus 1000 g lime if necessary.
Or 600 g SSP + 300 g Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) + 200 g AN.
After planting, top dress with 50 g AN per tree every six weeks until March
Second In August: 150 g AN and 75 g Potash per tree.
Cropping In November: 75 g AN and 40 g Potash per tree
Year

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Third In August: 250 g AN and 125 g Potash per tree.
Cropping In November: 125 g AN and 70 g Potash per tree
Year Depending on the growth and productivity of the tree, the amounts may be
increased in subsequent years to a maximum of 500 g per tree for AN and
300 g per tree for Potash.
Alternatively, in August 500 g of Compound J can be given per tree and in
November 250 g of Compound J.
These amounts may be increased to a maximum of 1000 g per tree for
August and 500 g for November

 These are only approximate recommendations.- It is best to obtain soil

analysis results and recommendations

Fruit thinning
 Improve fruit size and remove misshapen fruits.
 The best time of thinning is 2-4 weeks after full bloom and should be
completed 30-40 days after full bloom and before the stone (seed) hardens.
 The fruit should be thinned to one fruit per 15 cm space, which is roughly one
hand span.

Pests
Pests Symptoms Control
Codling Moth Larvae tunnels on fruits filled Spray Lebaycid WP at 10g/10L of water
with crumby brown excrement when 75% of flower petals have dropped.
Fruit flies Larvae feed in the fruit Bait with Malathion 25% WP + sugar at 30g
causing damage. + 800g/10litres of water. Lebaycid as per
label rate.
Start controlling from flowering onwards.
Scale insects. Dead shoots and branches Prune out and burn infected branches.
eg. and fruit drop. Spray Parathion 25% WP at 20g/10litres
Pernicious water after leaf drop and 4 weeks later in
scale winter when trees are dormant.
Leaf curl Occurs in spring. Once the
leaf curl fungus is on the new
spring leaf

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control
Rust Small yellow spots on the upper Dithane M 45 at 20g/10L water just before
surface of leaves with brown buds open10days after flower petals drop.
pastules on the underside. Repeat after 3 weeks and after harvesting.
Leaf curl Part of the leaf becomes Use lime sulphur at 1litre/10litres of water.
puckered and curled and has a Apply before end of May when most leaves

Page 88 of 114
 yellowish to red colour. have dropped.
Repeat 2 weeks before buds begin to grow in
spring at 500mml/10litres of water or copper
oxychloride at 50g/10litres of water.
Gum Sunken round purple spots on Prune all infected shoots and burn. Spray
spots. leaves that change to brown and lime sulphur at 1l/10 litres of water plus
fall out. copperoxychloride a t 40g/10L of water.
Purple brown cankers or bumps Apply Copper Oxychloride before the end of
on young shoots that May when most leaves have dropped and
crack and ooze gum, this can again 2-3 weeks before the buds begin to
cause shoot death grow in spring, at 50 g/10 litres of water.
Powdery The young leaves are covered in Remove all infected shoots during pruning
Mildew a white powder, and may curl up and burn them.
and become narrow. Apply Lime Sulphur, at 500 ml/10 litres of
older leaves have white powdery water, just before the buds open.
blotches on the underside and Spray again Lime Sulphur, at 250 ml/10 litres
leaves may dry and drop. of water, when buds are pink.
there are white patches that From mid-October, spray Lime Sulphur every
become hard and 2 weeks until December, at 65 ml/10 litres of
crack on the fruit.The disease is water.
common in wet weather in
autumn and spring

Harvesting
 The time of picking depends on how far away the markets are.
 If fruits need to be transported over quite a distance, harvest when they first
change colour.
 If the fruits are for selling locally, then pick when the colour is fully developed.
 Stone fruits are soft and easily damaged if they are being transported, to
avoid this, pack them in straw or soft paper in wooden or cardboard trays that
can only accommodate one layer.

Market
 Local or export market as fresh or dried fruits or processed juice.

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FLOWER PRODUCTION

ROSES
PROTEA
HYPERICUM
BUPLEURUM
AFRICAN VIOLETS

Page 90 of 114
ROSES

Varieties

Colour Variety
White Ice cold, Akito
Orange Calibra, Chelsea, Punch
Yellow Viva, Frisco, Sorraya
Pink Dream, Disco, Tisento, Maxime
Red Sacha, Red Calipso
Peach Bodine
Orange-yellow Darka
Lilac Wild Calypso

Climate and Soil Requirements

 Night temperatures of 18-20C and day temperatures of 25-30C
 30% clay, 70% sand and should be at least 1m in depth.
 pH of 6.5

Land Preparation
 Work soil to a fine tilth.
 The land should be fumigated after land preparation to control weeds,
nematodes, pests and diseases.

Planting
 Greenhouse structure should be complete at the time of planting.
 The width of the beds is 0.7m with a distance of 1.5m between the beds.
 Distance between plants in the rows may vary slightly according to variety but
it should be approximately 20cm.
 A distance of 25cm should be left between the end of the bed and first and
last bushes.
 At the time of planting, a central furrow is dug approximately 12-15cm deep.
 Roots must be spread equally on either side of the bush with the bud union
5-10cm above the ground.
 The soil must be filled and firmed well and the bush should be watered
immediately.

Irrigation Requirements
 The water requirement depends on the soil as well as the age of the crop and
the stage of development.
 Irrigation can be scheduled according to the tensiometer readings.
 Roses are grown under high moisture regimes so the soil must not dry out to
such an extent that the tensiometer reads 22-26, depending on the altitude.

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Fertigation of roses
 Soil tests should be done first so as to calculate the fertilizer requirements of
roses and the requirement differs with age and stage of development.
 The fertilizer that is required by the plant is determined by the readings from
the suction tubes.
 The suction tube is placed permanently in the soil.
 The day before a reading is required, air is sucked out of the suction tube by
means of a syringe.
 The water is then tested for undiluted for nitrites, Ph and EC nitrates.

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control
Downy Mildew Purplish red to brown irregular Ortiva, Bravo 500 FW, Copper
(Sphaerotheca spots on the leaves. Leaves Oxychloride, Mancozeb, Dithane M-
pannosa) may turn yellow with patches of 45, M,ancozeb, Ridomil Mz, Ridomil
normal green tissue prior to 5 G, Previcur N.
abscission.
Powdery Mildew Reddish areas on the upper Sulphur 80WP, Baycor 300 EC,
(Perenospora surface of the leaf which Prosper, Early Impact Meltatox
sparsa) develop into very fine white hair 40FW, Funginex, Folicur, Soprano,
like mycelia Flint
Botrytis A greyish brown mycelial Bravo 500 FW, Rovral, Benlate,
(Botrytis cineria) growth develops on flower buds Topsin, Scala.
which often drop
Crown gall Formation of soft and hard Dip the secateur in a solution
(Agrobacterium tumerous growth. These growth containing Terminator after every
tumefaciens) are usually found at or below cut to prevent the spread of the
the soil surface in the basal or bacteria
crown region.

Pests

Pest Damage caused Control

Two Spotted Pierce the plant cells and suck Apollo50SC, Curacron, Floram,
Spider Mites out the contents Mitac, Rufast, Dynamec, Pride,
Smite, Mitac
Aphids Nymphs and adults suck sap Karate, Acephate, Confido, Dicarzol
from the plant and are vectors
of viral disease.
Thrips (Sugar Pierce and suck out the cells of Calypso, Acephate, Mesuron, Match
added to sprays at the surface tissues. Tissues die
100g/100l water off and leaves take a silvery
will improve control grey colour

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Nematodes Causes yellowing of foliage and Viyolate, Nemacur, Temik
in severe cases the plant wither
and die.
Lace worms They feed on plant leaves Match, Lamb
leaving holes.
Red Spider mite Suck plant cell sap from plant Polo 500SC 600ml/ha
causing plants to appear
bronzed or stripped, eventually
turning yellow. A heavy
infestation results in formation
of webs which are spun by
nymphs and adults.

Harvesting
 Cut the bud in such a way that 5 leaflets remain on the plant and place the
stems in buckets containing post harvest solution.

Precooling
 Place buckets of stems in a cold room maintained between 7-8C to remove
field heat before grading.

Grading
 Flowers are assorted according to their length (35, 40 or 50cm) and placed at
different positions.
 The flowers are then deleafed to a third of their lengths.
 Flowers of the same length with the same cut stage are then put together for
bunching.
 Bunching depends on the market requirements.
 Most markets require bunches with 20 stems.
 Single face craft is placed on the buds and the flower buds should be kept
5cm below the single face craft.
 Stems are cut on the guillotine and placed in the cold room maintained
between 2-3C in buckets containing post harvest solution.

Packing
 Done in the cold-room.
 Flowers are removed from the buckets and allowed to drip.
 They are then packed into boxes and the boxes should have labels that
include the variety, grower’s code, stem length, number of stems.

Market
 Export or local market as fresh flowers.

Page 93 of 114
PROTEA

Varieties
Safari sunset, Pink ice, Scarlet ribbon, Saxusum, Inca gold, Waratah, Tango,
Wilson’s wonder

Climatic and Soil Requirements

 Tolerate low temperatures
 Well drained sandy loam with sand content 60-80%.
 pH range from 5.8-6.1

Land Preparation and Planting

 Land should be prepared to a fine tilth and ridges are made to improve
drainage
 Holes sufficient to accommodate the size of the sleeve are made at the
desired spacing on the ridge.
 Black plastic can be used as a mulch.

Pruning
 Most plants will need pruning in their second year.
 Thereafter most of the pruning is done in the form of harvesting.

Water Requirements
 Drip irrigation is used for irrigation
 1-6 months needs 10 litres per week split into 2 applications
 6-12 months need 10 litres water in 1 application
 Above 12 months 10-15 litres once a week

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control
Phytophthora Rapid death of the Alliete, Ridomil
Nematodes Plants grow poorly, become Temik, Nemacur
chlorotic, wilt and eventually die.
Athracnose Die back of young shoot tips Dithane, Bravo Captan
Botrytis A grey powdery mould develops on Captan, Benlate, Rovral
edges of the leaves, flower bud
and shoot tips
Stignima Dark blotches of fruiting bodies Dithane, Captan
appear on the leaves.
Bacterial leaf Red leaf spot with concentric rings Copper Oxychloride
spot around it.

Pests

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Regular scouting for the following pests help in intervening control measures.
Leaf feeders
Pest Control
Cut worms
Leaf miners Trigard, Dynamec
Leaf spinners
Tip wilters Cabaryl and Dimethoate
Bud borers Dimethoate
Scale insects

Harvesting
 No insecticides should be applied within the 3 days of the intended date of
harvesting.
 Harvesting is done in the early morning or in the late afternoon.
 Stems are cut at an angle with a sterilized secateur.
 Stem are placed in clean water immediately after harvesting and they are
taken directly to the packshed.

Grading
 Flowers are graded according to their stem length and placed in a bucket
containing clean water.
 The stems must be cut 3cm longer than the length stated on the boxes.
 The length of stems that can be exported range from 35cm to80cm
depending on the variety.

Packing

 The number of stems packed per box depends with the variety and stem
length.
 Boxes with Pin cushion variety should be lined with plastic.
 Before the boxes are closed, they are sprayed with Rovral.
 The stems are stored in the cold room at 50C until they are transported to the
airport.

Market
 Export market as fresh flowers.

Page 95 of 114
HYPERICUM

 Hypericum is propagated from cuttings which are cut from saleable stems 40
cm or more in length.
 Cuttings are cut at every inter-node and should be 5 cm in length with two
nodes.
 Seradix is used to promote rooting and plant cuttings direct into beds.
 The beds should be 1m wide and 4 rows spaced 20 cm apart are marked on
each bed.

Fertilizer Requirements (Phaseolus Vulgaris)

Vegetative stage 1:
 Time from planting to 20cm in height hand application of 800g/30 m bed of
the following fertilisers mixed to make a blend in the ratio of 1:1 Calcium
nitrate, magnesium nitrate, mono ammonium phosphate, mono potassium
phosphate and Ammonium nitrate.
Vegetative stage 2:flower initiation stage
 Apply 1300 g/30 m bed of the fertiliser mixture.
 Supplement with compound J applied every 2 weeks until harvesting at a rate
of 600 g/ 30 m bed.
 If rains occur excessively apply weekly

Harvesting
 Occur 12 weeks from planting in summer and 16 to 18 weeks from planting in
winter.
 Monitor the growth rate daily.
 Grow about 1 cm daily in summer.
 An average of 40 to 50 stems can be harvested per square metre but its
possible to harvest 80 to 90 stems/m2
 Stems should be pencil thick when harvested and the stem length varies from
40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 cm
 Harvest when brown berries form on the plant after the flowers fall off.
 Harvest for 7 flushes or less. Each flush is 12 weeks long
 Leave 6 stems per plant for maximum production. Remove all weak stems
 After harvesting take flowers to pack shed and spray with water
 5 bunches of 5 stems are bunched together and left till water dries off.
Flowers are then packed and cooled to 3- 4oC
 Harvest in the late afternoon leave plants to stand in water overnight ,
grading and packing are done in the morning

Lighting
 20% shade cloth is used to cover the flowers.

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 Artificial lights are used as early as one week after cutting back the plants this
promotes faster shooting.
 Lighting should begin when plants are 15 -20 cm in length.
 Fluorescent lights are used at a height of 3m above the crop. Flood lights can
also be used.

Diseases and Pests

 Rust: use Amister at a rate of 50ml/100 litres water, or Folicur at 50ml/100
litres water, or Plantvax at 100 ml/100 litres water
 Botrytis: control by sterilising pruning shears as one moves from plant to
plant and by practicing good hygiene when handling plants
 Thrips: use Lanet, Oncur or Confidor

Market
 Export market as fresh flowers.

Page 97 of 114
BUPLEURUM

Land Preparation
 Plant on beds raised 15cm above the ground that are 1m wide.
 Use two row spaced 40-50cm apart.
 Use hand rakes for final tilling and make level bed for even seed drop.

Fertilizer requirements
 Soil analysis recommended for more precise fertility recommendations.
 Apply: basal applications of ‘L’ of 600-700kg/hec in high Ph situations and
600-700kg/hec of ‘C’ in others.
 Top dressing may be necessary from 3-4 weeks after emergence using
Compound ‘J’ at 15gm/m2 alternating with AN at 10gm/m2 at every 10 days
till bud set.

Planting
 Seed subjected to temperatures of 150C and above becomes dormant.
 In hot weather, soil temperatures should be kept as low as possible. Plant in
the morning when the soil is cool and thereafter use a mulch and irrigation
water applied at times that will influence the late morning and afternoon high
soil temperatures.
 Panting depth is not critical as long as the seed is covered varying down to
1cm depth.
 Good germination can be expected provided , depth is consistent, mulch,
crop protection and irrigation management are correct

Mulching
 The better the quality of the mulching material used, the better the effects of
the mulching.
 Love grass is excellent mulch.
 River sand laid over the planting lanes can be used.
 After sowing apply the mulch evenly to cover the top of the bed.

Water Requirements
 After planting, irrigate to field capacity to achieve good emergence. Water
needs at this stage are mainly for soil cooling rather than for crop.
 From emergence up to 3 weeks, irrigate 12mm per week with sets every 2-3
days depending on soil type and climatic conditions.
 After 3 weeks crop water needs will increase until bud set.

Pests and Diseases

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Diseases
Disease Symptom Control
Black spot Black spots are seen on Copper oxychloride, Carbendazim
plant leaves and stems.
Rhizoctonia Black rot around the base Benomyl, Carbendazim
of the stem

Insects/ Pests

Pest Damage caused Control

Heliothis Larvae feeds on the buds and Endosulfan
blossoms of the plant
Red Spider Silvering and mottling of leaves Abamectin, Aldicarb, Amitraz,
Malathion
Cutworm Cut down the plant especially when still Lampda, Monocrotophos,
young Chlorpyriphos
Thrips Suck sap and leaves become pale Dichlorovos, Endosulfan, Disulfoton
Leaf miner Enter leaves and suck sap and leave Malathion, Pyrazophos
trails on leaves
Nematodes Light brown lumps on the roots and Carbofuran, Benfuracarb
cause stunted growth

Harvesting and grading

 Cut stage – Harvest when one or more umbels that comprise the
inflorescence have dropped their petals and young green seed visible.
 Stems are placed in solution containing post harvest solution immediately
after harvesting.
 Stems taken to a cold room with a temperature of about 7-80C before grading
to remove field heat.
 Bunch cut stems as 10 stems/bunch and the 5 bunches together to make 50
stems per bunch.

Market
 Export market as fresh flowers.

Page 99 of 114
AFRICAN VIOLETS

Climate Requirements
 Optimum temperature is 210C during the day and night. The optimum light
value is 300 K lux.

Potting mix
 Potting media should be light and porous mix such as using 80% straight peat
moss and add 20% shredded styrochip beads or pellite.
 Add lime to the mix to get a pH balance of about 5.8-6.2.
 Add a bit of well decomposed organic fertilizer to meet the plants immediate
needs or alternatively start to apply liquid fertilizer to the plant immediately
after potting.

Pot Size
 For the normal crop use 10.16cm or 11.4cm pots. For larger plants use
12.7cm or 15.24cm pots.

Potting procedures
 Water dry starters thoroughly before potting them.
 When potting the plants, ensure that the hearts of the plant are not covered
by the potting mix, however do not plant them high.

Spacing
 After potting the plant, place them into staggered positions pot to pot of about
10 pots/m2.
 The distance between the pots increase as the plant grows.

Water Requirements
 African violets should watered with warm water 18-240C otherwise yellow
spots will develop on the leaves.
 Water from the top for as long as possible so as to avoid salt build on the
upper most part of the pot.

Symptoms of over watering

 Presence of a yellowing heart or center of the plant.
 Once this is evident do not water for 10 days and apply only spot watering to
those plants which absolutely need water.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Liquid fertilizer depends on development of the crop and original fertilizer
inside the potting mix

Page 100 of 114

 General recommendations use 100% water soluble fertilizer with NPK of
14:12:14 without any urea at a rate of 100ppm every other time watering is
done.

Symptoms of over fertilizing

Failure to develop properly and symptoms include:-
 Small flowers deformed and pale in colour
 Small black spots may be detected on the underside of leaves

Pests and diseases

Diseases
Disease Symptom Control
Rhizoctonia Black rot around the base of the Benlate, Benomyl, Carbendazim
plant
Botrytis Greyish-green mould which Mancozeb, Pyrimethanil,
appears on the blooms and on Carbendazim, Benomyl
leaves which later rot
Phytophthora Brown rot develops on the plant’s Alliete, Benlate
base
Powdery Greyish-white powder like spots on Benomyl, Carbendazim, Sulphur,
mildew the blooms and on leaf surfaces Malathion

Pests
Pests Symptom Control
Thrips Presence of pollen on the blossoms Orthene, Dichlorovos, Endosulfan,
right under the anthers Disulfoton
Nematodes Light brown lumps on the roots and Drench the soil with metasytox
plant growth is stunted
Mites Very hairy, deformed and yellowish Kelthane, Thiodan, Avid
looking leaves in the centre

Market
 Export or local market as fresh potted flowers.

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 HERBS

CORIANDER
ROSEMARY
GINGER
GARLIC
LEMON GRASS
TUMERIC
MINT

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CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum)
Valgare

Climate and Soil Requirements

 Grow well in a wide range of climates from temperate to tropical.
 Require rich, light, well drained medium to heavy soils.

Planting
 Seed can be directly drilled 30-50cm inter-row and 10-15cm in-row or
broadcast at 15-25kg/ha in August to October with planting depth 25mm-
35mm to give a plant population of 220 000plants/ha

Weed Control
 Control perennial weeds with glyphosate prior to planting.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Organic manure at 10t/ha may be used. 30kg/ha nitrogen 25kg/ha
phosphorous and 16kg/ha potassium is recommended.
 Excessive nitrogen can lead to delayed and prolonged fruit ripening result in
reduced yield.

Diseases
Disease Symptoms Control/rate Comments
Fussarium Deep cultivation, Use seed dressing if problem is severe.
wilt removal of crop Infected plants should be removed and
residues and crop destroyed as soon as disease shows.
rotation.
Powdery Captan, Benomyl
mildew mancozeb
Stem rots Rotting of Destroy crop Where green manure is used, ensure that
stems residues, practice it is not an alternative host.
good crop rotation.
Use disease free
seed. Benomyl.

Harvesting and processing.

 Pick young coriander leaves continuously for green herbs 4-5 cuts per
season.
 Freeze fresh leaves or place stems in water and cover with plastic to retain
freshness.
 Harvest early or late in the day when dew is on the fruits to reduce shattering.
 Cut and pile crop in the field 3-5days to allow final fruit ripening.

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 Collect seed when brown but before they drop.
 If fruits are not promptly and thoroughly dried, heating through oxidation may
occur resulting in colour deterioration and flavour of the spice.
 Dry fruit after threshing to 9% moisture content.
 When fruits are of 18 % moisture content drying may be completed
artificially in temperatures of 40-450C.
 Whole dried fruits can be packed into sacks and stored in cool dry dark
conditions for over a year with minimum quality loss.
 Dried seed can also be stored infused to make coriander vinegar.

Yields
 7-10 tonnes/ha green herb.
 Fruits 1-2t/ha oil 1.5tof 0.8% oil gives 12kg oil.
 Small fruited coriander yields higher levels of oil and are better preferred in
markets for better quality.

Market
 Local or export market as fresh or dried herb or processed oil.

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ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis)

Climate Requirements
 Temperature required is above 210 C for growth and development.
 Prefers sunny, sheltered frost free environment.
 Require neutral to slightly alkaline soil of pH 6.5-7.
 Soil must be light and well drained.

Propagation
 Propagated by tips cuttings 120-150mm long taken from young shoots after
flowering.
 Layering is mostly used.
 Leaves are removed from lower half of shoot, base of stem dipped into
rooting powder and cuttings are buried 80-100mm in a sandy nursery bed
200mm between rows and within rows.
 Plants should be transplanted to the field at 4-6 months as bare root plants.
 Under rain fed conditions preparing cuttings and field planting is best carried
out during rainy season.
 Hardwood cuttings are taken between January to April and planted in
permanent positions.
 Seed is used but germination is erratic and require 210C.
 Seed is broadcast is August –October and thinned to 5cm, transplanted when
10cm tall, 15cm apart in December.
 Rows should be 85-150cm and 60-90cm between plants in row to give a plant
population of 20 000-30 000 plants per ha.
 No cuttings are taken in the first year so that plants establish well.
 Shoots are cut back to promote growth and prevent formation of long woody
stems.
 First harvest when plants are 18-24 months old.
 Cut mature shoots twice each year leaving them 10-15cm tall to reduce
formation of woody stems.
 Ridge up plants lightly after harvesting.

Fertiliser Requirements
 An average of 60kgN, 25kg P and 75kg K is required /ha /year.
 Phosphorous should be applied once and the rest should be split into 3 equal
parts.
 Planting year apply single dose of P the first K and N as a basal dressing and
incorporate into soil.
 An additional 50kg/ha Nitrogen can be applied during the first year to promote
vigorous growth and establishment.
 Band top dressing along rows.

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Pest and Diseases
 Control leaf eaters with Cabaryl and fungal diseases of the foliage using
Benomyl.

Harvesting and Processing

 One harvest is made per year.
 First harvest is done in second year after planting.
 For production of fresh or dried herb the crop is cut before flowering.
 Pick small amounts all year round cut just above the hard wood.
 Fresh Rosemary should be stored 0.5- 1.5 0 C and 95-98% relative humidity
prior to shipment.
 Cut and dry sprigs and branches.
 Strip off leaves before storing and crush leaves just before use to release the
aroma.

Yields.
 Fresh yield range between 8-12t/ha giving 2-2.5t/ha of dry herb

Market
 Local or export market as fresh or dried herb.

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GINGER Zingiber officinale)

Climatic and Soil Requirements.

 Does best in tropical climates where it is grown for sea level up to 1.500m.
 Ginger is not frosty hardy and low temperature induce dormancy.
 Rain fed production requires 1000-1200mm precipitation spread over 8
weeks.
 Optimum temperature of 18-27°C.
 Require fertile well drained soils.
 Best soils are medium sandy loam soils.
 Sensitive to water logging and to potash deficiency .
 pH should be 6.0 -6.5.

Propagation
 Propagated by portions of rhizomes known as sets or seed pieces.
 Sets should be 2.5cm long and 28-56g with at least one good bud.
 Rhizomes for planting material should be selected at harvest, dried off and
stored until next season.
 Damaged or diseased material should not be used for planting material.
 Surface of rhizomes should be dry before storing in a dry cool well ventilated
place.
 Sets can be pre germinated before planting by covering with a moist organic
mulch or layer of damp saw dust and sand (5cm deep).
 Seed rate 1.5-1.7t/ha.
 Sets are planted in ridged rows 30cm apart and spacing 15-30cm to give 111-
122 000 p/ha.
 Sets should be planted 5-10cm deep.
 Shoots will show in 10-15days and can extend to 4-8weeks.

Weed Control
 Ginger has an extended germination period that calls for early weed control.
 A thick surface mulch will minimise weed problems.
 Hand weeding can be done to control weeds at 20-30 height.
 A post planting herbicide simazine can be used.
 Glyphosate can be used before planting or for spot weed control but should
not get in contact with ginger.
 Intercropping with yams, pigeon peas or caster beans will give shade.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Requires high soil fertility 20-50t/ha well rotted farmyard manure or compost
applied before planting is beneficial.
 100-200kg/ha nitrogen and 65-100kg P recommended.
 Apply Phosphorous before planting, N and K top dressing should be applied
in bands along the ridges, but not touching the plants.

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Yield

Market
 Local market as fresh herb

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GARLIC

Soils and Climate Requirements

 Requires well drained soils with good tilth
 Soil pH range 5.5-6.0 (CaCl2).
 Crop is frost hardy.
 Optimum temperature is 12-16 0 C and the best planting is April to May.
 Bulbing occurs during longer days and higher temperatures and subsequent
exposure to lower temperature.

Seed Rate
 The seed rate is 900-1100 kg /ha.
 Propagated by segments of bulbs called cloves.
 Use biggest cloves to obtain vigorous high yielding plants.

Spacing and Planting

 Rows spacing is 20 cm.
 Place the cloves at 8-10 cm apart in the row
 Separate cloves carefully to avoid double cloves which give twin plants and
misshaped bulbs.
 Plant with the tip of clove just above ground level.

Fertilizer Requirements
 Basal dressing, Compound C at 350-500 kg /ha
 Top dress with 200-300 kg /ha AN per month after planting.
 Garlic also responds well to Organic Manure.

Water Requirements
 Never allow garlic to run short of moisture, water to field capacity .
 Water less frequently but increase the rate during bulb enlargement and
cease watering 1 month before harvesting.

Pets and Diseases

 See Onion production

Harvesting
 Crop matures 4-6 months after planting.
 Harvest in August to October when conditions are dry
 Lift bulbs and leave to cure on the ground for a week.

Yields
 8-12 tonnes /ha

Post Harvest

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 At higher temperatures of (26 –32 0C) garlic can be stored for 1 month.
 Intermediate temperatures (4.4 –18 0C) favours rapid sprouting and high
relative humidity cause moulding.
 At 00 C and 65 % relative humidity, garlic stores for 28-36 weeks.

Market
 Local or export market as fresh produce

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LEMON GRASS

Climatic Requirements
 Annual rainfall of 2000mm
 Temperature of 18-270C
 Grows best in moist sandy soils
 Ideal pH of 5.0

Propagation
 Propagated by root division
 Leaves of mature plants are cut back and the root of the plant is dug out and
divided

Planting and Spacing

 Divided roots are planted in 25cm deep holes.
 Roots are buried 10-15cm deep
 More than one root can be placed in each hole
 45x80cm or 50x50cm or 100x50cm can be used as spacing

Fertilizer Requirements
 Organic manure can be incorporated into the soil prior to planting at a rate of
15t/ha
 Nitrogen at 100kg/ha, Phosphorus at 45kg/ha and Potassium at 125kg/ha

Pests and Diseases

Disease Symptom Control
Rust Zineb
Eye-spot Bordeaux

Harvesting and processing

 Done 3-6 months after planting
 Harvesting continues for about 4 years

Yield
 15-20t/ha

Market
 Local of export market as fresh herb.

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TUMERIC

Climatic Requirements
 Rainfall over 1200mm
 Growing season of 7-9 months
 Annual temperatures of 20-270C
 pH range of 4.5-6.8
 Loamy, friable fertile soils provide the ideal soil structure for the crop

Land preparation
 Land should be prepared to a fine tilth
 Flat beds of ridges should be made before planting

Propagation
 Propagated by secondary rhizomes that have 1 or 2 buds
 Rhizomes for planting material should be selected at harvest and stored

Planting
 Sets should be planted 10-15cm deep
 Germination requires good level of soil moisture
 Shoots start to appear after 10-15 days
 Mulching is done to reduce weed infestation

Fertilizer Requirements
 100-200kg/ha Nitrogen, 65-100kg/ha Phosphorus and 80-165kg/ha Potasium
 Phosphorus and Potassium is applied as basal
 Nitrogen applied in 2 split in applications

Pests
Pests Symptoms Control
Thrips Sack sap from plant leaves Benomyl

Harvesting and Processing

 Matures 7-10 months after planting
 Lift clumps carefully without damaging rhizomes
 Remove roots and separate the rhizomes from the mother corms
 Tumeric is sun dried for 10-15 days depending on weather

Yield
 Fresh weight yields are 15-25t/ha

Market
 Local or export market as fresh herb

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MINT

Climatic Requirements
 Altitude over 100m.
 Cannot withstand drought conditions
 Require range of soils from heavy clays to sands
 Ideal pH ranges from 6.0-7.0

Propagation
 Done by division of mature stolons or cuttings
 Cuttings prepared in nursery beds and transplanted into the field when
established
 Stolons are directly planted into the field

Land Preparation
 Fine tilth and weed free area.

Planting
 Spacing of 30cm between rows and 15cm between plants within the rows
 Plant on raised beds
 Containers are especially recommended as this will help keep them off from
spreading all over the garden

Fertilizer requirements
 30-40t/ha of manure
 Basal dressing of 50kg/ha Nitrogen, 60kg/ha Phosphorus and 50kg/ha
Potassium followed by top dressing of 35kg/ha Nitrogen

Pests and Diseases

Diseases Symptoms Control
Mint rust Yellow or brown pustules on stems Sulphur dust, Bordeaux
and leaves and petioles mixture
Powdery Whitish powdery growth which Carbendazim, Benomyl
mildew begins on the under surface of the
leaves

Harvesting and Processing

 Harvest 6-8 weeks after planting before flowering commences
 Shoots 4-6 in length are cut with a sharp knife

Yield??

Market

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 Local as fresh herb.

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