Section 39 (Population and Development)

Title: Rapid Population Growth and Development in Ghana

Author: Eric Adjei Boadu

Population Impact Project

Department f Geography & Resource Development
P. O. Box 59
University of Ghana
Legon-Accra
Ghana

Tel: 00 233 21 500796

Fax: 233 21 500310
E-mail: Ericca98@[Link]

Ghana’s Demographic and Health Surveys 1988 and 1993, and Ghana’s 1984
Population Census report were used to examine the effect of rapid population
growth on 4 key sectors in Ghana. The population issue in Ghana concerns the
high rate of growth and not the number of people. The rapidly increasing
expenditure on education is associated with sharp increases in the proportion of
eligible children attending school. Repeated pregnancies and births affect health
conditions of child and mother while more people produce more waste causing
additional stress on earth’s assimilative capacity. Three population projections
were prepared using the Spectrum Computer Package from 1990-2020, each
based on high, medium and low fertility and mortality assumptions as enumerated
in Ghana’s National Population Policy. If fertility declines as assumed in the low
fertility assumption, the population of Ghana will be 30.7 million by the year
2020, with the medium assumption, total population will be 33.6 million.
However, with the high assumption, Ghana’s population will reach 35.2 million
by 2020. These three population projections were subsequently employed to
highlight the impact of population on Ghana’s Economic, Education, Health, and
Environment sectors.

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RAPID POPULATION GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

ERIC ADJEI BOADU

1 INTRODUCTION

There is a growing consensus in Ghana that while rapid population

growth may not prevent economic growth, economic improvements will occur
more rapidly without this obstacle. A slower rate of population growth will ensure
that more people will have better access to health care and social amenities
(Population Impact Project, 1994).

It must be emphasized that the population issue in Ghana concerns the

high growth rate of about 2.9% and not the number of people. In terms of absolute
numbers, Ghana cannot be considered as over populated. The United Kingdom
for example with about the same land area as Ghana (UK is 93,283 sq. miles and
Ghana 87,853 sq. miles) has more than three times Ghana’s population (UK 59.1
million, Ghana 18.9 million, World Population Data Sheet 1998).

In Ghana, the warning that rapid population growth could be an

obstacle to development was not taken seriously by the previous governments.
There was large influx of foreign nationals, particularly those from sister African
countries. This was confirmed in the 1960 population census in which 12.3% of
the population was estimated to be foreigners. This situation persisted until 1969
when the issues of population was recognised as a critical factor in development
by the intellectuals as well as the political leaders of this country. Ghana then
became the third country in Sub-Saharan Africa to come out with a
comprehensive population policy in 1969 after Mauritius (1958) and Kenya
(1967). The policy was meant to affect the growth, structure or distribution of the
country’s growing population.

Rapid Population growth means higher dependency burden which forces

the young population to work to supplement the family income. It also creates
social pressures on the government to spend more on the welfare of the people in
order to maintain a minimum standard of living.

Education occupies a highly important place in most plans for socio-

economic development. In Ghana, the sector is important as a supplier of the
trained manpower that is a prerequisite for the accomplishment of other
development goals. The rapidly increasing expenditure on education has been
associated with sharp increases in the proportion of eligible children attending
school. Upgrading the country’s human resources through education can therefore
be achieved more quickly and at less cost if the birth rate is lowered.

Repeated pregnancies and births have affected health conditions in Ghana

resulting in birth complications, infectious diseases among infants and children

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and maternal morbidity and mortality. Even though over time the health services
in the country have improved considerably, widespread preventable
communicable diseases among children and women of reproductive ages still
persist in the country.

More people produce more waste and then cause additional stress on earth’s
assimilative capacity. The environment is vital to supporting life and providing
inputs for production and so in Ghana, there has been an increasing concern about
the effects of economic activities on the environment. In particular, intellectuals
argue that economic activities have caused serious environmental damage and
that, the current state of the environment will constrain future economic
development.

1.1 Country Background

The Republic of Ghana lies on the West Coast of Africa. It has a total area of
238,537 square kilometres (87,853 sq. miles). The country can be roughly divided
into three vegetation zones, namely coastal Savannah characterised by shrubs and
mangrove swamps, a forest belt that gradually thins out into a dry Savannah as
one moves northwards.

Ghana has ten administrative regions, these are Greater Accra, Eastern,
Western, Ashanti Central, Brong-Ahafo, Northern, Volta, Upper East, and Upper
West Regions which are further divided, into 110 districts; these form the basic
units of political administration. The capital town of Ghana is Accra.

The Ghanaian population is made up of many ethnic groups. The largest, the
Akans, accounts for 44% of the population. Other major ethnic groups are the
Mole-Dagdani (16%), Ewe (13%), Ga-Adamgbe (18%), Gruma (4%) and Grussi
(2%) a number of smaller ethnic groups make up the remainder. The prevailing
religious beliefs and practices may be divided into 3 major groups namely,
Christianity, Islam and Animism which account for 42%, 15% and 43% of the
population respectively (GDHS 1993).

The economy of Ghana is mixed, consisting mainly of small capital intensive

modern sector involving mining and a few manufacturing establishments, a
growing informal sector of small businessmen, artisans and technicians and a
large traditional agricultural sector made up mostly of small-scale peasant
farmers. The agricultural sector alone absorbs three-fifths of the country’s labour
force and accounts for more than half (51%) of the Gross Domestic Product.

The duration of basic education has been reduced from 10-15 years to 9 years.
This includes 6 years of primary education and 3 year of Junior Secondary
Education (J.S.S.). J.S.S. is followed by an optional additional 3 years of Senior
Secondary Education. These reforms seek to improve access to education for all
children, increase the proportion of females in school, and increase the proportion
that completes a given level of education.

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 1.2 Statement of the problem

Overall, Ghana’s population and characteristics pose serious challenges for

her development and not until Ghana achieve considerable fertility decline within
the next few years, the nations development efforts will be frustrated. Her annual
population growth rate is among the highest in the world. It has hovered around
2.9 and 3.1% since 1984 compared with the average rate of 0.6% for the
developed world. For the foregoing, the following problems may be identified
among others.

1. High population growth rate induced by sustained high fertility and

declining mortality rate arising from increased access to health delivery
system.
2. High pressure on land arising from increasing population growth rate and
increasing competing demand for land for economic and residential
purposes.
3. High age and economic dependency and rising level of unemployment.

1.3 Objective of the research

1. To examine the effects of rapid population growth on 4 key sectors of the

Ghanaian economy which are crucial for socio-economic development. These are
the Economic sector, Education, Health, and the Environment.
2. Examine the relationship between population and development in Ghana.
3. To increase the awareness of government, community and opinion leaders and
the general public on the need to support population policy programmes so as to
enable them to advance the interest of overall national development.

1.4 Methodology

The research uses descriptive analysis to show population change that has
occurred in Ghana during the past decades in order to use the results to predict the
future population till the year 2020. For projections the study used the Spectrum
Computer Package whereby the interpolation technique was applied.

1.5 Data sources

Data used for this research were collected from the concerned Ministries in
Ghana, Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys 1988
and 1993. Census report of Ghana, 1984 and World Population Prospects, 1994
Revision.

1.6 Organization of the study

The paper is organized into four (4) Sections. The first, which is the
introductory section, is subdivided into country background, statement of the

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problem, objectives of the study, methodology, data sources and literature review.
The Second Section is Population Growth and the characteristics of Ghana’s
population. The third section discuses the major challenges of rapid population
growth on four (4) sectors of the Ghanaian economy. The fourth section is the
conclusions and recommendations.

1.7 Literature Review

Coal and Hoover (1972) in their book “Population growth and development
in low income countries” stated that the pace of economic development depends
on the diversion of resources from consumption to uses that raise future output. A
population with a high ratio of dependents on producers consumes more of a
given output and devotes less to investments. Thus, high fertility, which produces
a high level of dependency, promotes consumption at the expense of investment.

Borrce (1973) in his book “Population, environment and society” said that
population problem is much with us today. It is seen to permeate almost every
corner of society whether the topic is inadequate housing, the expanding cohorts
of young requiring education, the problems of employment, and even the levels of
crime. In developing counties, rapid population growth is seen as a major barrier
to the process of development whereas in developed countries, people are seen as
polluters, destroying natural environments with the ever-rising volume of wastes,
which are the products of their affluence. He said, back to the 1930s the
“population problem” was also a live issue then, but the “problem” was then seen
as almost the direct opposite of the factors causing concern today.

Thirlwal (1973) in his book “Growth and development with special reference
to developing economics” said, the relationship between population growth and
economic development is a complex one, particularly concerning what is cause
and what is effect. Many people consider rapid population growth in the third
world to be a major obstacle to development, yet there are many ways in which
population growth may be a stimulus to progress, and there are many rational
reasons why families in developing countries choose to have many children. He
said, the complexity of the subject is compounded by the fact that, economic
development is a multidimensional concept.

The United Nations World Population Conference held in Bucharest in

1974 adopted a world Population Plan of Action that asserted “population and
development are interrelated, population variables influence development and are
also influenced by them”. The plan recommended that “population measures and
programmes should be integrated into comprehensive social and economic plans
and programmes and this integration should be reflected in the goals,
instrumentality and organizations for planning within the countries.

Clark (1977) in his book “Population growth and land use” stated that
population growth is the only force powerful enough to push primitive
communities to change their methods, and in the long run transform them into

4
such more advanced and productive societies. Moreover, Clark supported the
argument of Ibn Khaldun, the great Arab philosopher and historian in the 14th
Century that the product of two men working together would be more than twice
that they would have produced working independently.

Lloyd and Gage-Brandon (1994) in their paper “High fertility and children’s
schooling in Ghana: sex differences in parental contribution and educational
outcomes” said that in Ghana, girls with many younger siblings are less likely to
be enrolled in schools than boys. Seeking future security in their old age, parents
prefer to educate sons to daughters. Girls are also more likely than boys to drop
out of school to care for younger siblings. The probability of dropouts for boys
increases as the number of older siblings increases. He concluded that, high
fertility reduces educational attainment at higher levels and increases the
workload and financial responsibilities among older siblings.

2 POPULATION GROWTH

2.1 The Demographic Transition

The demographic transition is used to designate a process of fundamental

change in the demographic behaviour of population. Traditional high levels of
mortality and fertility, resulting in low growth rates, are gradually transformed
into relatively low levels of mortality and fertility. Often there is a time lag in the
fertility decline compared to the mortality decline, however, resulting in high
population growth rate.

Fertility, mortality and migration are the three factors responsible for
population change. For lack of adequate data on migration, we will discuss only
fertility and mortality. In Table (1), while the crude death rate (CDR) declined
from nearly 22 deaths per 1000 persons in 1955 to 12 deaths in 1990, the crude
birth rate (CBR) remained nearly constant, starting at 48 births per 1000 persons
in 1955 and ending at 44 births in 1990. The difference between the CBR and
CDR is the crude rate of natural increase, a measure of how rapidly the population
is growing.

Table (1) Crude Rate of Natural Increase

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
CBR/1000 48.3 47.9 47.6 46.8 45.8 45.1 45.2 44.3 44.0
CDR/1000 21.7 20.1 18.7 17.5 15.8 15.3 14.3 12.1 12.0
Difference 26.6 27.8 28.9 29.3 30.0 29.8 30.9 31.2 32.0
Source: World Population Prospects, 1994 Revision.

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2.2 Population growth in Ghana

In 1969, the government adopted the population policy. The document was
entitled Population planing for national progress and prosperity. It stated
that:
“unless birth rates can be brought down to parallel with falling death rates, Ghana’s
population would climb at a rate, dangerous to continuing prosperity, and the children of
the next few generations will be born into a world where their very numbers may
condemn them to life-long poverty” (Government of Ghana, 1969)

However, after more than two decades of it’s implementation, it was

observed that in terms of overall achievement, the policy made only modest gains.
Several factors account for this dismal performance. Of these, perhaps the most
significant was the absence of a well-articulated and co-ordinated institutional
machinery to translate policy objectives into Action plans.

2.3 Characteristics of Ghana’s Population

As is the case in many African countries, the present high level of Ghana’s
population growth results from persistent high birth rates and declining mortality
rates over the years. Consequently, the rate of increase of the population has been
high about 3.1% per year. At this rate, Ghana’s population will double in 25 years
compared to a country like the United Kingdom’s rate of 0.2 which will take
about 267 years to double her population (Population Data sheet, 1998). For a
variety of social and economic reasons, large families continue to be attractive to
many Ghanaians.

Fertility: Various estimates of the level of fertility obtained from censuses and
surveys indicate that the level of fertility in Ghana has remained at a very high
level over a fairly long period. If completed family size as measured by the
average number of children ever born to women aged 45-49 is used as an index of
the level of fertility, the indices range from 5.9 children per woman in 1960, 6.4 in
1971, 6.7 in 1979/80 and 6.4 in 1988. The Ghanaian woman according to the 1993
DHS bears about 5.5 children during her reproductive life as against 1.5 in
Switzerland, 2.7 in Colombia, 3.0 in Indonesia, 3.2 in Mexico, 4.9 in Bangladesh,
5.4 in Kenya, 6.5 in Nigeria and 6.9 in Ethiopia (See Figure 1). Most developed
countries aim at reducing their total fertility rate to about 2 (replacement level). In
the case of Ghana, a total fertility rate of 3 is considered ideal for now. However,
high fertility rates will persist for sometime because of the large number of
couples in their childbearing years.

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 Figure (1) Total Fertility Rates among selected Countries

Births per woman

8 6.5 6.9
7 5.4 5.5
6 4.9
5 3.2
4 2.7 3.0
3 1.5
2
1
0

Bangladish
Colombia

Ethiopia
Indonesia
Switzerland

Ghana

Nigeria
Kenya
Mexico
Country

Source: Population Reference Bureau’s 1993, Population Data sheet 1994

Mortality: Available evidence indicates that unlike fertility, the death rate in
Ghana has been steadily declining over the years. The introduction of modern
health care meant to improve health facilities and services and family health
education programmes has reduced deaths and helped children to survive to
adulthood.

Migration: There is a high degree of both internal and international mobility

among the population. Annually, Ghana receives a large number of immigrants
most of whom come from the neighbouring countries of West Africa. Restrictions
on immigration and residence of foreigners such as the Aliens Compliance Order
of 1969 which made it illegal for aliens without resident permit to continue living
in Ghana, has failed to completely dry up this source of population. It is believed
that perhaps equally large number of Ghanaians live abroad, most of them in the
neighbouring African countries such as Nigeria, Cameroon, the Gambia, Sierra
Leone and Zaire.

Population Density: The country’s population density increased from 28 persons

per square km. in 1960 to 36 in 1970, it was 51 in 1984 and 60.4 in 1990. Within
the country, population densities vary widely between the north and the south,
between urban and rural areas. In 1988 the greatest densities were in the Greater
Accra region with 438 persons per square km. followed by Eastern region with 87
persons per square km. The Northern region recorded the lowest density of 17
persons per square km. These are not large as compared with those of such
population giants as China, India and even Nigeria Ghana’s neighbour.

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 Rural-urban population: In Ghana, settlements with populations of 5,000 or
more are statistically described as urban while those with less than 5,000 are
classified as rural. Today, nearly 1/3 of all Ghanaians live in towns or cities and
more than 1/5 in Accra alone.

The high population growth rate is also reflected in the rapid growth of cities
and towns with their attendant problems. For instance; in 1948 there were 39
towns in Ghana with a total population of 534,918 representing 12.8% of the
country’s total population. In 1960, the number of towns rose to 98 with a
population of 1,551,174 constituting 23.1% of the total population. By 1970 the
number of towns had risen to 135 with a population of 2,472465 constituting 28%
of the total population. From 1970 to 1984, the proportion of the population living
in urban areas has risen from 28% to 31.3%. Greater Accra region stands out as
the most urbanized (84.3%) with Upper East region as the least urbanized (8.5%).

On the whole, while 27% was recorded as the increase in total population
from 1960 to 1970 that for urban areas were about 60% probably due to
favourable economic policies. Population distribution tends to follow the location
of local resources like economic activities and in Ghana, most economic activities
are concentrated in the productive areas of the forest zones and the coastal
Savanna (Engmann, 1965, 1972a, 1972b). The majority of Ghanaians, about 70%
according to the 1984 census, lives in rural areas and these are engaged in
traditional activities such as farming and fishing. This is exceptionally so because
urban–based development policies have left the rural areas without adequate
facilities, basic amenities and meaningful employment avenues.
Figure (2) Historical Population Growth of Ghana
Population in million

20 18.1
15.0 16.4
14.4
15 12.3
7.8 8.6
10 6.7
3.2 4.1
5 2.2
0
1921

1931

1948

1960

1970

1984
1965*

1988*

1990*

1993*

1997*

Years

* Estimates
Source: Ghana statistical Service and various Census Reports

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 Figure (2) shows the historical population growth of Ghana. With a population
of 2.2 million in 1921, Ghana’s population almost doubled within a period of 27
years, reaching 4.1 million in 1948. The 1984 census report puts Ghana’s
population at 12.3 million and various estimates in 1997 showed that Ghana’s
population is around 18 million.

2.4 The Revised Population Policy of Ghana, 1994

As a result of the dismal performance of the 1969 Population policy, there

was a revision in 1994. In order to provide a basis for assessing, monitoring and
evaluating the overall success of specific programmes and activities initiated in
pursuit of policy objectives, the policy has explicitly specified a wide range of
implementation strategies to be pursued in order to achieve the specific objectives
and targets (refer to the Revised National Population Policy of Ghana, 1994).

2.5 Future Trends of Population Growth in Ghana

Rapid population growth produces a youthful population, which implies a

high dependency burden for the country. Secondly, the uneven spatial population
distribution in the country militates effectively against development. The next
issue of demographic importance is the future trend of population growth.

For ease of comparison, three population projections are prepared from 1990-
2020, each based on different assumptions regarding future fertility and mortality
i.e. a High, Medium and Low fertility ( See Table 2).
Table (2) Fertility and Mortality Assumptions
Annual Total Crude Birth Crude Death Life Expectancy
Years Growth Rate Fertility Rate Rate Rate
H M L H M L H M L H M L Male Female Both Sex
1990 3.0 3.0 3.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 54.2 57.8 56.0
1995 3.1 2.9 2.8 5.8 5.5 5.4 41.0 39.4 38.9 10.6 10.5 10.4 56.2 59.9 58.0
2000 2.9 2.8 2.7 5.5 5.1 4.9 39.0 37.5 36.7 9.5 9.4 9.4 58.2 61.9 60.0
2005 2.8 2.7 2.6 5.1 4.7 4.4 37.3 35.6 34.6 8.5 8.5 8.4 60.2 63.9 62.0
2010 2.7 2.6 2.4 4.7 4.2 4.0 35.4 33.4 32.0 7.6 7.6 7.5 62.2 65.9 64.0
2015 2.7 2.5 2.3 4.5 4.0 3.6 35.0 32.4 30.0 7.4 7.2 7.0 63.2 66.9 65.5
2020 2.6 2.4 2.2 4.2 3.8 3.0 33.1 30.7 29.0 6.8 6.8 6.7 64.2 67.8 66.0
Source: World Population Prospects, 1994 Revision.
H=High, M=Medium, L=Low

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Figure (3) Population Projection 1990-2020
Population in millions

35.2
40
33.6
30
20 30.7
15
10
0
1990 2020
Years

Low Medium High

Source: Projected from Table 2 using Spectrum System of policy models.

If the population policy is successful and fertility declines as assumed in the low
fertility assumption, the population of Ghana will be 30.7 million by the year
2020, if fertility takes the medium assumption, total population will be 33.6
million. However, if fertility takes the high assumption, Ghana’s population will
reach 35.2 million by the year 2020 (See Figure 3). These three population
projections are subsequently employed to highlight the impact of rapid population
growth on selected sectors of the economy of Ghana.

2.6 The Dependent Population

In a fast growing population, the proportion of children increases faster than

any other age group. A population is considered “young” if over 40% of its
population are under age 15. In Ghana this proportion has been between 47% and
48% since the early 1950s. The economically productive age group (those
between ages 15 and 64), has been just under 50% of the total population and
those over 64 years old, about 3.0%. In Ghana there is roughly one dependent
person (under 15 or over 64 years old) for every economically active adult (15-64)
compared with about 2 adults per dependent in more developed countries like the
U.S., Great Britain and Switzerland. This youthful age structure has serious
demographic and economic implications for Ghana.

The need to provide for economically dependent persons put pressure on the
resources of the government and individual households. Children are especially
dependent as they usually do not work and are normally in school. They must be
fed, housed, educated and provided health care services. The ability to care for the
dependent population depends on the structure and stability of the economy and
the income levels and organizational abilities of the populace.

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2.7 School Enrolment Population

Due to extra ordinary government effort and investment in education, Ghana

raised its primary school enrolment from 38% of the eligible age group in 1960 to
about 71% in 1980. More recent figures show enrolment falling to about 60% of
eligible children because of inadequate educational facilities, classrooms and the
government’s inability to fully support the free basic education concept. The
proportion in secondary school rose from only 5% in 1960 to 36% in 1980 and
remained at this level in the mid 1980s. Although the government has consistently
devoted a large share of its budget to education (approximately 30% in 1988), the
per pupil expenditure has declined from a high of US$20 in 1972 to a low of only
US$1 in 1983. It is about US$18 per pupil, still below the 1972 rate because of
large number of eligible students (Benneh, 1990).

2.8 Population and Health Care Services

Ghana has made considerable progress in overall levels of health care services
since independence. Between 1965 and 1989, life expectancy at birth increased
from 47 to 55 years in the last 23 years, the infant mortality rate declined by 36%
from 122 to 77 deaths per 1000 live births according to the GDHS 1988.
Moreover, nearly 3/4 (75%) of the children under 5 years of age have had at least
one immunization.

Even though Ghana has made reasonable progress in the provision of health
facilities to its population, a large percentage of the population especially in the
rural areas has no access to modern health care. In 1988 and 1991 for instance,
there were 965 and 582 physicians in Ghana respectively (those in public
hospitals only) and more than 80% worked in the urban areas. In Accra, Korle-Bu
Teaching Hospital alone had almost one-third of the total number of physicians
and more than 51% of the number of nurses in Ghana.

Population size and growth affect the resources available to provide health-
care services to the population. Although government’s allocation grew from
6.3% of the total national budget for health services in 1974/75 to 9.0% in 1988,
rapid population growth has caused the per capita government expenditure on
health to decline. It fell from US$6 in 1972 to less than US$1 in 1983. While the
per capita expenditure in 1988 was US$1.50, it was still far below the 1972 level.

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Table (3) Distribution of some Health Facilities and Personnel by Region.
Regions Hospitals Clinics Health Centres Doc./Pop. Bed/Pop.
Ratio Ratio
Western 15 7 17 1: 27,923 1: 859
Central 11 9 31 1: 63,640 1: 770
G./Accra 12 9 19 1: 6,514 1: 408
Volta 15 17 38 1: 50,046 1: 530
Eastern 15 6 33 1: 55,983 1: 805
Ashanti 15 2 35 1: 19,714 1: 870
B./Ahafo 11 26 22 1:107,219 1:1059
Northern 8 17 14 1: 68,391 1:1455
U./West 4 - 9 1:109,790 1: 612
U./East 3 - 9 1:128,597 1: 157
All Regions 109 93 227 1: 25,750 1: 748
Source: Health statistics 1984, MOH statistics Division 1986.

Estimates show that expenditures for health services would be 60% lower by the
year 2020 should fertility follow a low path rather than a high path. Such
resources could be diverted into directly productive ventures.

The number and location of health facilities should be closely linked with the
population of children and mothers (15-49 years) in the population who need
more health care than any other group. Table (3) shows the distribution of some of
the health facilities and personnel by region.

2.9 Population-Environment linkages: conceptual framework

The impact of population on the environment has often been mathematically

given as I = P x A x T, where I = environmental impact, P = population size, A =
affluence (which is measured by the average person’s consumption of resources)
and T = technologies (which disrupt the environment to provide goods
consumed). (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1990; Zaba and Clarke, 1994). For example, an
increase or decrease in P, A, or T will correspondingly raise or lower the
environmental impact although equal change in either P, A, or T with the other
factors remaining constant may not have the same effect in all regions of the
world. It was in extending this logic that at the Rio conference in 1991 countries
of the South felt that those of the North, through their excessive consumption
patters and advanced technologies, have more adverse effects on the environment
than countries of the South. Developing countries also with their large populations
but limited economic advancement can generate a vast impact on the environment
if only the P multiplier on the A and T factors is so large. (Ehrlich and Ehrlich,
1990). Thus population pressure due to high growth rates is one of the main
proximate causes of environmental degradation in the South.

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2.10 Population, environment and development

The basic goal of any development policy is to improve the quality of human
life that is invariably linked with the quality of the environment. Since the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in June
1991, there has been increased awareness that problems of the environment
cannot be fully addressed without first considering population–environment
linkages. It is clearly stressed in the final document of the United Nations
International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) held in Cairo in
September 1994.

“Pressure on the environment may result from rapid population growth,

distribution and migration especially in ecologically vulnerable ecosystems.
Urbanisation and policies that do not recognise the need for rural development
also create environmental problems.” (UNICPD, 1994). The major objective
of ICPD, 1994 is to integrate both the environment and population in development
planning and activities.

2.11 Pressure on Land and Deforestation in Ghana

With the rapid population growth in Ghana, the prevailing traditional system
of bush fallowing has come under even more pressure. The period when the land
lies fallow has shortened and so, there has been over-cultivation, and in the
absence of modern fertilizers, the soil has deteriorated. Deforestation has
accelerated with the rising demand for land and fuel wood. Erosion, and other
environmental damage has reduced the land’s capacity to produce food.

3 MAJOR CHALLENGES

The first major challenge is that Ghana’s population is growing at a very fast
rate. The late Prime Minister of India, Indira Ghandi was reported as saying that
“if the population is growing at a fast rate, it is like someone trying to put up a
building in flood waters, whatever he puts there is washed away”.

The youthful nature of the Ghanaian population means more schools and
hospitals must be built, drugs must be found to support the ever-growing children
population. The crucial point is that these children are not producing anything, but
are consuming whatever is being produced. That is a major challenge to Ghana’s
development.

Another major challenge is the fact that the population is unevenly distributed.
It is estimated as per the 1960, 1970 and 1984 Ghana population census reports
that almost 97% of the localities in Ghana have population of less than 1000 each.
There is therefore high population concentration in few urban centres while vast
areas particularly in the middle belt have sparse population densities. This has
implications for the country’s development because these settlements lack the

13
threshold population to justify the provision of certain social amenities and so
there are numerous settlements which have been denied basic infrastructure.

Another important consequence of a young and fast growing population is the

building up of “population momentum” i.e., even if fertility were to drop
drastically to 2 children per woman, the population would continue to grow for
roughly 40 years. The rapidly growing population of Ghana compounds the
difficulty of realizing the goal of improving the quality of life of the people.

3.1 Challenges on the Economy

In Ghana, there is an increasing number of young people selling dog chains,
car dusters and making shoeshine. In a sense, these represent the result of a
rapidly growing population without a corresponding growth in the economy.

3.1.1 Labour Force

Of the 1970 population of 8.6 million, 3.3 million were estimated to be in the
labour force and 3.1 were then employed, leaving a total of 198,571 unemployed.
The 1984 census puts Ghana’s population at 12.3 million and the projected labour
force at about 5.6 million (ages 15-64) while the estimated number of unemployed
was well above 200,000. About 51% of the 1984 population was in the labour
force, about 46% were below working age (ages 0-4) and about 3% were out of
the labour force (ages above 64). It is clear that Ghana has a predominantly young
population, therefore the number of those in the labour force will continue to
increase rapidly as the population increases with the passage of years (George
Adamu, former Secretary for Mobilization and Productivity, PIP 1988).

In 1990, the total labour force in Ghana was estimated to be around 8.4
million. By 2020, based on the high fertility population projection, the labour
force would be 19.7 million. For the medium assumption, the projected labour
force would be 18.7 million. Comparing the size of the labour force to the
children population, it becomes quite clear that from 1990, the dependency ratio
has been almost one working adult supporting one child.
Figure (4) Labour Force 1990-2020
Labour Force in Millions

25
19.7
20 18.7
15 17.1
10
8.4
5
0
1990 2020
years

Low Medium High

Computed from Table 2

14
 On the contrary, if we take the lower and declining fertility scenario, i.e.,
where average Ghanaian woman gives birth to 3 instead of 5.5 children labour
force will grow but to a smaller level 17.1 million. Economic burden will become
lighter and there will be more people in the productive age than the children under
15 (See Figure 4). This provides clear evidence of the need to consider the
population factor in economic development strategies.

3.1.2 New Jobs Required

Figure (5) New Jobs Required 1990-2020
jobs in thousands

704
800 672
600 614
400
200 300
0
1990 2020
years

Low Median High

Source: Computed from Table 2

Job creation in any country particularly in developing nations, usually falls on the
government. In Ghana, the government is the largest single employer. This is
rather a difficult obligation because the government is at the same time saddled
with the provision of social services involving substantial spending of public
funds, which are limited. Rapid growing of the labour force frustrates efforts to
reduce unemployment through job creation programmes. Figure (5) shows that, in
1990, there were 300,000 jobs available under the high projection, we may need
704,000 jobs. Under the medium assumption, we may need 672,000 jobs as
against 614,000 under the low projection by the year 2020. If the number of jobs
created doesn’t keep pace with the expanding labour force, unemployment will
remain high or worsens ever time.

The 3 projections show that job creation programmes will be more

successful if population growth is reduced. The question then is how many of
these jobs can in reality be created each year given the country’s precarious
economic situation. The large number of jobs that would have to be created if
fertility remains high points out how efforts to control Ghana’s population can
serve to reduce the socio-economic burden of unemployment. This means the
economy must grow as to be able to absorb the new entrants in the job market.

15
3.2 The Challenges on Education

Contributing to the decline in Ghana’s per-pupil expenditure is the rapid

growth of the school-age population. Population growth has led to a decline in the
quality of education. In addition, an ever-growing number of children do not have
access to any educational facilities. If the fast rate of population growth
continuous, still greater numbers may not benefit from formal education.

3.2.1 Primary School Age Population

In 1990, the number of pupils in primary schools was about 2.5 million.
Under the high fertility rate of projection, by 2020, we would have about 5.9
million new entrants. Under the medium assumption, the population would be 5.6
million as against 5.1 million under the low fertility projection (See Figure 6).
Figure (6) Primary School Age Population
Population in millions

8
5.9
6 5.6
5.1
4
2 2.5
0
1990 2020
Years

Low Median High

Source: Computed from table 2

3.2.2 Primary School Teachers Required

Considering the number of teachers required, we could find from Figure (7)
that in 1990 we needed 66,100 teachers. By 2020 under the high assumption,
155,263 teachers will be required. Under the medium, 147,368 teachers would be
required. However, under the condition of lower population growth, the current
teacher-pupil ratio can be maintained with only 134,210 teachers by the year
2020. This is based on the assumption that one teacher would teach about 38
students. Presently, many of the schools in Ghana have one teacher to 45 or more
students. This gives an idea of the investments required in the educational sector if
we are to continue increasing our population at that fast rate.

16
Figure (7) Primary School Teachers Required

200000 155263
Teachers

150000 147368
100000 134210
50000 66100
0
1990 2020
Years

Low Medium High

Source: Computed from table 2

3.3 The Challenges on Health

Health is another area in which population growth poses a major challenge

to the nations development. The concern is not merely the health of the people per
sey but also the impact of population growth on the quality of the health care
systems.

3.3.1 Medical Doctors Required

Figure (8) Medical Doctors Required 1990-2020

Chart 9 Medical doctors reguired, 1990-2020

1354
1500
1292
Doctors

1000 1180 Low

Median
500 High
582
0
1990 2020
Years

Source: Computed from Table 2

The World Health Organization Report 1997 puts the Physician-population

ratio 121 doctors per 100,000 population and 232 nurses and midwives per
100,000 population. In Ghana (1990), the doctor–people ratio was 1 doctor to
26,000 people. To keep the ratio constant, as shown in Figure (8), projection of
medical doctors required under the high fertility assumption shows that 1,354
doctors would be required. The medium assumption shows that 1,292 doctors
would be required. In contrast, by 2020 under the low fertility situation, this
would be less about 1,181(refers to doctors in public sectors only). At the same

17
time, the nation will need 28,490, 27,276 or 25,700 nurses under high, medium
and low fertility rates respectively. The problem here is the number of years it
takes to train a doctor and the amount of money involve.

3.3.2 Population at High Risk

Whenever we consider the structure of the population, we have a group that

is normally described as the high-risk group because of the high demands they
make on the health sector. These include children of 0-4 years, pregnant women
and the aging population. A look at the components of the high-risk group in
1990 shows that they constituted 6.1 million of Ghana’s population with the high
fertility projection, by 2020, they will constitute 14.1million. For the medium
assumption, they would constitute 13.4 million as against 12.2 million under a
situation of low fertility (See Figure 9).
Figure (9) Population at High Risk 1990-2020

14.1
Population in

15
13.5
million

10 12.2
5 6.1
0
1990 2020
Years
Low Midium High

Source: Computed from table 2

The message that this is portraying is that, if the Ghanaians continue giving
birth to about 6 children, then the economy would cease to grow fast enough to
adequately cater for the health needs of the population. If the fertility behaviour
changes in favour of smaller family sizes such that each woman decides to settle
for 3 instead of 6 children, then the resources required would be reduced, resulting
in increased savings in all the sectors.

3.3.3 Knowledge and Use of Contraceptive Methods

Several efforts have been made to reduce the rate of population growth
in Ghana but the results so far indicate that achievements have been moderate. A
look at knowledge and use of family planing in Ghana shows interesting results.
There is a wide discrepancy between knowledge and use of family planing
methods. Knowledge of methods is by far higher than their use. More than 76% of
all categories of people know of at least one method of family planing and yet the
overall contraceptive use by 1988 was as low as 12.9% for any method and only
5.2% for modern methods. By 1993, while knowledge of family planing method
was over 90% for married men and married women, contraceptive use (for any

18
method) was just about 20% and 34% respectively for married women and
married men and about 10% for modern methods (See Figure 10).
Figure (10) Knowledge and Use of Family Planning

91 94
100 74 81
59
Parcent

46
50 34
20
0
Know method Know source Ever used Currently using

Married women Married men

Source: GDHS 1993

Very few people were using the modern methods. For example, there is so
much talk about condoms, but only 2% of the people were using condoms. Thus
the majority of Ghanaians who practice contraceptive depend on the traditional
methods both in rural and urban areas. Contraception use is higher in the urban
areas (30.6%) than in the rural areas (15.4%) from GDHS 1993. This is so
because urban areas have more educated people and in addition, have greater
access to all the different types of contraceptive information and services available
in the country.

In the 1993 GDHS, sexually active women who did not want to become
pregnant but who are not currently using any contraceptive method and do not
intend to use any in the future were asked to provide the main reason(s) for not
using. Table (4) presents the percentage distribution of these women classified
into 2 age ranges – those less than 30 years of age and those 30 years and over,
according to reasons for not intending to use.

19
Table (4) Reasons for not Using Contraception, GDHS, 1993
Reasons for not using contraception Age Total
15 - 29 30 – 49
Want children 45.9 25.9 32.8
Lack of knowledge 15.9 11.5 13.0
Partner opposed 1.9 1.7 1.8
Cost 0.0 0.4 0.3
Side effect 7.1 6.2 6.5
Other health concerns 2.4 2.7 2.6
Hard to get pregnant 0.5 0.4 0.5
Religion 3.3 1.7 2.3
Opposed to family planning 6.0 2.4 3.7
Fatalistic 3.8 2.9 3.2
Other people opposed 0.8 4.5 3.2
Difficult to get pregnant 5.4 16.3 12.5
Menopausal/Had hysterectomy 0.5 16.8 11.2
Inconvenience 1.4 1.3 1.3
Other 0.3 1.2 0.8
Don’t know 4.1 3.5 3.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 368 695 1063
Source: GDHS, 1993

3.4 The challenges on the Environment

As a result of population pressures, Ghana faces major environmental

problems such as deforestation, soil erosion, pollution, and sanitation and waste
disposal. While almost all rural dwellers use wood related fuels, a large number of
urban dwellers also rely on wood products for energy. In 1988, firewood and
other wood related fuels constituted about 85% of urban household fuels. This has
increased the rate of tree destruction in the environs of the major urban centres
causing deforestation and soil degradation thereby undermining the very resources
that Ghanaian farmers and their families depend on.

The urban environment itself is also deteriorating. The rate of growth of

Accra, and Tema for example, greatly exceeds the Accra Metropolitan
Administration’s ability to maintain existing services and to provide additional
ones. The lack of efficient waste disposal methods in Accra has led to the
dumping of waste into bodies of water such as the Korle Lagoon and the Odaw
river (lies in the middle of Accra) resulting in the spread of diseases.

3.4.1 The Problem of Deforestation and Desertification

The attainment of sustainable development in any country would require

economic and social development, as well as preservation of the productive
natural resources. As Nana Sir Ofori Atta 1 (a chief in Ghana) was reported to
have said in 1929 that, “The land belongs to the dead, the living and countless
generations yet unborn”. This statement is not different from the Futures Group’s
definition of Sustainable Development i.e., “Development that meets the needs of

20
the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their
own needs” (The Future’s Group 1988). This means that resources should be used
to cater for the needs of not only those who are living at the moment but future
generations as well. Sustainable development requires wise use of resources
through effective preservation and conservation practices. Ghana is losing
forestland at a very rapid rate. It is estimated that every year, 72,000 hectares of
forestland is lost to agriculture through bush fires, fuel woodcutting, wasteful
logging and through charcoal burning and over grazing. It is also estimated that
about 70% of the reserved land are under threat of being encroached upon due to
shortage of agricultural land Benneh, 1990). There has also been an immense
pressure on the 6.5 million hectares which is outside the forest reserve. Thus in
Northern Ghana, instead of deforestation, we rather have desertification
particularly, in the northeastern area around Bawku.

3.4.2 The Cycle of Rapid Population Growth

Figure (11) shows the result of rapid population growth on the land. In the
cycle, rapid population growth leads to high demand for fuelwood and agricultural
land leading to deforestation. Deforestation leads to soil erosion and loss or
reliable water supply, which results to a decrease in agricultural productivity.
Figure (11) Result of Rapid Population Growth on the Land

Population Growth

Demand for wood and

Agricultural Land

Deforestation

Soil Erosion Loss of reliable

Water supply

Decrease in Agricultural
Productivity

Source: The Futures Group, Ghana RAPID1, Washington D.C., PIP 1994

RAPID1 is an acronym which means Resource for the Awareness of Population Impact on
Development

21
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Conclusions

In Ghana, considerable population growth can be expected within this

decade. This population growth is the outcome of a historically unparalleled
constellation of fertility and mortality levels and trends during the past decades.

Education is an important factor in development, since progress in other

sectors depend largely on the educational attainment of the populace. Education of
Ghanaian women would be a contributing factor to proper health and nutritional
practices that would also be positively associated with lower infant and child
mortality as well as fertility. The rapid rate of population growth means however
that, in spite of the heavy investments over the years in education, a substantial
proportion of the young population will be denied access to quality education.

Although government expenditure on health has been increasing steadily in

absolute terms over the past few years, per capita allocation or expenditure on
health has been declining in real terms over the period due to the rapid rate of
population increase.

It could be argued that it is a basic human right to be able to choose freely and
responsibly the number and spacing of children. (The resolution endorsed by
Bucharest Word Population Conference in 1974). But when over a sustained
period, the population grows faster than the resources necessary to maintain the
increasing numbers, problems of socio-economic development assume greater
dimension. For a great majority of Ghana’s population, the provision of basic
needs such as food, housing, education, employment and health services has been
inadequate.

The development of Ghana would be easy when the population problem is

solved. For the economy to grow fast, it is necessary that the rate of population
growth be reduced because of the already high dependency burden. So long as
every adult works to support one child each in addition to him/herself, the adult
cannot save enough to invest in order to increase his or her income.

It must be noted here that in most cases, it is the poor who tend to give birth to
more children as children are viewed as sources of economic security when
parents become old. Thus, in a situation of mass poverty, rapid population growth
is unavoidable.

As long as about 45% of the population of a particular country is below the

age of 15 years, that country would have to use almost all its resources in
providing all the services including food, education, health etc. Hence, that
country would not be able to invest in order to promote rapid economic growth.

22
Consequently, economic development stagnates with deterioration in standard of
living.

To substantiate this, the population development interrelationship exists in a

form of what is described as the “Cycle of Rapid Population Growth”. In this
cycle, rapid population growth results in a high dependency burden, which in turn
creates a situation of low savings and investments. Economic growth stagnates or
slows down and eventually standard of living of the population deteriorates (See
Figure 12).
Figure (12) The Vicious Cycle of Rapid Population Growth.

High dependency
Burden

High population Low Savings and

Growth Investment

Low Standard Low Economic

of Living Growth

Source: Ghana RAPID, PIP 1994

4.2 Recommendations
Based on the above discussions, the following recommendations can be put
forward:
There must be a continues effort to arrest the rapid population growth rate ♦
so as to increase the capacity to save and to invest at both the individual and
national levels. This will ultimately lead to the creation of new job
opportunities and expansion of productive resources.
There must be an overall long-term policies to protect the environment. ♦
The 1994 Revised Population Policy objectives, targets and implementation ♦
strategies must be strictly adhered to as specified in the policy document.

Two approaches are suggested here for the attainment the above goals. One is
through family planing, i.e., increasing the use of contraception throughout the
country (an integrated family planning programmes). The second is through
economic growth approach where sound socio-economic policies such as the
implementation of Economic Recovery Programme and increased female
education have to be employed. This will increase the socio-economic status of
the population who will voluntarily opt for smaller family sizes. When these
become successful, Ghana would be able to break through her rapid cycle of
population growth (See Figure 13).

23
Figure (13) Breaking the Vicious Cycle of Rapid Population Growth.

Low Dependency
Burden

Low Population High Savings and

Growth Investments

High Standard High Economic

of Living Growth

Source: Ghana RAPID, PIP 1994

These two approaches however, have to be pursued simultaneously.

Population issues and national development are inseparable. Solving population
problems means developing the nation. However, we should also not lose the
sight that the human being is the centrepiece of development, in view of the fact
that, the population is both the instrument and object of development. It is
important that population variables are integrated in development planning
process at all levels so as to make the desired impact. Not until these strategies are
adopted, overall national development will continue to be a fantasy.

24
REFERENCES

Borrce, W. D. (1973) Population, environment and society, University of

Auckland, New Zealand.

Clark, C. (1977) Population growth and land use, The Machmillan press LTD,
London.

Coal, A. J. and Hoover, E. M. (1972) Population growth and economic

development in low-income countries, Princeton University Press.

Frejka, T. (1975) The demographic background to development planning. In

Robinson W. C. (ed), Population and development planning. The Population
Council, NY, Pp. 27-43.

Jones, G. W. (1975) Educational planning and population growth. In Robinson W.

C. (ed), Population and development planning. The Population Council NY,
Pp. 69-85.

Robinson, W. C. (1975) Toward socio-economic population planning. In

Robinson (ed), Population and development planning. The Population
Council, NY, Pp. 223-226.

El-Biblawi, H. A. (1978) Population change and its implication for the prospects
of economic development in Ghana. Cairo University Institute of African
Researchers and Studies, Dept. of Political and Economical Systems and
Cairo Demographic Centre. Theses submitted in partial fulfillment for the
degree of Master in African studies.

Thirlwall, A. P. (1993) Growth and Development with special reference to

developing economies, University of Kent at Canterbury, 5th Edition. Pp.
143-155.

International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD), Cairo 1994.

The United Nations World Population conference, Bucharest, 1974.

25
STATISTICAL SOURCES AND OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

Benneh G. Population Growth and Development in Ghana (PIP/Ghana booklet)

revised 1990

Ghana Statistical Service, Census Report, Ghana 1984

Ghana Statistical Service 1988 and 1993 DHS by Institute for Resource
Development/Macro Systems, Inc. Columbia, Maryland USA and
Intervention Inc. Calverton, Maryland USA respectively.

Government of Ghana, National Population Policy, Revised edition, 1994.

Lloyed C. B., Gage- Brandon A. J. High Fertility and children’s Schooling in

Ghana: Sex differences in parental contributions and educational outcomes
(pop. Studies, 1994).

Managing Ghana’s population (an overview) A publication of the National

Population Council Secretariat, Accra.

Nabila J. S. Population, Environment and Developments. The African Dilemma

(Dept. of Geog. & Res. Dev., University of Ghana, Legon.

Population and Development (PIP/Ghana booklet 1994.

Population and Environment (PIP/Ghana booklet) July 1990 by Obeng L. E.

Some implications of rapid population growth in Ghana (Interviews with

members of government PIP publication 1988.

26