13-09-2019

Introduction to Databases and

Database Management Systems
with SQL (DBMS)
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research
Kolkata

Ashadur Rahaman
Technical Officer

NITTTR Kolkata 13-Sep-19

 Database:
A collection of related data that is organized
so that its contents can easily be accessed
managed and updated.

 Data:
Known facts that can be recorded and have
an implicit meaning.

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Tabular Data: Excel

 Rectangular/Flat type
 Every row has same set of column
header
 If any rows lacking information for a
particular column a missing value must
be stored in that cell.
 Storing data in this way easy to extract
for use.
 Problem : data redundancy

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Relational database:

Like one cabinet with several folder

Each containing only one type of
data
product table , Customer table ,
payment table etc.

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Database Management
System (DBMS):
 A software package/ system to facilitate the creation
and maintenance of a computerized database.
 It defines (data types, structures, constraints)
 construct (storing data on some storage medium
 controlled by DBMS)
 manipulate (querying, update, report generation)
databases for various applications.
 Database System: The DBMS software together with
the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also
included.

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A simplified database system

environment:

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An example of a database that stores

student records and their grades.

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File Processing and DBMS

 File Systems :
 – Store data over long periods of time
 – Store large amount of data
 However :
 – No guarantee that data is not lost if not backed up
 – No support to query languages
 – No efficient access to data items unless the location is known
 – Application depends on the data definitions (structures)
 – Change to data definition will affect the application programs
 – Single view of the data
 – Separate files for each application
 – Limited control to multiple accesses
 - Data viewed as physically stored

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Main Characteristics of
Database Technology
 Self-contained nature of a database system: A DBMS catalog
stores the description (structure, type, storage format of each
entities) of the database. The description is called meta-
data). This allows the DBMS software to work with different
databases.
 Insulation between programs and data: Called program-
data independence. Allows changing data storage
structures and operations without having to change the
DBMS access programs.

 Data Abstraction: A data model is used to hide storage

details and present the users with a conceptual view of the
database; does not include how data is stored and how the
operations are implemented.

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Support of multiple views of the data:

Each user may see a different view of
the database, which describes only
the data of interest to that user.
Sharing of Data and Multiple users

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DBA – Database Administrator

- Responsible for authorizing access to the
database, coordinating, monitoring its use,
acquiring hardware, software needed.

Database designers
- Responsible for identifying the data to be
stored, storage structure to represent and store
data. This is done by a team of professionals in
consultation with users, and applications
needed.

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Additional Benefits of Database Technology

- Controlling redundancy in data storage and in

development and maintenance efforts.
- Sharing of data among multiple users.
- Restricting unauthorized access to data.
- Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of
users.
- Representing complex relationships among data.
- Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
- Providing backup and recovery services.
- Potential for enforcing standards.
- Flexibility to change data structures.
- Reduced application development time.
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- Availability of up-to-date information.

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 The redundant storage of Data items.

 (a) Controlled Redundancy: Including StudentName and
CourseNumber in the grade_report file.
 (b) Uncontrolled redundancy: A GRADE_REPORT record that is
inconsistent with the STUDENT records in Figure 1.2, because
the Name of student number 17 is Smith, not Brown.

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When not to use a DBMS

Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
- High initial investment and possible need for additional
hardware.
- Overhead for providing generality, security, recovery,
integrity, and concurrency control.
When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
- If the database and applications are simple, well
defined, and not expected to change.
- If there are stringent real-time requirements that may
not be met because of DBMS overhead.
- If access to data by multiple users is not required.
When no DBMS may suffice:
- If the database system is not able to handle the
complexity of data because of modeling limitations
- If the database users need special operations not
supported by the DBMS.
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Data Models

Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the

structure (data types, relationships) of a
database, and certain constraints that the
database should obey.

Data Model Operations: Operations for

specifying database retrievals and updates
by referring to the concepts of the data
model.

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Categories of data models:

- Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
Provide concepts that are close to the way
many users perceive data. (Also called entity-
based or object-based data models.)

- Physical (low-level, internal) data models:

Provide concepts that describe details of how
data is stored in the computer.

- Implementation (record-oriented) data models:

Provide concepts that fall between the above
two, balancing user views with some computer
storage details.
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Object-oriented Data Model(s) : several models

have been proposed for implementing in a
database system. One set comprises models of
persistent O-O Programming Languages such as
C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and
Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE). Additionally,
systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then ITASCA),
IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).

• Object-Relational Models : Most Recent Trend.

Exemplified in ILLUSTRA and UNiSQL systems.

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Schema diagram for the

database

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Schemas versus Instances

Database Schema: The description of a database. Includes

descriptions of the database structure and the constraints
that should hold on the database.

Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some aspects

of) a database Schema.

Database Instance: The actual data stored in a database at

a particular moment in time . Also called database state (or
occurrence).

The database schema changes very infrequently . The

database state changes every time the database is
updated . Schema is also called intension, whereas state is
called extension.
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Three-Schema Architecture

Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:

-Program-data independence.
-Support of multiple views of the data.

Defines DBMS schemas at three levels :

-Internal schema at the internal level to describe data
storage structures and access paths. Typically uses a
physical data model.

- Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to

describe the structure and constraints for the whole
database. Uses a conceptual or an implementation
data model.

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External schemas at the external level to

describe the various user views. Usually
uses the same data model as the
conceptual level.

Mappings among schema levels are also

needed. Programs refer to an external
schema, and are mapped by the DBMS
to the internal schema for execution.

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Illustrating the three-schema

architecture

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Data Independence

Logical Data Independence: The capacity to change the

conceptual schema without having to change the
external schemas and their application programs.

Physical Data Independence: The capacity to change

the internal schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.

When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the

mappings between this schema and higher-level
schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully
supports data independence. The higher-level
schemas themselves are unchanged.

Hence, the application programs need not be changed

since they refer to the external schemas.
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DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA and
database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a
database.

In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and

external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate storage
definition language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas.

Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to specify database

retrievals and updates.
-DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in
a general-purpose programming language (host
language), such as COBOL, PL/1 or PASCAL.
- Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (query language).

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High Level or non-Procedural DML – Describes

what data to be retrieved rather than how to
retrieve.
- Process many records at a time
- SQL

Low Level or Procedural DML – It needs

constructs for both, what to retrieve and
what to
retrieve
- Uses looping etc. like programming
languages
Only access one record at a time

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DBMS Interfaces

- Stand-alone query language interfaces.

-Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages:
- Pre-compiler Approach
- Procedure (Subroutine) Call Approach
-User-friendly interfaces:
- Menu-based
- Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop etc.)
- Forms-based
- Natural language
- Combinations of the above
- Speech as Input (?) and Output
- Web Browser as an interface
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Parametric interfaces using function keys.

-Report generation languages.
-Interfaces for the DBA:
- Creating accounts, granting
authorizations
- Setting system parameters
- Changing schemas or access path

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Typical component modules of a DBMS. Dotted lines show

accesses that are under the control of the stored data
manager.

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Database System Utilities

To perform certain functions such as:
- Loading data stored in files into a database.
- Backing up the database periodically on tape.
- Reorganizing database file structures.
- Report generation utilities.
- Performance monitoring utilities.
- Other functions, such as sorting , user monitoring , data
compression , etc.

Data dictionary / repository:

- Used to store schema descriptions and other information
such as design decisions, application program descriptions,
user information, usage standards, etc.
- Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and
users/DBA.
- Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.13-Sep-19
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Classification of DBMSs
Based on the data model used:
- Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
- Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.

Other classifications:
- Single-user (typically used with micro- computers) vs. multi-
user (most DBMSs).
- Centralized (uses a single computer with one database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple
databases)

Distributed Database Systems have now come to be known

as client server based database systems because they do
not support a totally distributed environment, but rather a
set of database
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servers supporting a set of clients. 13-Sep-19

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