Human Reproduction

MHT-CET Hints
Reproduction:

“The process in which new individuals are produced from the parents is called
reproduction” OR it may be defined as “The process of formation of life from pre-existing life is called
reproduction.”

Importance of Reproduction:

i. It is one of the most essential characteristics of living organism.

ii. It keeps the population of species alive forever.
iii. Important for continuation of life and compensation for loss of life due to death.

Types of Reproduction:

REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
A. Asexual Reproduction

i. The reproduction in which new individuals are produced from parent without formation and fusion of
gametes is called asexual reproduction.
ii. It occurs in only one parent.
iii. There is absence of fusion of gametes.

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iv. Offspring’s are genetically similar to there parents and do not show variations.
v. It is fastest method of multiplication.
vi. Examples: hydra, sponges, protists, amoeba, planarian etc

* Modes of Asexual Reproduction *

a. Gemmule formation

i. Gemmule formation take place by aggregation of archeocytes

ii. Layer of amoebocytes secrete hard ,chitinous layer around this archeocytes.
iii. Gemmule is the formation of internal bud to overcome unfavourable conditions.
iv. On arrival of favourable conditions gemmule hatches and develop into new individuals.
v. eg: Spongilla, Ephydatia,

Fig: Gemmule formation.

b. Budding

i. New individual is produced from small projection or outgrowth of the parent body called as bud and
process is known as budding.
ii. after complete development bud get detach form parent body.
iii. eg: Hydra

Fig : Budding in Hydra.

C. Regeneration

i. Regeneration is the ability of organism to replace or redevelop the lost part of body.
ii. The anterior part exerts a pull over the posterior part which holds on.
iii. due to this middle part get break and developed into two new organism.
iv. anterior part will regenerates posterior part and posterior part will regenerates anterior.
v. The wall lizards replace there tail by same mechanism.
vi. eg: planarian

B. Sexual Reproduction.

i. The reproduction in which new individuals are produced from parent by formation and fusion of
gametes is called sexual reproduction.
ii. It occurs in two parents.
iii. It involves formation of gametes and fertilization.
iv. It is slowest method of multiplication (reproduction).

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 *Human Male Reproductive System*

Male reproductive system consist of,

A. External genital organs B. Internal genital organs C. Accessory sex glands.

Fig : Human Male Reproductive System.

A. External genital organs

a. Scrotum:

i. It is pouch like structure arising from lower abdominal wall.

ii. Wall of scrotum is made up of smooth muscles called as dartos tunic muscles.
iii. It is divided into two compartment and single testis is present in each compartment.
iv. Each testis is well supported by spermatic ducts and thick gubernaculum.
v. Each compartment consist of testis, epididymis and testicular end of spermatic end.
vi. It contracts during cold temperature and relaxes during warm temperature.

Functions

i. It maintains temperature of testis 2-3oc less than that of body.

ii. Low temperature is needed for production and maturation of sperms.

b. Penis:

i. It is cylindrical, erectile, spongy and pendulous structure present in front of scrotum.

ii. It is made up of two parts i:e base and body.
iii. Body of penis consist of three erectile tissues (2-corpora cavernosa & 1-corpora spongiosum)
iv. Urethra passes from corpora spongiosum hence called spongial urethra.
v. Near the tip of penis corpora spongiosum become enlarged and forms soft and sensitive part called as
glans penis
vi. Glans penis is covered by loose fold of skin called as prepuce or foreskin.

Functions

i. It functions as copulatory organ

ii. Discharge of urine out of body by urination
iii. Discharge of semen during copulation

B. Internal genital organs

a. Testes

i. Testes are soft, smooth, pinkish and oval organs.

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 ii. Tetes measures about 4.5cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 cm thick.
iii. Testes are located outside the abdomen in scrotum i:e extra abdominal position.
iv. Testes are well supported by thick gubernaculum and spermatic ducts.
v. Failure of testis to descend from abdomen into scrotum leads called as Cryptorchidism.

Functions

i. Germ cells of testes produce sperms by the process of spermatogenesis.

ii. Production of testosterone which is the secretion of interstitial cells or cells of Leydig.
iii. Sertoli cells give nourishment to the sperms till maturation.

b. The duct systems

There are five types of ducts such as;

1. Vasa efferentia:

i. There are 15-20 fine convoluted ductules arise from the rete testis and join to epididymis to form vasa
efferentia.

Function

It carries sperms from rete testis to epididymis.

2. Epididymis:

i. These are “c” shaped structure lying along posterior border of each testis.
ii. These are about 6 meters in length and are highly coiled ducts.
iii. It is divided into 3 parts
iv. Upper (anterior head) or caput epididymis which receives sperms
v. Middle body or corpora epididymis which stores and nourishes sperms.
vi. Lower (posterior tail) or cauda epididymis joins to vas deferens.

Functions

i. It receives ,stores, nourishes the sperms.

ii. Secretion of small portion of semen about 10%.
iii. The sperms undergo physiological maturation, possessing higher motility, and more fertilizing capacity
in the head of epididymis.

3. Vas deferens:

i. It is paired, tubular structures arising from cauda epididymis.

ii. It is long duct about 40 cm long and runs through inguinal canal into abdominal cavity.

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 Function

i. It carries sperms from epididymis to ejaculatory ducts.

4. Ejaculatory duct:

i. It is formed by joining vas deferens to the ducts of seminal vesicle.

ii. these are a pair of ducts each about 2 cm long.

Function

i. It ejects seminal fluid and spermatozoa to the urethra.

5. Urethra or Urinogenital ducts.

i. It is long ducts passes through penis and opens at its tip

ii. It also receives ducts from prostate and Cowper’s glands.
iii. It consist of three parts,
iv. First part surrounded by prostate gland known as prostatic urethra & carries urine only..
v. v. Second part is membranous urethra present in between end of prostate gland and root of penis &
carries both semen and urine
vi. Third part is penile urethra which is situated in the penis (It carries both semen and urine)

Function

i.It carries both semen and urine.

C. Accesory sex glands

a. Seminal Vesicles

i. Seminal vesicles are two small fibro-muscular pouches present on posterior sides of urinary bladder.
ii. Seminal duct joins with vas deference to form ejaculatory duct.
iii. It secrete a viscous fluid (seminal fluid) which forms 60% of the total volume of semen.
iv. This fluid contains fructose, fibrinogen and prostaglandins etc.

Functions

i. Secretion of seminal fluid.

ii. It keeps sperms active, alive and healthy.
iii. Fructose provides energy to sperms for swimming.
iv. Prostaglandins stimulates contractions in the female reproductive tract for better fertilization,

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 v. Fibrinogen coagulates the semen after ejaculation.

b. Prostate gland

i. Many small ductules of glands open into urethra.

ii. It is single, large, muscular gland, containing 20-30 separate lobes which opens into urethra.

Functions

i. Secretion of whitish colored fluid (Prostatic fluid) forming 30% of total volume of semen.
ii. Alkaline nature of this fluid neutralizes acidity in urethra and vagina of female.
iii. Prostatic fluid contains phosphates, citric acid which increases fertility & motility of sperms.

c. Cowper’s glands

i. These glands are also known as bulbourethral glands.

ii. These are small, tiny, paired, pea sized glands situated on either side of urethra.

Functions

i. Secretion of alkaline viscous fluid.

ii. It neutralizes acid that may be present in the penile urethra due to previous urination.

iii. It also lubricates vagina of female genital tract for easy passage of semen during copulation.

*T.S of Testis (Histology of Testis)*

i. Histologically testis shows presence of three layers

ii. Outer tunica vaginalis, middle tunica albuginea and inner tunica vasculosa.
iii. Middle tunica albuginea contains 200-300 compartments or lobules.
iv. Each compartment contains about 1-4 seminiferous tubules(SFT)
v. SFT’s are internally lined by cuboidal germinal epithelium.
vi. Large pyramidal cells present interrupted between germinal epithelium are Sertoli cells.
vii. Between SFT’s are present a few groups of cells called interstitial cells or Leydig cells.

Functions

i. Germ cells of testes produce sperms by the process of spermatogenesis.

ii. Production of testosterone which is the secretion of interstitial cells or cells of Leydig.
iii. Sertoli cells give nourishment to the sperms till maturation.
iv. Testosterone controls development of secondary sexual characters.

Key points

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 Fructose:

It is present in seminal fluid & not produced elsewhere in body so presence of fructose in female genital
tract after rape, provides a vital proof to forensic experts for the investigation of rape cases.

Artificial insemination:

It is the artificial introduction of semen inside the vagina, to make female pregnant.

Semen:

It is ejaculated mainly during sexual intercourse (coitus). It contains secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate
glands, and Cowper’s glands along with spermatozoa. around 3-4 ml of semen is generally ejaculated
during coitus which contains 300 millions sperms.

*Human Female Reproductive System*

Female reproductive system consist of,

A. External genital organs B. Internal genital organs C. Accessory sex glands.

A. External genital organs

1. Labia Majora

i. It is outer, large, fleshy, double lip like structure.

ii. they are homologous to scrotum in males.

iii. they are composed of skin, fibrous tissue and fat.

2. Labia Minora

i. It is inner, small, fleshy, double lip like structure.

3. Mons Pubis

i. it is fleshy elevation above the labia majora.

4. Clitoris

i. It is small erectile organ present at anterior end of the labia minora.

ii. It is sensitive organ and major site for stimulation during copulation.
iii. It is homologous to penis of males.

5. Vestibule

i. It is narrow space between labia minora enclosing vagina & urethral opening.

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 6. Hymen

i. It is a thin layer of mucous membrane which partially occludes the opening of vagina

7. Vestibular glands (Bartholin’s glands)

i. i . These are pair of vestibular glands occure on each side of vaginal opening.
ii. It is homologous to Cowper’s gland of males.
iii. They secrets a lubricating fluid.

8. Breasts

i. These are pair of rounded structure present ventrally on thorax.

ii. It has erectile nipple in the middle.

iii. It has 15-20 openings of lactiferous ducts which carries milk from mammary glands.

iv. Release of milk from breasts is under the control of prolactin and oxytocin hormones.

B. Internal genital organs

1. Ovaries

i. Ovaries are primary essential female reproductive organs.

ii. They are almond shaped bodies each measuring about 3 cm long, 1.5cm wide & 1cm thick.
iii. Ovaries lie in the lower part of the abdomen.
iv. Ovary is connected to uterus by ovarian ligament & to lateral body by suspensory ligaments.

Functions

i. Germ cells of ovaries produce ova by the process of oogenesis.

ii. Ovary secretes female sex hormone estrogen & progesterone.
iii. Iii. These two hormones control menstrual cycle and secondary sexual characters.

2. Oviducts (Fallopian tube or uterine tube)

i. It is paired duct lies between ovary and uterus.

ii. It is narrow slender tube measures about 10 to 12 cm in length.
iii. It is internally lined by ciliated epithelium and divided into three parts

a. Infundibulum

i. It is free end of oviduct and look like funnel shaped.

ii. Margin of funnel show finger like projections called fimbriae which collects ova.

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 iii. It shows presence of an opening called ostium.

b. Ampulla

i. It is middle, wider and longest part of oviducts.

ii. It is the site for fertilization.

c. Isthmus (Cornua)

i. It is short, narrow thick walled part of oviducts which opens into the uterus.

Functions

i. It collects ova and carries it up to site of fertilization.

ii. maturation and fertilization of ovum take place.

3. Uterus (Womb)

i. It is hollow, pear shaped thick walled muscular bag like structure.

ii. It is about 8cm long, 5cm wide, and 2cm thick.
iii. It is divided into three parts
iv. a. dome shaped fundus b. broad upper part body or corpus c. narrow cylindrical part cervix
v. Wall uterus is made up of 3 layers
vi. a.Outer thin perimetrium b. Middle thick muscular myometrium
c. Inner highly vascular and glandular endometrium.

Functions

i. Acts as a pathway for sperm passage.

ii. It receives the ovum from fallopian tube.
iii. It forms placenta for the development of the foetus.
iv. It expels the young one at birth.
v. site for menstruation, implantation of fertilized eggs.

4. Vagina

i. It is narrow, elastic, highly distensible fibro-muscular canal.

ii. It is about 7.5 – 10cm in length.
iii. It opens into the vestibule of vulva
iv. In virgin female vaginal opening is covered by thin membrane called hymen.

Functions

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 i. Acts as copulatory passage as it receives penis during sexual intercourse.
ii. It allow passage of menstrual flow
iii. It serves as the birth canal during parturition.

C. Accessory sex glands

a. Bartholin’s glands (Vestibular glands)

i. a pair of smaller glands present on either sides of vaginal orifice in vestibule.

ii. It is homologous to Cowper’s glands of male.

Function

i. It secrets mucous which lubricates vaginal passage at the time of mating and parturition.

b. Mammary glands (Breast glands)

i. Muscular convex glands presents on ventral thoracic wall.

ii. this gland grows during puberty and functional after child birth.

Function

i. It secrets milk which is food material of infants.

* T.S of Ovary (Histology)*

i. Externally ovary is covered by fibrous connective tissue called tunica albuginea.

ii. Ovary shows outer cortex and inner medulla region.
iii. Medulla is made up of loose connective tissue called stroma.
iv. iv Stroma contains blood vessels and nerves.
v. Cortex is internally lined by germ cells which produces Graafian follicles.
vi. The developing follicles pass through the stages primary follicles, secondary follicles, maturing
follicles, and Graafian follicles.

* Structure of mature Graafian follicles*

i. Mature Graafian follicle is multi-layered.

ii. It is externally covered by two layers i:e outer theca externa and inner theca interna
iii. The follicle contains space, called antrum.
iv. Antrum is filled by fluid called as liquor folliculi.
v. Externally antrum lined by membrane granulose and internally by cumulus oophorus.
vi. antrum contains oocytes or ovum at one side.
vii. The ovum is surrounded by vitelline membrane surrounded by non cellular zona pellucida.
viii. The zona pellucida is surrounded by corona radiata

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ix. The stalk of ovum is called as germ hill.

Fig : T.S of Ovary.

*Menstrual Cycle / Female Reproductive Cycle / Ovarian Cycle*

“The cyclic changes in the structure of endometrium, ovary and hormonal secretions for fertilization and
pregnancy is called menstrual cycle or reoroductive cycle”

i. It is the characteristics of primates(monkeys, apes and humans).

ii. It starts at the time of puberty and the periode is called menarche.
iii. The duration of menstrual cycle is 28 days.
iv. It continued upto age of 45-50 yrs & stops after that such condition is called as menopause.
v. It is absent during pregnancy.

Menstrual cycle includes four phases

1. Menstrual Phase/ Bleeding Phase/ Post Luteal Phase/ Prefollicular Phase:

i. It starts from first day of menstrual cycle & continues upto 3-5 days.
ii. It occurs in absence of fertilization.
iii. High levels of progesterone inhibits secretion of LH hormone and thus decreases level of progesterone
from corpus luteum.
iv. As a result endometrium breaks due to rupture of blood vessels which leads to bleeding.
v. Bleeding contains cell debris, blood, unfertilized ovum, mucus, uterine tissues (called menses)
vi. Endometrium becomes thin about 0.5 to 1 mm.

2. Proliferative Phase / Follicular Phase:

i. it starts from 6th day and lasts upto 13th day of cycle.
ii. the cells of Graafian follicle secretes estrogen
iii. by the action of estrogen the repairing of endometrium starts and it becomes 2-3 mm thick
iv. the glands of endometrium become long and much vascular
v. in ovary Graafian follicle is formed , the formation takes place by action of FSH.

3. Ovulatory Phase or Ovulation Phase:

i. It is called as post follicular or pre-Luteal phase

ii. It occurs in 14th day of menstrual cycle and duration is only one day.
iii. The largest graffian follicle comes or surface and egg is discharged from ovary is called as ovulation.
iv. The empty graffian follicle is become endocrine structure called corpus luteum.
v. The ovulation and formation of corpus luteum takes place by pituitary hormone LH.

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vi. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone or pregnancy hormone which maintains vascularized thick
wall of endometrium & waiting for fertilized egg.
vii. The progesterone inhibit the action of FSH hence other eggs are not formed during menstrual cycle or
pregnancy.

4. Secretory Phase or Luteal Phase:

i. It is also called as post ovulatory phase or premenstrual phase.

ii. It starts from 15th day and last up to 28th day of menstrual cycle.
iii. In this phase, endometrium becomes thick, glandular and vascularized to form cushion which is ready
for implantation.
iv. This occur due to action of progesterone and estrogen.
v. If the ovum remain unfertilized then this phase is followed by bleeding phase of next menstrual cycle.
vi. If the ovum is fertilized then implantation of zygote take place and normal growth of foetus start.

Gametogenesis: (Production of gametes).

1. It is the process of formation gametes in sexually reproducing animals.

2. Cells of animal are of two types Somatic cells and germinal cells
3. Somatic cells are responsible for Formation of organs of body by mitosis
4. Germinal cells are responsible for formation of gametes by mitosis & meiosis.
5. The process of formation of male gamete i.e, spermatozoa is called spermatogenesis.
6. The process of formation of female gamete i.e, ovum is called oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis:

1. It takes place in male gonads called testis.

2. The cells of germinal epithelium undergo spermatogenesis to produce sperms.
3. Germinal cells in tests are known as primary germinal cells or primordial germ cells.
4. Primordial cell pass through three phases.
a. Multiplication phase
b. Growth phase
c. Maturation phase.
a. Multiplication phase:
1. Primordial cells undergo repeated mitotic divisions to produce large number of spermatogonia.
2. Each spermatogonium is diploid. (2n)
b. The growth phase:
1. Spermatogonium cells accumulate food and grow in size.
2. Now it is called primary spermatocyte.
c. Maturation phase:
1. The primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiotic or maturation division.

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 2. The homologous chromosomes start pairing.
3. Each homologous chromosome splits longitudinally
4. Chiasma formation results in exchange of genetic material
5. At the end of 1 meiotic division, two haploid, secondary spermatocyte are formed.
6. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes 2nd meiotic division and produces spermatids.
7. Spermatids is non motile so it has to undergo spermiogensis to become functional, motile male
gamete i.e., spermatozoan.

Structure of the sperm (spermatozoan)

1. Sperms are microscopic, male gametes produce in large quantity in SFT by process called as
spermatogenesis.
2. Each sperm is unicellular, uninucleate, haploid, motile, elongated, active, measure about 0.055mm
(60µ) in length.
3. Sperm is structurally divides into four parts. Such as head, neck, middle piece & tail.
a. Head:
1. It is large, oval structure which contains nucleus and large amount of DNA.
2. Head is capped by acrosome.
3. Acrosome secrete hydrolytic enzyme called as hyaluronidase.
4. It helps the sperm to penetrate egg during fertilization.
b. Neck:
1. It is a very short narrow part which joins the head with middle piece.
2. It contains proximal and distal centriole.
3. The axial filament starts from distal centriole.
c. Middle piece:
1. It is short, thicker than neck
2. It contains spirally arranged mitochondria around the central axial filament
3. It provide energy for metabolism and movement of sperm.
d. Tail:
1. Tail is a long, slender and tapering structure formed of cytoplasm
2. A fine thread, the axial filament arises from the distal centriole and transverses the middle
piece and tail.
3.

Oogenesis :

1. The process of oogenesis occurs in female gonad called ovary.

2. Oogenesis is also completed in three phases.
a. Multiplication phase:
1. Germinal cells undergo mitosis to from large number of oogonia.

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 2. Oogonia in human beings are formed in ovary of female baby even before her birth.
b. Phase of growth:
1. Just before puberty, under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone, one of the oogonium
growth in size.
2. Growth in size of oogonium is larger than that seen in spermatogenesis.
3. This grown up cells is called primary oocytes.
c. Maturation phase:
1. Primary oocytes undergo maturation or meiotic division.
2. Meiotic I division of primary oocytes shows equal nuclear but unequal cytoplasmic division.
3. So at the end of meiosis I division, large sized haploid secondary oocyte and haploid small
sized polar body are formed.
4. Unequal division is meant for sufficient supply of food for developing embryo.
5. Secondary oocyte and polar bodies undergo II meiotic division
6. II meiotic division is arrested at metaphase stage and secondary oocyte is released from ovary.
7. Remaining part of division is completed at the time of fertilization
8. This division is also unequal by which and functional female gamete is formed
9. This ovum is ready for fertilization.

Structure of Ovum: (Secondary Oocyte).

1. Ovum or female gamete is larger and produced in ovary by the process oogenesis.
2. Each ovum is unicellular, uninucleate, haploid, non-motile, spherical, passive and measures about
100µ in diameter.
3. Each ovum consists of distinct nucleus surrounded by dense, ooplasm, ordered by thin transparent
vitelline membrane.
4. Cytoplasm contains little yolk for initial development of embryo hence human egg is called
microlecithal.
5. The vitelline membrane is protected by two layers, an inner layer is called zona pellucida and an outer
is corona radiata.
6. The space between vitelline membrane and zona pellucida is called peri-vitelline space which contains
1st polar body.
7. Zona pellucida is thin, non-cellular, transparent layer and corona radiate is thick, cellular layer of
radially elongated follicular cells.
8. The portion of ovum towards nucleus is known as animal half and opposite portion is called vegetal
half.

Fertilization:

1. Fertilization is the process during which fusion of a haploid male gamete (spermatozoan) and a haploid
(ovum) takes place so as to form diploid zygote.

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2. Fertilization is human being is internal.
3. It takes place usually in the ampulla of the fallopian tube of woman.

Events of fertilization:

1. The discharge of semen in vagina during copulation is called insemination.

2. The secondary oocyte released from the mature Graafian Follicle during ovulation is received by
fallopian tube.
3. Secondary oocytes (egg) gets fertilized within 6 hours of fertilization.
4. The oocyte secrets a glycoprotein called fertilizin.
5. Surface of sperm head produces antifertilizin.
6. Adhesion of sperm with surface of the oocyte is due to fertilizin anti-fertilizin reaction.
7. Hyaluronidase enzyme of acrosome hydrolyses the Hyaluronic acid of follicular cells.
8. Zona lysine or acrosin digests zona pellucid. Now the sperm reaches plasma membrane of oocyte.

Amphimixis (karyogamy)

1. The head with centriole enters into egg towards animal half of ovum
2. The middle piece and tail are left behind.
3. The path travelled by sperm head to enter into egg is called as penetration path
4. The mature nucleus rotates at 1800 angle and travel towards egg nucleus this path is called as
copulation path.
5. Nucleus of secondary oocyte becomes female pronucleus.
6. Now the sperm nucleus is called male pronucleus.
7. Mixing of chromosomes of male and female pronucleus take place. It is called Amphimixis or
karyogamy.
8. The ovum is now diploid and termed as zygote. (zygon = yolked together).

Significance of fertilization:

1. After completion of meiosis II secondary Oocyte concludes the process of oogenesis

2. Fertilization restores diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote.
3. It combines the characters of two parents. This leads to variation and has significance in evolution.
4. It determines the sex of young one.
5. Fertilization introduces centriole which are missing in the ovum.

Embryonic development up to three germinal layers: (Cleavage)

1. Development of zygote up to child birth is called embryonic development.

2. The development passes through the stage like cleavage, blastulation, implantation, gastrulation and
organogenesis.
3. Zygote → cleavage → Morula → blastulation→Blastula→gastrulation→Gastrula

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Steps on embryonic development:

Cleavage:

1. The unicellular zygote undergoes mitotic division to form Multicellular solid ball like structure is
called cleavage.
2. The cleavage is division of zygote
3. It is hollow or complete

First cleavage:

1. It takes place in upper part of fallopian tube within 30 hours after two fertilization.
2. It is vertical in which two unequal cells (blastomere) are formed
3. The larger cell is called as megamere and minor cell is called micromere.

Second cleavage:

1. It take place 60 hours after fertilization

2. The megamere divide to form two cells and later on micromere divide to form two cells
3. The second cleavage is right angled to first cleavage

Third cleavage:

1. Third cleavage results in formation of 8 cells.

2. Now young embryo of this stage slowly moves towards uterus.

Morula:

1. Further cleavage result in 16 cells which is called as Morula.

2. Morula is enclosed by zona- pellucida
3. Morula consists of two types of cells, Macromere at periphery & micromere at centre.
4. Morula reaches to uterus after 4-6 days of fertilization.

Blastulation:

1. The formation of hollow fluid filled ball like structure of embryo is called blastulation.
2. The Morula is converted into next stage called blastula.
3. It is completed after 5-6 days of fertilization.
4. Morula absorbs uterine fluid & increase in sized by rearrangement of cells.
5. The outer cells become flat to form thin layer called trophoblast.
6. Inner cells are arranged on one side of trophoblast.
7. Now, blastula contains a cavity called blastocoel which is filled by uterine fluid.
8. The embryo at this stage is known as blastula or blastocyst.

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Implantation:

1. The process of attachment and sinking of embryo into endometrium of uterus is called implantation.
2. This process is completed after 6 to 7 days of fertilization
3. Prior to implantation zona pellucida completely degenerated.
4. The cells of trophoblast secrete an enzyme which form hole in endometrium.
5. The blastocyst is implanted into this hole.
6. Implantation takes place usually at posterior wall of uterus.
7. The blastocyst absorbs nutrients from gland and blood capillaries of endometrium through trophoblast
for its growth and development
8. After implantation pregnancy starts.

Gastrulation:

1. The gastrulation is defined as dynamic process of rearrangement and reorganization of embryonic cells
to form three primary germ layer.
2. It is the process of formation of blastula into 3 germ layered gastrula.
3. The three germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
4. It is completed after 14th day of fertilization
5. In human, gastrulation is very quick process hence it is difficult to determine the exact sequence of
events.
a. Formation of endoderm:
1. The formation if endoderm is first step.
2. It is first layer formed during gastrulation
3. Some cells of the inner cell mass towards blastocoels get detached by the process delamination.
4. The separated cells are flat, distinct and polyhedral and called endodermal cells.
5. These cells divide and increase rapidly and get arranged in inner surface of trophoblast to form
complete layer.
6. This germ layer is called endoderm
7. The endoderm encloses a cavity called as yolk sac.
b. Formation of embryonic disc:
1. After formation of endoderm remaining inner mass of cells get consolidated by regular arrangement of
cells.
2. This is called embryonic disc.
c. Formation of ectoderm:
1. It is the second germ layer formed during gastrulation.

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2. The cells of embryonic disc towards trophoblast detach to form small space.
3. These cells divide and increase rapidly and spread upward to form continuous layer.
4. It encloses cavity called amniotic cavity which is filled by amniotic fluid.
d. Formation of primitive streak:
1. Some of the cells of ectoderm bulge into amniotic cavity is called primitive streak.

e. Formation of mesoderm:
1. The cells of embryonic disc at caudal margin begin to multiply and proliferate.
2. The newly formed cells are called mesodermal cells.
3. This cell layer is called mesoderm which multiplies and arrange in two continuous inner and outer
lines.
4. The inner line around both amniotic cavity and yolk sac is called splanchnic mesoderm
5. The outer line on inner side of trophoblast is known as somatic mesoderm.
6. The cavity enclosed by mesodermal cells is called extra embryonic coelom.

Fate of three germ layers:

1. After gastrulation three germ layers give rise to different organs and organ system by the process of
organogenesis.
2. These organs are listed below.

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epidermis, hairs, conjunctiva
Muscles, connective, tissue Midgut, bladder, lung, liver
lens,
Retina internal ear, forgut Dermis of skin, bones & Pancreas, thyroid, parathyroid
Hindgut, CNS, Cartilage, coelom, circulatory Thymus, anterior pituitary
System (heart, blood vessels,
Middle & posterior pituitary, Primary germ cell etc.
blood
Adrenal medulla etc. Lymphatic system), kidney,
Uterus, gonads, adrenal cortex
etc.

Birth control:

1. These methods are of 2 main type’s i.e temporary and permanent.

A. Temporary methods:

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 a. Safe period (rhythm method)
1. A week before and a week after menstrual bleeding is considered the safe period for sexual
intercourse.
2. The idea is based on following facts-
a) Ovulation occurs on the 14th day of menstrual cycle
b) Ovum survives for about 2 days
c) Sperms remain alive for about 3 days
3. This method may reduce the chances of pregnancy by about 80%
4. It has certain drawbacks also.
b. Coitus interrupts:
1. This is the oldest method of birth control.
2. It involves withdrawal of the penis by the male before ejaculation
3. Semen is not deposited in the vagina and there is no fertilization.
4. Drawbacks:- before final ejaculation male produces some pre- ejaculating fluid. This fluid may
cause fertilization.
c. Chemical means: (spermicides)
1. Foam, tablets, jellies, pastes and creams, if introduced into the vagina before sexual intercourse,
adhere to the mucous membrane and immobilize and kill the sperms.
d. Mechanical means:
There are of 3 types:
i. Condom is a rubber sheath to cover the erect penis “Nirodh”.
1. It is widely used contraceptive by males in India as it is cheap and easily available.
2. It is given free by government.
3. It checks pregnancy by preventing deposition of semen in the vagina.
4. Condom should be used regularly and put on before starting coital activity.
5. Condom should be discarded after a single use.

ii. Diaphragm and cervical Cap rubber plastic covers that are filled on the cervix in the female’s
vagina.

1. It check the entry of sperms into the uterus

2. These must be kept fitted for at least six hours after sexual intercourse

iii. Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD).

1. Plastic or metal objects placed in the uterus by a doctor.

2. These include loop, copper 7, spiral, ring, bowl. Shield etc.
3. They prevent the fertilization of egg or implantation of embryo.
4. Their presence perhaps acts as a minor irritant and this makes the egg to move down the fallopian tube
and uterus rather quickly before fertilization or implantation.

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 e. Physiological (Oral) Devices:

e.g. : Birth Control Pills:

1. By inhibiting the secretion of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) that
are necessary for ovulation.
2. No eggs are released in a woman on taking the pill conception cannot occur.
3. The birth control pills have side effects such as nausea, breast, tenderness, weight gain and break
through bleeding.

f. Other Contraceptives:
1. Certain contraceptives are implanted under the skin of the upper arm.
2. They prevent pregnancy for 3 to 4 years.

B. Permanent methods:
1. Surgical methods called sterilization are generally advised for males and females.
2. Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and prevent pregnancy.
3. Sterilization procedure in males is called vasectomy and in female is called tubectomy

Sexually Transmitted Disease: (STD)

1. These are also called as veneral diseases (VD)

2. Major veneral diseases are syphilis and gonorrhoea.
A. Syphilis:
1. It is cause by Treponema pallidum.
2. It affects mucous membrane in genital, rectal and oral regions.
3. The primary lesion develops into secondary and then into tertiary.
4. Incubation period is about 3-4 weeks.
5. The mothers may transmit the disease to the new- born babies.

Control measures:

1. Prompt treatment of discovered cases.

2. Finding sources of infection and treating them
3. Sex hygiene.
4. Avoiding multiple sexual partners.
5. Prophylaxis e.g. condom at the time of exposure and penicillin after exposure.

B. Gonorrhoea:
1. Gonorrhoea is caused by a Diplococcus bacterium, Neisseria gononrrhoea

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2. The victim feels burning sensation and pain during urination.
3. They may be pus from the penis and excessive secretion of vagina.
4. The disease causes inflammation of the mucous membrane of urinogenital tract, rectum, throat and
eye.
5. It spreads by sexual contact and through infected clothes.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP):

1. Internal or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of
pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion.
2. MTP is essential in cases of unwanted pregnancies or in defective development of foetus.
3. MTP is safe only till fourth month of pregnancy.
4. It is illegal to perform MTP for unborn female foetus.

Amniocentesis:

1. The amniotic fluid contains foetal cells.

2. These cells are the basis of pre-natal tests called amniocentesis.
3. For checking the chromosomal defects in foetus, amniocentesis is carried out.
4. For this purpose, the fluid is drawn out with a hypodermic needle and examined.

In Vitro Fertilization : (IVF):

1. It is the fertilization outside the body followed by embryo transfer.

2. In this ova of female and sperms of male are collected and fertilization is induced to form zygote.
3. It is commonly called test tube baby.
4. Zygote or early embryo is transferred into fallopian tube. (Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer -ZIFT)
5. Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into fallopian tube. (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer-
GIFT) of another female who can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development.

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Quick Revision Notes By Digambar Mali [email protected]

Quick Revision Notes By Digambar Mali [email protected]