An introduction to

Zimbabwean history

by
Magama and Madududu

2013
 AN INTRODUCTION TO ZJC HISTORY
By
Magama & Madududu

HISTORY
Definition

¯ History is the study of the past, present and future historical events.
¯ These events are mainly political, social and economic events.
¯ Political-how societies were led or governed.
¯ For example in the past societies were led by clan leader and chiefs.
¯ Economically –hunting, gathering and were major economic activities of
societies.
¯ Socially- social gatherings (Bira) and entertainment using drums, song and
dance.
WHY STUDY HISTORY
¯ We study history to know our past because our past predicts our future.
¯ To know developments which took place in the past for example tools,
leadership etc.
¯ To take advantage of development made by other people.
¯ To know our origin and identity.
¯ To know the history of our country.
¯ To be united.
¯ It informs our enemies, detractors, and traitors the reasons behind such
circumstances.
¯ To know past and present leadership styles and distribution of power in
various government ministries.
¯ Helps us to think critically on historical matters to come up with real truth
¯ History also liberates/frees human mind and level of thinking
¯ It stimulates analytical skills on human matters in life.

SOURCES/FORMS OF HISTORY
¯ Oral Tradition/evidence
¯ Written records
¯ Archaeological history
a) Oral tradition
¯ Refers to the passing of information from one generation to another through
the word of mouth.
¯ Information comes from eye witness.
¯ Elder or local historian who know about certain historical events in their
society.
¯ Audiences or listeners listen to the word of mouth.
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Advantages
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¯ Information is given out by eye witnesses who know about certain historical
events.
¯ It is first-hand information which is useful in compiling written records.
Disadvantages

¯ It can be distorted –when the eye witnesses die.

¯ It can also be exaggerated especially when the local historians only
disseminate information about their success and ignore their failures.

b) Written records
¯ They are records of information compiled from both oral tradition and
archaeological evidence.
¯ It can also be written by eye witnesses of certain events.
¯ The quality of written evidence also depends on the side of the historian on
certain historical events.
¯ Written are stored in national archives and libraries in schools as books,
magazines, newspapers, posters or as novels ready for reading by people.
¯ Written records are either primary or secondary sources.

Advantages
¯ Information or evidence can be read by everyone.
¯ Once compiled in a book or magazine, information cannot be destroyed
¯ Written volumes of information can be stored permanently for future
generation to use
Disadvantages
¯ Some documents lack the truth as the tent to favour one side of the story
the writer favours most.
¯ Distortions or exaggerations of real facts may occur during compilation
period.
¯ Reflect views of the historian.

c) Archaeology

¯ Definition- refers to information obtained by archaeologist from the digging

and studying of fossils or remains of the past so as to write history.
¯ Such remains of fossils include bones, plants, clay pots, skins and various
tools and clothing.
Advantages

¯ Evidence is obtained from the study of past remains.

¯ Evidence is touchable and also be stored in museums for future generations
eg soap stones and the Zimbabwe Birds obtained at Great Zimbabwe.
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Disadvantages

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¯ Historians sometimes have a bias in explaining remains of the past which

gives a misleading picture of who actually made which tools, for example
European historians argue that Great Zimbabwe was not built by the Shona
people(Zimbabweans)
¯ Other historians fail to explain the remains clearly.

STAGES OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

¯ The following are the stages of historical development according to Karl Max:
a) Primitive communism
¯ Property was equally owned by the whole community, while work was done
together and goods were shared equally.
¯ There were no leaders people just lived and shared the factors of production.
¯ These factors include land labour and wealth.
b) Slavery
¯ This was the stage where the means of production were controlled by few
individuals
¯ Those who owned the means of production forced their subjects to work on
difficult conditions.
¯ Subjects were subjected to ill-treatment and severe punishment.
c) Feudalism
¯ Was a dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held
lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were
tenants of and protected by the nobles, giving their lords homage, labour, and
a share of the produce.
¯ During this stage agriculture was their main branch of production.
¯ The Landlords owned the land and the subjects were known as the Serfs.
¯ Many people during this stage worked on the land for the Landlords.
d) Capitalism
¯ It is an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry
are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
¯ During this stage the wealth of the society was produced by the machines and
workers in factories and mines.
¯ Wealth was no longer produced from agriculture as in Feudalism.
¯ The ownership of the means of production remained in the hands of the few.
¯ Labour could be bought and sold.
e) Socialism
¯ It is a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates
that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or
regulated by the community as a whole.
¯ It is a stage where wealth and work will be equally shared among the people.
¯ The means of production are controlled by the people and these include land.
¯ The workers control the economy and it is equally shared among the people.
f) Communism
¯ It is a theory or system of social organization in which all property is vested in
the community and each person contributes and receives according to their
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ability and needs.

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¯ A system of this kind was established in the Soviet Union and China.

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¯ It is the highest stage of human development according to Karl Marx.

¯ It is a classless society.
¯ There is no army and other security forces.
¯ People live and share equally the means of production
HUMAN EVOLUTION

¯ Evolution refers to the stages of development which men under went.

¯ It is also the process of change from one stage to another chronologically
(orderly)
¯ There are two basic theory of human evolution or development and these
theories have conflicting ideas concerning the origin or evolution of men

a) Biblical theory

¯ The theory asserts that man was created by God as noted in the book of
Genesis.
¯ It argues that God created Adam and then Eve who became the mother of
the universe
¯ The theory is theoretical in nature as it only provides written evidence
provides written evidence without other evidence like archaeological and oral
sources

b) The scientific theory

¯ It was a theory put forward by Charles Darwin with the help of studies made
by Mr Richard Leaky.
¯ The theory argues that man developed slowly and stage by stage from a
group of animals called apes.
¯ Subsequent stages of development until man left his/her original way of using
four legs like other animals and began to use two legs to stand upright and
walk.
¯ History as a subject believes on availability of evidence to support the theory .
¯ Ample archaeological evidence supports the scientific theory making a theory
worth acceptable.
¯ The theory also argues that the process of evolution took ten to twenty million
years for it to be completed which is supported by evidence recovered from
archaeological remains discovered and studies made by archaeologists and
palaeontologist who study fossils.
¯ Radio carbon dating has dated these fossils since 1958 to discover the rough
age of anything that grows.
¯ Why do Historians believe that human beings evolved rather than they were
created by God?
¯ Historians believe in evolution because radiocarbon dating gives evidence of
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the ages to which evolution underwent its processes.

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¯ Evidence shown by archaeologists reviews that human evolution took various

stages over centuries.
¯ Similarities between apes and human beings suggest that man was once from
the family of apes/gorillas/baboons/chimpanzee.
Basis of the scientific theory

¯ A theory written by Charles Darwin argues that people and apes came from
same ancestors.

1. Ramapithecus
¯ It lived on earth nine million years ago.
¯ Ramapithecus was shared by apes and people as their ancestors.
2. Hominids
¯ Evidence of this creature was discovered in China Java and Algeria.
¯ Hominids are animals of the same biological family with human beings.
¯ Hominids are slightly the same in brain size with the apes.
3. Homo Erectus
¯ Are the first human beings
¯ Were found in Tanzania which suggested that the first people lived in the
African continent.
¯ This explains why Africa is believed to be the crandle of mankind or origin of
people.
¯ In 1924 Professor Raymond Dart of Witwatersrand University in South Africa
discovered a skull at Tung in the Cape Province. The skull was from a
creature between man and apes,
¯ Such a link between people and apes concludes that people evolved from
apes.
4. Zinjathropus
¯ Discovered in 1935 by archaeological Dr Robert Broom, who discovered a
skull of an old Australopithecus at Skerkfonten in South Africa.
¯ In 1959 Dr Louis and Mary Leaky also discovered a skull of the
Australopithecus Robustus at Olduval Gorge in Tanzania.
¯ The Australo-robustus existed the same time with the homo-habilis 2 million
years ago.
¯ It had large grinding teeth suitable for vegetable eating.
5. Homo Habilis
¯ Discovered by Dr Leaky and family.
¯ Described them as skilful human being with its large brain.
¯ Had meat eating teeth and well developed hands, it makes stone tools.
¯ Is direct ancestor of Homo erectus which developed.
¯ Large brain cavity averaging between 775cm3 and 1500cm3
compare15000cm3 of people today.
¯ It had the ability to walk upright.

6. Homo sapiens
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¯ Modern fully developed man.

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¯ Discovered by Leaky and Dr Richard at Lake Turkama in Kenya were a skull

and more developed leg bones were noted.
¯ Developed a stooped modern way of walking and could make tools for
specific rolls.
WHY AFRICA IS THE CRADLE OF MAN?
Cradle
¯ It means origin (where one come from)
¯ Most discoveries of human race were done and concluded in Africa.
¯ These discoveries of the human race were done along the East-African Rift
valley.
¯ Discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania four million years in North
East Africa is evidence (facts) that human race originated in Africa.
¯ The first ape-like, though they could stand and walk on two legs were found
in Africa.
¯ Changes in the colour of human race are also a result of weather changes.
¯ Tool making also began in Africa and fire making.
Physical changes in human development
¯ Ability to think and work in group co-operation
¯ Ability to make tools which makes work easy.
¯ Ability to speak or communicate sharing ideas or information.
¯ Development of hunting skills e.g. trapping.
¯ Development of skills on how to gather.
¯ Division of labour- woman gathering and in some cases helped men in
setting traps for animals.
¯ Sharing of hunted and gathered foods equally among participants.
STONE AGE PERIOD

¯ It was a time began to make stone tools.

¯ As people continued to evolve their teeth grew small and their jaws became
weak to eat uncut meat.
¯ This forced man to develop stone tools.
¯ The Stone Age period is divided into three stages that are Early, Middle and
Late Stone Age.
¯
a) Early Stone Age

¯ Four million years ago to 50 000 BC, stone tools became widely used.
¯ The developed the hand axe for killing animals, skinning and cutting meat into
pieces.
¯ Also began to make and use stone tools like cleavers, scrapers, knives and
throwing stones.
¯ Gathering and hunting was a major pre-occupation.
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¯ The gathered nuts, berries, bulbs and other fruits.

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¯ Archaeological evidence in East Africa points out that trapping and poisoning
of pools was used to catch fish.
¯ In Zimbabwe people use a bulb called Chitupatupa to poison pools to kill fish.
¯
b) Middle Stone Age

¯ Started around 50 000 BC to 150 000BC.

¯ It was the period in which fire was made.
¯ Fire was used for scaring world animals from their caves which they used as
their shelter at night.
¯ Fire was also used for drying meat, warmth during winter days and to make
glue through warming up juices from plants and insects.
¯ Glue was used to protect spear heads.
¯ Fire was made from rubbing two dry sticks continuously.
¯ They also made spears from bones of animals.
¯ Scrapers continued to be used for scraping animal skins.
¯ Fire was made also used to clear forests to easy the work of hunting.
¯ Stone Age people also made gums out of juices of herbs and insects to make
poison arrows or spears.
¯ Poisoned spears killed the animals quickly during hunting.
¯ Gathering also continued.

c) Later Stone Age

¯ It lasted two million years ago.

¯ The means of production was communal because people worked as groups.
¯ Hunting and gathering was done collectively (in groups).
¯ There was also equal sharing of goods or foods hunted and gathered.
¯ They carried out some religious ceremonies like now hunting seasons.
¯ They began the practise of burring off dead person in small and shallow caves
(Ninga for Chiefs).
¯ Practised rock painting – drawing of people on walls/ rock surfaces to show
their different activities.
¯ The painting shows the life styles, beliefs and myths of the period.

Later Stone Age tools and their uses

1.MICROLITHS ¯ Is a tiny-very small tools made

from bones.
¯ Used for cutting skins
¯ To make clothes
¯ Sawing
¯ To make bulbs put on spears
to increase its sharpness
2.BOWS AND ARROWS ¯ It is a projectile pin used for
hunting and killing animals.
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¯ Used in hunting

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¯ Killing of animals for meat.

3. BARB ¯ Cover the front of the spear
and arrow to increase its
sharpness and effectiveness.

Later Stone Age: the rise of agriculture

¯ Agriculture is the rearing/ keeping/ domestication of animals and growing of
crops.
¯ Agriculture was the major development of the late Stone Age.
¯ Human experience in hunting and in gathering led them to experiment animal
keeping and crop cultivation.
¯ They began to grow crops like sorghum, millet, potato (yam), teff and rice
called Orzya Glaberima.
¯ Potato is a yam is also a tuber plant.
¯ Teff, rice, millet and sorghum are cereal crops.
¯ Cereal crops were used as staple food.
¯ New crops were used to supplement foods obtained from hunting and
gathering.
¯ Animals domesticated included goats, cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens.
¯ Reared animals provided them with bones for making tools, meat, milk and
skins for clothes.
¯ People began to make iron tools to replace the ineffective stone tools.
¯ The rise of blacksmiths who began to smelt iron and to iron tools like hoes,
spears and later the plough which transformed agriculture.
¯ Blacksmith were iron workers, this led to the division of labour with some
people becoming cultivators, and others remain hunters and others as
traders.
¯ Most women were crop cultivators.
¯ To some people began to accumulate or get wealth through trade.
¯ The wealthy persons began to hire labour.
¯ This is known as the master-slave relationship.
EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT
IRON AGE PERIOD

Introduction

¯ This is a period were iron technology was introduced.

¯ It was between 1st century AD and the 19th century AD, in the region of central
and Southern Africa.
¯ During this period the mode of life changed from the Stone Age and hunter
gatherer mode of production to the use of iron technology.
¯ This process of change is known as the NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION.
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¯ Wooden and stone tools were substituted for iron technology, thus the
wooden and stone axes, knives, and arrows gave way for iron tools.
¯ The increased use of iron tools such as iron hoes, axes, knives, hunting
arrows and fish hooks increased man’s capacity to domesticate and manage
his environment.

The changes brought by Iron Age technology

¯ The use of iron technology brought changes in the method of producing food.
¯ These changes were :

1. Farming-people started domesticating animals and grew crops. As a result

more land was cultivated, many wild animals and fish were caught thus there
was a more and varied food which resulted in long life expectancy and
increased population.
2. Mining- people engaged in iron and copper mining. The ores were smelt to
produce tools and jewellery. The implements/tools were then used in farming,
hunting and trade.
3. Hunting- became more organised and efficient through the use of iron arrow
and spears.
4. Man’s mobility was increased through the use of bigger canoes that facilitate
the crossing of big and wide rivers.
5. Accommodation improved as iron axes and hoes made it easier to cut more
wood and mould dagga for house construction.
6. Formation of societies and leadership- societies became more settled and
engaged in economic activities such as mining, manufacturing and pottery
making. New forms of relations developed among social groups. They
engaged elders, chiefs to direct the activities of the community.
7. Division of labour (Gender based division of labour and occupational based
division of labour) - there was a social division of labour between men and
women (Gender based division of labour). Men engaged in herding, hunting,
mining, trading, smelted iron ore, led families, build houses, cleared land etc.
while women engaged in cultivation, gathering, fetched water, pottery making
and looking after children. These divisions were reflected by burial places, the
male were buried in livestock pens within the central closure of the settlement
while women and children were buried on the outer ages of the village. There
was the development of specialization that is specialized metal workers
(blacksmith), farmers, hunters, traders etc. (occupational based division of
labour)
8. Raiding- Due to the availability of better and stronger weapons people started
raiding one another.
9. Trade- Iron Age people engaged in both internal and external trade in grain,
livestock, tools and crafts. Trade was mostly controlled by rulers who became
rich and powerful.
10. Tribute-the rulers established a tributary system in which the subjects paid
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tribute as a sign of allegiance/loyalty.

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Uses of iron

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1. To make light arrow-heads and spears.

2. To make jewellery.
3. To make knives, hummers and chisels
4. To pay lobola e.g. hoes.
5. Blacksmith used iron to pay tribute to the chiefs
Importance of iron
1. Iron technology increased the man’s ability and capacity to domesticate the
environment in order to satisfy basic needs.
2. Settled life encouraged the development of permanent settlement, there was
now better food security derived from farming, hunting and trade.
3. The safety and security from enemies and wild animals increased through the
building of houses in clusters.
4.
5. The development of specialization in the areas of farming, mining,
manufacturing and trade led to an increase in production and prosperity.
Problems of iron technology
1. Disintegration of communal way of living and the growth of inequality in wealth
and power between individuals, social groups and communities.
2. Women were regarded as commodities indicating wealth in marriage. The
more wives one had the wealthier he was regarded.
3. The establishment of tributary system promoted the exploitation of man by
man.
THE SAN PEOPLE
¯ They are called BUSHMEN by the Boers.
¯ The Xhosa call them the Abutwa.
¯ Shona people call them Masiri/Mandiwonerepi.
¯ Same people were given all these names because they are short and they
also disappeared in grasses.
¯ Today they are found in the Khalagadi/Kalahari desert in Botswana.
San settlement

¯ San people lived in doom-shaped shelter.

¯ They also stay in caves.
¯ Their groups ranged 50 person and bellow.
¯ They survived through hunting and gathering thus they were also called
hunter and gatherers.
San social life
¯ Stayed in groups of between 50 people and bellow.
¯ When the group grows to exceed 50 people they would split into two groups.
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¯ San are the ancestors of people who live today in Southern and Central
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Africa.
¯ They used Ostrich egg shells to fetch water and used fire sticks to make fire.

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¯ The community was headed by the community chiefs.

¯ The wife of the chief supervised the tribal fire and never allowed it to die out.

San economic life

¯ Practised hunting and gathering

¯ They devised many hunting methods like traps e.g. fish traps/ fish baskets
made of reeds for catching fish and animal traps e.g. net trap and pit trap for
trapping animals.
¯ They used poisoned arrows and spear to kill the animal very fast.
¯ Used bows and arrows and throwing spears.
¯ Poison was extracted from roots, barks of trees and from poisonous snakes,
spiders and scorpions.
¯ Small animal, reptiles and other large animals were killed.
¯ Meat was cooked fresh or dried.
¯ San people also eat gathered fruits, bulbs and nuts.
¯ Also used hooks made from sharpened bones to catch fish like shell fish.
¯ Fibres were spanned to make traps e.g. sisal fibres.
¯ Clothing was light and loose for easy working.
¯ Also used skins for clothing and blankets.
¯ They wore ornament made from seeds, berries, shells and pieces of wood to
make bracelets and necklines.
¯ They also practised leather work to make bags and clothes.
¯ They were nomadic – moved from place to place in an area.
Rock paintings
¯ Painted a rock and cave walls and engraved ostrich shells.
¯ They made paints of several colours.
¯ San rock paintings showed their lifestyles and beliefs.
¯ Pictures, drawn included themselves, animal and hunters chasing and killing
animals.
¯ San got most of their resources for survival from the environment.
San political life
¯ They had no centralised political system or government.
¯ There was a group leader or community chief.
¯ Their groups ranged from 35 to 50 people per-group.
¯ Change of location was decided by the whole group with leader co-ordinating.
¯ San societies had no classes or hierarchy, all people were equal.
¯ This was the stage of early communalism.
THE KHOIKHOI
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¯ The San and the Khoikhoi when combined are known as the KHOISAN.
¯ The Khoikhoi were herders.
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¯ They kept livestock e.g. cattle, goats and sheep.

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¯ They stayed in large numbers of 500 and above.

¯ They also practised hunting and gathering.
¯ Some of their characteristics are similar to that of the San except: they are
taller than the San and they are copperish in complexion.
Social organisation
¯ Khoikhoi communities were bigger than San communities. San communities
were made up of at list 50 people and bellow whilst Khoikhoi made up of more
than 500 people.
¯ Chief enforced customs, organised rituals and were war-leaders.
¯ Chief had more responsible duties e.g. to keep the community peaceful.
¯ In religion, they were just like the San as they believed in one God.
¯ They also believed in ancestral spirits.
Economic organisation
¯ They were also hunter-gathers.
¯ They kept livestock.
¯ Women milked cows and goats and they also gathered roots.
¯ Men herded cattle and hunted for meat.
¯ Women also gathered wild fruits, insects and wild melons and cucumber.
¯ Cattle were for meat, milk and for ceremonies.
¯ Cattle were a symbol of wealth.
¯ Crops grown include a grain called PENNISETUM.
¯ They also practised iron smelting and blacksmithing of iron and copper.
¯ They extracted salt from salty mineral spiting and used the salt in food.
¯ Salt was used for meat preservation.
¯ Trade was practised in the goods mentioned above e.g. grain, meat, milk and
some tools.
Political organization
¯ Chief led the communities.
¯ Chief was also leader of the army.
¯ Chief also presided over community ceremonies.
¯ Khoikhoi had an organised system of central authority.
¯ Senior person helped chief in settling disputes of the community.
Customs and religion
¯ Boys were initiated into adulthood at 18years.
¯ Marriage only took place after rituals have been done.
¯ Lobola was paid as Ox for wedding feast.
¯ They believe in one God.
¯ Believed in natural spirits in water and rain.
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Settlement of the khoikhoi

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¯ Built doom sharped huts from branches.

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¯ Huts were arranged in a circular and the cattle kraal at the centre.

BANTU PEOPLE
¯ The word Bantu means people.
¯ Bantu people are Negroes/Black Africans.
¯ They are called Bantu people because of the similarities or sameness in the
dialects of their language.
¯ They are from the same family of languages.
¯ Bantu people have no precise or exact place of origin though historians say
theat they come from one nucleus area.
¯ The first linguist to talk about the Bantu people was Dr Bleek.
¯ A linguist is a person who studies languages that are prefixes and roots
denoting/separating certain Bantu languages pronounce the same e.g.

Tonga Bantu
Ndebele Bantu
Shona Vanhu

West –Bantu or first Stream Bantu

¯ They are called West-Bantu migrators because of the direction they took.
¯ They are also the first group/stream to migrate from the central area or proto-
Bantu point.
¯ They lived in rain forest.
¯ Rainforest is an area which receives continuous rainfall throughout the year
e.g. the equatorial region.
¯ They lived in rainforest and then moved south wards following major rivers in
the Congo Basin- because they wanted water and they heavily relied on
fishing for survival.
¯ They reached the Southern part of the rain forest in about 900BC.
¯ They settled in reach Savannah environment where they learnt how to hunt
and farm.
¯ Expansion/migration of West-Bantu continued due to reach Northern-Angola
where they a new environment of dry woodlands.
¯ Others moved East-words towards Middle Kassai River where their
movement was stopped by the East-Bantu speakers.
¯ Desmond Clark discovered West-Bantu settlement at Kalambo in Tanzania.
¯ Evidence of pottery at Kalambos vessels was similar to that at Muchili.
Bantu migration

¯ DEFINITION-Migration is the movement of people from one place to another.

¯ Such migrations are usually due to desire to look for better facilities or
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resources.
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Theories on Bantu migration

¯ Definition-a theory is an assumption by a person that something happened

because of certain reasons.

Linguistic theory

¯ This theory was put forward by Joseph Greenberg and Malcom Gathrie
¯ They base their arguments on the similarities in Bantu language dialects.
¯ These similarities made them to conclude that Bantu people originated from
one central one point or nucleus area and the spread or migrated to different
parts. The central point was in Cameroon as noted by Joseph Greenberg.

(a) Joseph Greenberg

¯ He believed that the central point was in Northern Cameroon, and then people
began to migrate to East, West and Southern part of Africa.

(b) Malcolm Guthrie

¯ He was a British linguist.

¯ He says that the nucleus point was in the Congo.
¯ The region was between Kassai and Katanga and then people radiated or
moved in all directions at the same time.
Weaknesses of the theories
¯ The theory relies much on one source of evidence which is language thereby
neglecting other factors.
¯ They did not consider the issue of resources between the great lakes and
West Africa which made the place a confluence / meeting point of the Bantu.
¯ Therefore meeting at one place does not mean originating there.
¯ This shows West-Bantu after meeting East-Bantu turned further southwards
until they reached the modern day Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
The East Bantu Speakers

¯ Are known as second stream of Bantu migrators

¯ They migrated eastwards from the Proto-Bantu nucleus area.
¯ Like the western Bantu they moved southwards from Eastern Congo
Basin/Zaire into Savanna forest
¯ They succeeded in entering Zambia from the woodlands and expanded into
southern and eastern Africa.
¯ At this time they had not acquired skills in metallurgy.
¯ First traces of iron working started existing around 800BC.
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¯ They grew cereal crops and domesticated animals such as goats, sheep and
cattle in countries like Sudan.
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¯ By 250AD they reached southern Mozambique, northern Natal where they

also introduced domestication of animals and growing of crops
¯ Another Eastern –Bantu migration brought iron working in Zimbabwe later
they brought iron technology to southern Tanzania and Zambia
The North Bantu speakers

¯ Migration from the North to the South through the interior of Africa until they
reached Zimbabwe and Mozambique
¯ They are the ancestors of the Mutapa people.
¯ Their settlement were not destroyed by later Bantu migration, but remained
where they are today
¯ Oral tradition suggest that the ancestors of these people came from
Tanzania
¯ When they crossed the Zambezi they drove away Bantu people and settled
in other areas marking the defeat of the Mutapa state. However this can be
dismissed by the fact that Mutapa state emerged after the fall of Great
Zimbabwe.
¯ North-Bantu were nicknamed VATAPI because they captured many people
when they arrived in Zambia
¯ This stream is represented by Luangwa Pottery walls.
¯ In Zimbabwe this stream is represented by the construction of Zimbabwe
hills around 1075AD
¯ They introduced stone architecture in Zimbabwe
IRON AGE STATES
¯ The word state is used to represent a country or Government.
¯ Examples of Iron Age States:

GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE NDEBELE STATE

MUTAPA STATE TORWA STATE

ROZVI STATE ZULU STATE

1. GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

¯ The state was founded by the Shona people between 1200 and 1450AD as a
15

result of Iron Age development.

¯ The capital was based at Great Zimbabwe. The state has an estimated
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population of above 10 000 at the height of its power.

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¯ The state was famous for its stone work with wall built without water.
¯ The name Zimbabwe is derived from these stone structures at Great
Zimbabwe (Dzimbabwe) houses of stones.
Why Great Zimbabwe was built

¯ As a trading centre
¯ As mambo’s court
¯ As a dwelling place for the nobles
¯ For religious purposes
¯ Environmental factors
¯ As a symbol of power
Factors leading to the development of the state
1. Availability of enough water from Mutirikwi River for domestic and agricultural
purposes.
2. An increase in completion over the control of existing land resources.
3. An increase in cattle herding and gold mining created more wealth for the
ruling clans. As people grew richer they married more wives they had children
who were then drafted into the army.
4. The army enabled to conquer derived groups thereby establishing control
over land resources on the more fertile Zimbabwe Plateau.
5. The building of defensive walls that protect people from their rival groups and
wild animals.
6. The buildings at Great Zimbabwe were a display of power and it was viewed
as a symbol of wealth.
7. Trading activities at Great Zimbabwe brought in more wealth. Gold was traded
for the imported ceramics from Persia and China.
Political organisation
1. The king was the head of the state whose duties were:
¯ To control over the allocation of grazing land.
¯ The ownership of cattle and mine production.
¯ Collection of tribute.
¯ Presiding over religious and political activities.
2. The king enjoyed a number of privileges which were:
¯ Access to the products of hunting such as ivory and skins.
¯ Enjoyed peasant labour at his court and the field.
¯ Enjoyed a monopoly of the long distance in trade with the Persians and the
Chines.
3. The king was assisted by the members of the ruling class in carrying out his
duties. Some of them saved as village chiefs and some as provincial chiefs.
4. The Great Zimbabwe State extended its influence beyond the city state at
Great Zimbabwe State. As results of their power, smaller towns were built
North of Great Zimbabwe following a similar design such towns were Khami,
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Nlodlo, and Tsvide.

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The social structure

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¯ The society at the Great Zimbabwe State was characterised by:

¯ Social classes namely the ruling class that enjoyed a number of privileges and
the commoner class that paid tribute.
¯ The division of labour based on occupation hence the society had farmers,
herders, miners, traders, hunters, etc.
¯ The division of labour based on gender thus women were cultivators,
weavers, pottery makers while males were herders, hunters, miners, traders
etc.
The religion of the state

¯ The Shona at Great Zimbabwe were a religious group who worshiped the
Mwari Cult through use of Vadzimu.
¯ Mhondoro/ Masvikiro had powerful religious and mystic abilities. They
practised rain-making through the Masvikiro or spirits.
¯ Mwari was the Supreme Divine being worshiped by Shona people.
¯ Shona chief had power to control religion which was the only way in which
people could talk to Mwari.
¯ The king who presides over national religious ceremonies had power to
intermediate between people and Mondoros for social unity.
Economic structure
¯ The economy at Great Zimbabwe was diversified into:
¯
1. Livestock production
¯ Cattle were used for food to pay lobola.
¯ Cattle were also used at ritual ceremonies and for payment of tribute.
¯ It was also used to provide manure for use in cereal cropping.
¯ Cattle were a symbol of wealth thus more grazing lands were reserved at
Great Zimbabwe.
2. Trade
¯ Trade in ivory, beads, gold, ceramics, copper and clothes was practised at
Great Zimbabwe.
¯ Great Zimbabwe was both the capital and trading centre for Zimbabwe.
¯ The people engaged in internal and external trading activities.
¯ Evidence of external trade were found at Gokomere and Ziwa, Persian bowls,
Chinese dishes, copper chains were some of the items found by archaeologist
at the above historical sites.
3. Mining
¯ The main ores mine were gold, copper and iron.
¯ Craftsman worked with gold and copper into jewellery i.e. bangles and
anklets.
¯ Iron was forged into tools.
¯ The gold and copper was traded and the iron tools were traded and used in
grain production hunting and mining.
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4. Grain production
¯ Much emphasis was on the production of cereals such as sorghum, rapoko
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and millet.

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¯ It was the king who allocation land for grain production.

¯ The cereals were used for domestic consumption, tribute payment and trade.
5. Iron smelting and blacksmithing were also done.

6. Weaving and spinning of clothes from indigenous cotton was used to pay for
the bride and was called Machira.
Decline of the Great Zimbabwe State

¯ To decline means to fall in power.

¯ The reasons for the decline of the Great Zimbabwe State are:
¯ Shortage of salt.
¯ Decline in sources of ivory.
¯ Depletion of reserves
¯ Decline in trade with the Portuguese.
¯ Shortage of enough pastures.
¯ Population increase causing pressure/ competition on available resource.
¯ The empire was so large giving problem to the king to control.
¯ Succession disputes leading to civil wars.
¯ Migration of Nyatsimba Mutota to the Dande region.

2. MUTAPA STATE

Some of the leaders who ruled Mutapa state

¯ Nyatsimba Mutota
¯ Nyahuma
¯ Chikuyo chomunyaka
¯ Gatsi Rusere
¯ Kapararidze
¯ Neshangwe
¯ Chivero Nyasoro
¯ Negomo Mapunzagutu
¯ Mavhura Mhande
¯ Mukombwe

Introduction

¯ The state has been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota.

¯ It was formed around 1400AD. Mutota led a number of people and soldiers
from Great Zimbabwe to the Dande region. The state was formed after the
decline of Great Zimbabwe in 1400AD. The son Matope continued with the
extension of the state boundaries, by the 16th century the Mutapa State
included Guruuswa, Manyika, Mbire, Tete, etc.
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¯ The state is an off-shoot of Great Zimbabwe. The word Mutapa state is a

short- cut of Munhumutapa.
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Reasons for the formation of the state

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1. Nyatsimba Mutota was an ambitious leader who wanted to create his own
empire outside Great Zimbabwe State’s influence.
2. The depletion of resources at Great Zimbabwe due to population growth
leading to the migration of groups of people in search for better resources
northwards.
3. Succession disputes within Great Zimbabwe caused some revolts which
resulted in Nyatsimba Mutota being pushed outside Great Zimbabwe.
4. Decline of the Great Zimbabwe as a major state and trading centre caused
other people to migrate to other areas.
5. Nyatsimba Mutota was eager to control major trade roots and resources along
the Zambezi valley.
6. Need to control vast pieces of land for agricultural/ grazing.
7. The military strength of some leaders enabled them to dominate the weaker
chieftainships and to expand the Munhumutapa state and there was the
existence of several chieftainships which were then joined together to create
the Munhumutapa State.
Religion

¯ The king presided over the national religious activities.

¯ Religion was a form of control and unity.
¯ This was achieved through the use of traditional symbols, religious rituals and
beliefs that emphasize King’s supreme power
¯ The territorial Kings were expected to relight the royal fire that was sent from
the King as a sign of loyalty
¯ People worshiped Mwari/ God through the ancestral spirit
Political organization
¯ The King was the head of the state that held political and economic powers.
¯ The King was called by the praise name Munhumutapa.
¯ The main duties of the Munhumutapa were :
i. To control long distance trade.
ii. Allocation of land of grazing and cultivation
iii. Collection of tribute
iv. The head of state and the military Commander.
v. Presides over national religious activities
¯ The Munhumutapa was assisted by aristocratic officials, territorial Kings and
Chiefs to administer the state.
¯ At the top of the Political hierarchy was the King who with the assistance of
the aristocratic officials was in charge of the Mutapa state.
¯ He was followed by territorial/ provincial Chiefs who were in charge of the
provinces and they collected tribute on behalf of the King.
¯ The Chiefs were in charge of districts and villages and they also collected
tribute on respective areas on behalf of the King.
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The army
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¯ The state has extending army of between 200-500 soldiers.

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¯ The army used traditional weapons

¯ The King was the head of the military
¯ The army was responsible for :
¯ Maintaining peace and order within the state
¯ Defending the state from external forces
¯ Carry out military campaigns against other weaker states
Economic organization
¯ The Mutapa state’s economy was diversified into :

1. Trade
¯ The state engaged in both external and internal trade. Internally people
exchanged goods such as grain for cattle, grain for tools etc.
¯ The King and the ruling class dominated the external trade of the Portuguese
and the Swahili traders.
¯ Such trade was in the form of tools, grain, gold and copper in return for
jewellery, beads, guns, rings, bracelets, ceramics, cloth etc.
¯ In this way, the Munhumutapa and the ruling class controlled the creation
distribution of wealth. This was quiet evidenced in luxurious way which they
lived such as clothing and ornaments worn by their wives.
2. Tribute collection
¯ Mutapa collected tribute through territorial and village Chiefs. Such tribute was
in the form of grain, cattle, goats, sheep, tools and labour.
¯ Tribute was paid as a sign of loyalty to the King.
3. Livestock production
¯ The Mutapa people engaged in rearing of livestock such as goats, cattle and
sheep.
¯ Livestock played an important role in the emergence of the state.
¯ Cattle were viewed as a symbol of wealth this partly explains why much
emphasis was placed on cattle rearing.
¯ Cattle were mostly for tribute collection, payment of lobola, for food, food etc.

4. They also practised mining, black smithing and iron smelting.

5. Hunting was important.

The coming of the Portuguese
¯ After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership. In 1494
Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king.
¯ He was the first king to receive a European visitor called Fernandez.
¯ He was received in friendly manner and presented the Munhumutapa with
one of his guns; he also gave the king some powder and short.
¯ With new weapons and others which follow, the Munhumutapa expanded his
empire and assisted his ally, Makombe of Barwe, to take control of Manyika.
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¯ After his death in 1530, Neshangwe became the Munhumutapa. He expanded

the empire further by taking over Mbire province, which earned him the praise
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name Munembire.

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¯ He began to send judges each year to hold court in Mbire at Mutiusinazita,

“the nameless tree”.
¯ He also renewed the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassadors once a
year to receive the moto mutsva “the new fire”. This was a sign of their loyalty
and allegiance.
¯ Neshangwe was succeeded in 1550 by Chivero Nyasoro.
¯ He crushed a Tavara revolt and as a symbol of the defeat, he took their totem
or taboo. This was, Nzou, the elephant, n’tembo in Tavara.
¯ Chivero died in 1560. The leadership passed to his eldest son, Negomo
Mupunzagutu, an unmarried youth who was assisted in government by his
mother, Chiuyu.
¯ The king and his mother were baptised as Christians and were given the
names Sebastian and Maria by Goncalo da Silveira.
¯ The VaMwenye (Muslim Traders) thought Silveira had become too powerful
and they plotted a way to get rid of him.
¯ In 1570, the Portuguese king sent an army to invade Mutapa to avenge the
death of Silveira.
¯ This army was defeated easily even though it had many guns, just because
the Portuguese did not know the area, they wore heavy metal armour which
made it difficult for them to move around.
¯ In 1607, the Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight
against a rival for the leadership. In return he gave them the silver mines at
Chikwa.
¯ But he refused to tell them where the mines were.
¯ The people at Mutapa refused to help the Portuguese look for the mines
because they had seen prazeros take their land.
¯ Portuguese took more land and cattle. They forced people to work in their
farms.
¯ They formed their own private armies. They became wild, lawless and no
longer obeyed the Munhumutapa.
¯ The next Munhumutapa, Nyambo Kapararidze tried to expel the Portuguese
but they overpowered him and put in his place Mavhura Mhande.
¯ He agreed to save and obey the Portuguese because they had made him the
leader.
¯ After him the Portuguese chose those who would obey them.
¯ An 18th century Munhumutapa moved with his people to new land in what is
now Mozambique.
¯ They built a new state in the lowlands there, appointed new chiefs and worked
with them to restore order.
¯ A Mutapa state continued to exist in the Zambezi valley until the end of the
19th century.
¯ But it was very small, the land was poor and the people were poor. The last to
use the title Munhumutapa was Chioko.
¯ In about 1900 he led a revolt in the Zambezi valley against colonial rule in
Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
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¯ This revolt was crushed by the Portuguese colonial rulers in 1917.

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Portuguese activities in the Mutapa state

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¯ They came to Mutapa state in the name of trade but later changed like a
chameleon and started to interfere in the internal politics of the state.
¯ They installed puppet leaders (Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande) who
ruled in favour of them in the expense of the whole nation.
¯ They defeated Mutapa Kings through the use of their soldiers called
Chikundas who used superior weapons such as guns.
¯ They enforced their religion on the Mutapa people that is Christianity.
Negomo Mupunzagutu and his mother Chikuyu are typical examples of
leaders who were turned to be Christians.
¯ They took over large places of land and set up for the prazos.
¯ They forced Mutapa people to provide forced labour/chibharo on the prazos.
They even brutally abused women e.g. sexual harassment.
Decline of the state
¯ It declined gradually as from mid-16th century due to :

1. Succession disputes after the death of Nyatsimba Mutota divided the nation
and it also caused revolts and rebellions.
2. The members of the ruling class clashed over the control and distribution of
state resources that is land for grazing and cultivation.
3. The Portuguese took advantages of these clashes by supporting one group
leading to the weakening of the state.
4. Portuguese activities increased conflicts in the state e.g. they brought guns to
the Mutapa state which facilitated rebellions against ruling class, they assisted
vassal chiefs to rebel against Mutapa Kingship, they took vast pieces of land
from Mutapa people which they then controlled politically.
5. It was on these circumstances Dombo of Rozvi linage broke away and
created his own state called the Rozvi state.

3. THE ROZVI STATE

¯ Leaders who ruled the state include the following:

1. Changamire Dombo
2. Chirisamhuru 1
3. Chirisamhuru 2
4. Rupanda Manhanga
5. Nechasike
6. Nechagadzike
7. Gumboreshumba
8. Gumboremvura
Origins
¯ Founded by Changamire Dombo around 1700.
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¯ Had strong army of between 2000 and 4000 men.

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¯ Using his army he conquered the Torwa and incorporated them into Rozvi
State, in 1693 he defeated and expelled the Portuguese from Zambezi
Valley.
¯ Changamire Dombo was a military genius, thus he was able to defeat and
unity people under his rule.
¯ He also took control of Manyika and the larger parts of former Mutapa State
on the Zimbabwean Plateau.
¯ People respect Changamire Dombo due to his charisma and rain making
powers.
¯ He established his capital at Danangombe and this capital was later moved
to ThabazikaMambo.
¯ Due to their conquest the Rozvi became known as the destroyers
(pillagers).
¯ D.N Beach 900-1850 AD-Changamire Dombo was Mutapa’s top ranged
officials who fought and defeated Mukombwe and the Portuguese drove
them to Masekesa.
¯ He was a cattle keeper in the Mutapa and he rebelled against Mutapa and
subdued them. He made his capital at Danangombe.
P0litical organisation
¯ Mambo is the head of the state. The political structure was the same as
present day Shona society. Above the chiefs were the Mambo or King and his
court. The Mambo ruled with the help of a council called Dare. Members of
dare included priest, military leaders and provincial governors. Some of the
Mambo’s wives played a role at the court, and some of sons-in-law had
special duties. As political leader, the mambo was a figure of great respect
and loyalty.
¯ He was the distributer of land the holder of other property in trust of the state.
The king obtained tax from traders and tribute from vassal chiefs as a sign of
allegiance. He was the head of the legal system. He had power to call up the
army or to summon communal labour.
¯ The Rozvi king controlled external trade. He also controlled ivory hunting
¯ The Mambo presides over national religious ceremonies and political
activities. The king appointed chiefs, priest, governors and army general. He
communicated with God through the ancestors.
¯ The chiefs were in charge of the village and districts and collected tribute on
behalf of the king.
¯ The commander of the Rozvi army and chief collector of tribute was an official
called Tumbare. He also stood in place of Changamire, if there was a
succession dispute or if the heir is too young to rule.
Religion
¯ The Rozvi believed in the Supreme Being Mwari who was worshiped through
the ancestors. They also worshiped God through the mediums of Chaminuka,
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Nehanda and Kaguvi.

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Social organization

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¯ People stayed in communities leaded by village chiefs/ heads. They shared

Moyo totem. The practised ritual and religious and rain making ceremonies.
Practised inter-marriages. Lobola was paid for the bride. Community elders
settled domestic disputes. There was division of labour between males and
females. Women produced grain and vegetables while men hunted meat,
herded cattle and worked as soldiers.
Economic organization
1. Trade- the Mambo and the ruling class control the trade and mining of gold.
Following their defeat of the Portuguese they diverted the gold routes which
now passed through the Rozvi State. The trade (long distance) was in goods
like shells, cloth, distilled drink and ceramics.
2. Tribute- the Mambo collected tribute from his subjects through vassal chiefs.
Those who refused to pay tribute were heavily punished by Tumbare. Tribute
was paid in form of grain, gold, ivory, animal skins, iron tools and foreigners
paid in form of cloth, ceramics, guns etc.
3. Livestock production- Much emphasis was placed on cattle production
though sheep and goats rearing was also important. This is confirmed by the
archaeological findings of numerous cattle bones that indicated cattle rearing
as a major economic activity. Royal herds were looked after by commoners
who in turn were granted the use of the beast for meat and bride wealth.
Individuals kept cattle for food, draft power, tribute payment, bride wealth,
rituals and trade.
Uses of cattle in the Rozvi State
¯ To pay lobola
¯ To provide draft power
¯ To provide meat, milk, skins and manure
¯ Cattle were killed at religious ritual ceremonies
¯ It was a symbol of wealth
¯ Were used in trade
¯ Were used to pay tribute
¯ Cattle skins were used to make drums

4. Grain production- Much emphasis was on the production of cereals such as

sorghum, rapoko and millet. It was the king who allocated land for grain
production. The cereals were used for domestic consumption, tribute
payment and trade. Shifting cultivation was practised.
5. Hunting- It was the most activity of the Rozvi and was intended to provide
variety of food and balanced diet. In times of drought it was the main means
of getting food.
6. Mining-The main ores mined were gold, copper and iron. Craftsman worked
the gold and copper into jewellery e.g. bangles and anklets while iron were
fogged into tools such as spears, hoes and knives. The gold and copper
24

products were then traded and iron tools were also traded but most of them
were used in grain production, hunting and mining
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7. Manufacturing-The main activities in local manufacturing where weaving of

cotton fabrics, pottery making mostly done by women and caving of the
soapstone birds was done by men.
8. Pottery- Mostly made by specialised women. Pots were used for various
purposes for example storage of food, cooking, brewing beer, rituals
associated with death and appeasing ancestral spirits.
Decline of the state
¯ The Rozvi state was on decline in the late 18th century and this was due to :

1. Serious drought- the state went through economic challenges. It was affected
by droughts in early 19th century and this was not unusual. It is how
Changamire dealt with that situation through raiding weaker states for food.
Very unfortunate, the then ruling King failed to conduct successful raids.
Droughts weakened the economy in terms of food shortages, degradation of
arable lands, depletion of cattle and wild animals to hunt.
2. Civil wars within the state- civil wars/quarrels within the state over leadership
were unusual but towards the end of the 18th century, succession disputes
over leadership which culminated into civil wars were very severe. Weaker
groups and some of the members of the royal family run away in search of
peace areas. This partly explains how the Rozvi state was deserted.
3. Invasions by the Mfecane leaders such as Nguni of Zwangendaba and the
Ndebele of the Mzilikazi in the late 1830s. By 1840 the remains of the Rozvi
state was taken over by the Ndebele state.
4. Rebellions by vassal chiefs who proclaim their independence caused loss of
population. Many chiefs stopped paying tribute to the Rozvi Mambo and were
a direct challenge to the King. Additionally, it shows that the king was losing
power.
5. The killing of Chirisamhuru 2 by the general woman Nyamazana left the Rozvi
state leaderless and it culminated succession disputes hence weakened the
state. Nyamazana entered the Rozvi territory to the heart of it and she
crossed over Zambezi valley in1835, she proceeded northwards and settled in
Malawi. She gave a very serious blow to the Rozvi since she arrived soon
after Zwangendaba had left.

NGUNI STATES OF SOUTH AFRICA

GROUP LEADER
Mthetwa Dingiswayo
Ngwane Sobhuza
Ndwandwe Zwide
Zulu Senzangakona- Tshaka
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Khumalo Mzilikazi
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THE ZULU STATE

¯ Zulu clan- Senzangakona

¯ Zulu- Tshaka/ Chaka-Dingane
Who was Tshaka
¯ Tshaka was the son of Nandi and Senzangakona.
¯ Nandi and the boy Tshaka were sent away from their family forcing Tshaka to
grow amoungst his uncles.
¯ Dingiswayo recruited Tshaka into his army. Tshaka demonstrated his abilities
in Dingiswayo’s army and he got favour to be army commander.
¯ When Senzangakona died, dingiswayo helped Tshaka to assassinate
Sigujana who was supposed to be King
¯ Assasinate- to kill for political reasons
¯ Tshaka became Zulu king after killing Sugujana
Formation of the Zulu empire
¯ It was formed when Tshaka defeated all other Nguni states after
Dingiswayo’s death.
¯ He combined all defeated states under his authority. States which did not
accept Tshaka’s rule were pushed out of Zulu land by Tshaka’s ruthless
army.
¯ The formation relied much on Tshaka, military organisational abilities to form
a strong standing army.
Tshaka reforms in the army
1. Introduced forced conscription on all males below the age of 40 years.
2. Tshaka banned circumcission and initiatian ceremonies.
3. Soldiers went to war barefooted for greater speed.
4. Tshaka introduced a short stabbing spear called assegai for use at close
combat.
5. Tshaka also introduced a long shield for maximum protection from flying
spears
6. Young boys were used as baggage carriers.
7. Marriage for men was allowed at the age of 40 after they had washed their
spears with blood (after they proved themselves in the battle)
8. He introduced the cow-horn formation to en-circle and attack the enemy by
surprise.
9. He divided his army into three age regiments under different commanders or
Indunas
26

Political organization
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¯ Tshaka was a dictator or absolute ruller. He was assisted by Indunas and

members of the royal family who were his advisors in making national
decisions.
¯ Chiefs paid tribute to the king as asign of loyalty.
Zulu social organization

¯ They believed in Unkulunkulu whom they worshiped through spirit mediums.

They practiced initiation ceremonies. They celebrated the annual Inxwala –
first fruit of the season. Celebrated Inkata ceremony which was the unity day.
¯ Grass was woven to make distinctive features which were displayed on the
day.
¯ They played Zulu type of traditional dances in honouring their ceremonies.
Economic organization

¯ Practiced raiding as a source of wealth and food for Tshaka’s soldiers.

¯ Tribute was obtained from vassal chiefs.
¯ They were pastoralists/ animal keepers.
¯ They grew grain crops e.g. maize, millet, rapoko etc.
¯ Hunted animals for ivory, meat and skins.
¯ Mined minerals like gold and iron.
¯ Practiced iron smelting and blacksmithing.
¯ Practiced domestic/ internal trade e.g. meat and millet. Practiced long
distance/ external trade at Natal and Delagoa Bay. External trade was
controlled by the King because it was profitable.
Decline of the state
1. The assasination of Tshaka by his young brother Dingane weakened the
state. Dingane killed Tshaka and became Zulu king. He lacked charisma and
leadership qualities. Dingane failed to keep the Zulu state intact.
2. Dingane failed to stop the European entry into the state which weakened his
power. Dingane signed an agreement with Boer leader Piet Retiet and gave
them land. The agreement was signed at his capital Umgungundhlovu.
Dingane advised Boers to drink beer with him and as they were drunk called
his soldiers to kill them. Boers organised to attack the Zulu state as revenge.
Zulu army was defeated by the Boers at the Blood River Battle in 1838
marking the end of the Zulu nation. Zulu army was defeated due to inferior
weapons compared to Boers’ guns and canoes.
3. The Mahlauthule drought also weakened the state in 1838.

MFECANE/ DEFECANE
Introduction
In the last quarter of the 19th century South Africa experienced revolutionary
27

¯
political changes that led to the inter-clan conflicts over the control of trade
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routes and natural resources. These conflicts refered to as Mfecane meaning

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time of trouble/ time of crashing resulted in weaker clans arbsorbed by the

more stronger.
¯ In South Africa the region experienced serious climatic changes that resulted
in drought. The drought led to the reduction of pastures for livestock and
agricultural activity. In order to survive the Nguni clans had to rely on hunting
and gathering.
¯ It was at this point that the control of elephant hunting became important.
Competition over the control of existing resources led to wars, smaller clans
were destroyed, larger kingdoms were created, and migration of othrs took
place e.g. Khumalo under Mzilikazi.

Effects of the mfecane

¯ Burning of people’s homes.
¯ People were killed.
¯ Property were confisticated.
¯ Loss of freedom and independence of smaller states- States encountered
during mass migration from Zululand were attacked and destroyed e.g. the
general woman Nyamazana skinned alive and killed Rozvi king
Chirisamhuru 2 at Khami ruins in Bulawayo.
¯ Powerful kingdoms were created- It led to the rise of able bodied leader/
nation builder like Mzilikazi in Zimbabwe.
¯ Migration of defeated clans

States defeated by Tshaka

¯ The death of Dingiswayo of the Mthetwa who rulled Nguniland as a powerful

chief left Tshaka to emerge superior in Nguniland. Groups and their leaders
who ran away from Tshaka were:
1. Ndwandwe of Zwide
2. Kololo of Sebatwana
3. Shangaani of Soshangane
4. Khumalo of Mzilikazi
5. Ngwane of Sobuza
6. Zwangendaba’s group

THE NDEBELE STATE

Background
28

¯ While in Zululand, the Ndebele people were known as the Khumalo clan.
¯ Mzilikazi was the son of king Matshobani of the Khumalo clan.
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¯ Khumalo clan was once controlled by Ndwandwe of Zwide.

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¯ The defeat of Ndwandwe by Tshaka resulted in Mzilikazi being Tshaka’s

Induna.
¯ Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka for a raiding mission but he did not surrender
the booty to Tshaka.
¯ Tshaka sent another regiment to punish him, thus Mzilikazi ran away with his
people.
Origin
¯ The rise of Ndebele State is largely explained by a combination:

1. Mfecane – The rise of Ndebele State was a by-product of the political

upheaval of Mfecane. Due to the trouble in Zulu land Mzilikazi; the chief of the
Khumalo clan and one of the top ranked military commanders of Tshaka
broke away from Tshaka in 1822. He migrated north-wards, crossed the
Limpopo River and settled in the South-western part of modern Zimbabwe
inhabited by the Rozvi people. He conquered the Rozvi people and founded a
new state called the Ndebele State.
2. Inco-operation of different ethnic groups into his own state through
military campaigns-
¯ During the journey northwards Mzilikazi conquered and Incorporated other
ethnic groups to become part of the Ndebele kingdom. In1836-1837 Mzilikazi
and his people conquered and incorporated large number of the Swazi and
Sotho communities when they were settled in Marico River Base. In1838
Mzilikazi raided and incorporated the Tswana. In 1839 the Ndebele crossed
the Limpopo River. They then entered the South-western part of Zimbabwe
were they conquered and incorporated the Rozvi people who were the original
inhabitancies of the area.
3. The ability and skills of Mzilikazi

a) Military skills –Mzilikazi had a strong military background inquired in the

Zulu Land. He was one of Tshaka’s top-ranked military commanders. He
was well versed with the Zulu styles of military warfare introduced by
Tshaka. The Zulu used the assegai, the cow-horn battle formation,
regimental systems based on age groups and the use of speed and
surprise night attacks. Given this military background it is therefore not
surprising that Mzilikazi was successful in carrying out military
campaigns. He managed to conquer and incorporate the Swazi, Sotho,
Tswana and Rozvi communities in his newly created state.
b) Administration skills- Mzilikazi had administrating background. Among
the Zulus he gained knowledge of a high centralised administration. In
this system the King retained absolute authority and was assisted by
territorial chiefs, Indunas who were military commanders. Such
knowledge was used by Mzilikazi to create the Ndebele state. This
explains why the newly created Ndebele state was modelled on the Zulu
traditions and organisation. Thus political, military and socio-economic
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organisation of Ndebele strongly resembled that of Zulu kingdom.

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Political structure

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1. Centralization- Power was centralised on the King who was the head of the
state. The Ndebele king was :
¯ Chief Judge who presides over all the judiciary.
¯ High priest who presided over all the national religious ceremonies.
¯ Commander in chief who was in charge of the military and had power of life
and death.
¯ Chief administrator who distributed land, cattle and captives such as woman
to his people.
¯ King also made major decisions of the state’s day to day functioning.
NB It is important to recognise that the Ndebele king was not an absolute ruler. This
is in view of the fact that he shared some of his duties with a council of advisors
known as Umphakati.
2. Militarism- The Ndebele state was militarised. This is because the state was
divided into regimental towns which in turn created provinces. All in all the
state had four provinces namely:
¯ Amahlope located at the centre of the state,
¯ Amnyama located in the south,
¯ Amakanda located in the east and
¯ Iyabo located in the west.
Each regimental town was under a military leader called Induna Enkulu and the town
was protected by amabutho.
3. The army- Ndebele state had a standing army whose commander in chief
was the Ndebele king. Under the king was the Induna Enkulu who was in
charge of Amabutho of the regimental towns. Below them were the Induna
who commanded the Ibutho. The young men were placed within the
regiments according to their age groups. Upon reaching adult hood, these
young men were then drafted in the Ndebele army. They were expected to
distinguish themselves in the battle before being discharged and allowed to
marry. The Ndebele army was used to maintain law and order. It was also
used for raiding those Shona groups that refused to submit to the Ndebele
rule. The Ndebele army therefore was an instrument of creating wealth.

The Ndebele political hierarchy

1. King- was assisted to rule his state by two advisory councils known as
Umphakati and Izikhulu.
2. Umphakati – It was made up of selected and most trusted chiefs together
with the royal family members of the king. It was king’s chief advisory board
which helped him in major decisions. It discussed and passed all major
decisions of the state. It can be linked to the cabinet system of today in its
operation.
3. Izikhulu- It was the largest council of the state. It was made up of all chiefs,
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Indunas and elders of the community. It reported to the Umphakati on its

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decisions. Elders were chosen because of their knowledge of traditions and

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history. It discussed national issues in line with tradition. Like Tshaka,

Mzilikazi made regimental towns led by Induna/ district administrator.
Provinces were led by Induna Inkulu/Governors. Town Indunas commanded
armies in their towns. They reported to the Induna Inkulu and also to the King.
The Ndebele king was kept well informed by his Indunas.
Social organization
¯ The Ndebele society was divided into three distinctive social classes which
are: Zansi, Enhla and Amahole (Hole)
1. Zansi- was the original Khumalo people who left Zululand with Mzilikazi. They
occupied all major political posts and enjoyed a lot of privileges. It included
members of the royal family. By 1890, the Zansi comprised 15% of the total
population.
2. Enhla- this group comprised of those people who were conquered and
incorporated into the Ndebele kingdom. They were the Sotho and the Tswana
people. They occupied the middle level posts within the society. By 1890, the
Enhla comprised of 25% of the total population.
3. Amahole – the Amahole were the original inhabitants of the area in the
southwest of Zimbabwe. They were the Rozvi people. They were at the
bottom level of the social hierarchy. By 1890 they comprised 60% of the total
population. It could not make decisions, it was raided for cattle and food and it
was an agrarian and mining class.
Religion- the Zansi worshiped God whom they called Unkulunkulu. The Sotho
worshiped God whom they called Umlimu and the Amahole worshiped Mwari Cult.
The Ndebele king played a central role in national religious activities. They observed
inxwala ceremony. They borrowed Rozvi religious practices e.g. worshipping Mwari/
Umlimu and they also began to believe in the use of Masvikiro/ Amadhlozi.
Economic organization
The Ndebele state had a mixed or diversified economy. It was based on:
1. Livestock production- livestock production was the mainstay of the Ndebele
economy. There was the national head that was held in trust by the king and
the individual cattle which were privately owned by the people. Some of the
Ndebele cattle were supplied through raiding some groups (Shona groups
that refused to submit and pay tribute to the Ndebele). Some of the cattle
were offered as tribute. The national herd were mostly used to reward soldiers
and chiefs. The individual Ndebeles used their cattle for food, trade, tribute
payment, payment of Lobola and for religious ceremonies. Shona groups
used their cattle for milk and draught power. Some of the Ndebele cattle were
loaned (kuronzera) to Shona groups within the Ndebele tributary system.
2. Crop production – recent evidence has shown that the Ndebele were
agriculturalists. Robert Moffatt reported in 1845 that the Ndebele prospered
with millet. Other grain crops produced by the Ndebele included rapoko and
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sorghum. The grain crops were produced on individual plots and the state
field. Such grain was used for food, trade, tribute payment and religious
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ceremonies.

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3. Trade- the Ndebele trading partners were the whites and the Shona. As early
as 1830s, the Ndebeles made conducts with the British and Boers. Through
trading relation with the whites, the Ndebeles acquired cloth, sugar, guns,
ammunition and knowledge to make gun powder. Upon creating the Ndebele
State in the western part of Zimbabwe, the Ndebele established trade with the
Shona. They exchanged their cattle for the Shona grain.
4. Local manufacturing- in the 1850s, the Ndebele made gun powder, tools,
pottery and the crafts.
5. Tribute system- the Ndebele operated a tributary system. Under this system,
the Shona groups who were once conquered and submitted to the Ndebele
rule would pay tribute to the Ndebele king. Such tribute was mostly in the form
of cattle and grain.
Ndebele- Shona relations
¯ Historians disagree on the relationship between Shona and the Ndebele
people. Others say that the relationship was very hostile due to raiding and
unequal opportunities between the two groups. The Ndebele raided the
Shona of grain and for also beautiful girls and boys. The Shona chiefs were
forced to pay tribute and those who failed to do so were raided as a sign of
punishment.
¯ Others say Shona-Ndebele relations were cordial or good because they co-
existed with each other peacefully. Although at first it was strictly prohibited,
later they enjoyed inter-marriages. They also shared the religious customs for
instance the Ndebele adopted the worship of the Mwari cult and some of the
Shona started to identify themselves as Ndebele. It is also important to note
that far away areas such as Kwekwe, Gweru, Mberengwa, Zvishavane were
left to remain independent from Ndebele rule.

THE SLAVE TRADE

¯ Slavery- is the practice of treating another human being as part of your

property.
¯ Slave trade- is the process of buying and selling human beings.
Introduction
¯ The European serfs were cunning across under “the Feudal system” where
slaves would be sold, bought or exchanged for goods.
¯ Throughout the world, slavery existed in one form or another.
¯ In traditional Zimbabwe we had what we called Nhapwa and this means
“captives”.
¯ There were people captured in war and were employed to do domestic work,
especially for royal family
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Origin of the slave trade

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¯ The economies of European countries were complex, involving in some cases

long-distance trade in a variety of items. Africa was thus not static or isolated.
Links with other parts of the world were developing and these were based on
equality.
¯ This was the time when European traders came to Africa, not to look for
traditional items of trade such as gold, ivory and cloth but to purchase people
to take oversees and save
¯ Slaves lost their freedom, possessions and were no longer in control of their
lives.
¯ From a human point of view, the selling and buying of people was a violation
of all moral principles.
¯ From an economic point of view, this trade in people saw the beginning of
poverty, ignorance and increased inequality among the African people. It was
the beginning of the process of underdevelopment in Africa.
The demand for slaves
¯ In Europe and America, the development of mercantile capitalism led to the
setting up of plantations and mines where human labour was required.
¯ From as early as the 17th century, small numbers of slaves were required by
some Feudal states of Europe, the Arab world and the far Eastern regions of
India and China.
¯ The Feudal leaders used slaves for various functions from domestic work to
cultivating fields and maintaining state security.
¯ This early demand for slaves was very small indeed
¯ Slave labour was required to work on European and Arab estates and
plantations within Africa.
¯ In the Zambezi region around Tete in modern Mozambique, slave labour was
used by Portuguese settlers on their vast estates known as Prazos.
¯ In East Africa slaves were in great demand from the beginning of the 18 th
century to work on clove and coconut plantations on the Islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba and the main land.
Why Africans were enslaved?
¯ Why Africans and not any other race were enslaved? Was it not possible to
enslave other people?
¯ Asians were the first race to be used in the American’s plantations as slaved
but they died in large numbers
¯ So African labour was sold
¯ Some writers argued that Africans were preferred because they were strong
and could resist diseases.
¯ Others have argued that Africa had many unwanted people who could be
sold into slavery without disturbing the existing social system.
¯ Both these arguments are weak. A more convincing argument is that, by the
beginning of the 15th century, Europe had the control of the sea through
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advances in boat building. This early advantage enabled Europe to expand

its empire to other parts of the world.
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¯ In these colonies, European merchants began to use African labour to create

wealth for themselves.
Organisation of the trade
¯ The Arabs organised themselves in parties of 50, 100 or even 500 depending
on the territory through which they were passing. If they were passing
through friendly or weak area, small parties were the norm.
¯ If they were passing through strong or hostile territories, bigger parties of up
to 1000 would be formed. If they were weak they were defeated and wiped
out. So they went into the interior armed for war. In the interior, they
established themselves at particular centres. Captured Africans were then
assembled at these centres.
The prices

¯ Henry Morton Stanley, the explorer found prices of slaves in East Africa
quoted as follows:
¯ A girl aged 13-18 worth 80-200 cloths
¯ A woman aged 18-20 worth 80-130 cloth
¯ A boy aged 13-18 worth 16-50 cloth
¯ A man aged 18-50 worth 10-50 cloth
¯ The prices of female slaves were so much higher than those for men. The
reason for these is likely to be that for both plantation labour and domestic
labour, women were found to be more useful than men. Also women gave
birth to children who automatically became slaves. So whoever bought a
female slave also bought several slaves still to be born.
The triangular trade
1. Manufactured goods moved from Europe to Africa
2. Slaves moved from Africa to America
3. Raw materials moved from America to Europe
Supply of slaves from West Africa
¯ Most of the people sold into slavery in the America and Atlantic Islands come
from West Africa.
¯ The 1st European merchants to sail to West Africa to obtain slaves were the
Portuguese in 1518.
¯ The supply of slaves increased and more European countries became
involved in the trade. By the 17th century Britain, France, the Netherlands and
Spain were all involved.
¯ By the 18th century Britain was the leading buyer of slaves from West Africa.
The main supply regions of slaves in West Africa

¯ From the 17th century up to the middle 18th century, the main supplying
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regions were the Sene-Gambia region, the upper Guinea Coast, Sierra
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Leone, the Gold Coast and the Slave Coast that is from the Volta River to
Benin.

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¯ After about 1730, the West Africa region stretching from Cameroon to Angola
became the main region for supplying slaves.
Supply of slaves from East Africa
¯ During the latter part of the 18th century, the supply of slaves from the West
African region decreased because of the growing anti-slavery movement in
some parts of Europe.
¯ This forced the slaves to concentrate on the East African region.
¯ In the 18th century, the development of Europe sugar plantations on the
Islands of Bourbon and Ile de France further stimulated the trade.
¯ Slaves were also exported to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands mainly in the
19th century, although not on the scale of the West Africa.
The main supply regions of East Africa

¯ It is said that Mozambique was exporting an average of 5400 slaves per year
between 1786 and 1794, while Kilwa and Zanzibar were selling 2500 slaves
per year to European merchants.
¯ Other sources of supply were Northern Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.
¯ Weaker ethnic groups such as Makua, Makonde, Ngindo, Wanyase and
Achikunda were sold into slavery.
¯ The stronger, war like groups such as the Yao, Nyamwezi and Ngoni were
the middlemen in the East Africa slave trade.
¯ The external supply of slaves from East Africa declined from 1820s partly
because of British anti-slavery moves in Mauritius, India and other Christian
countries in the Far East.
¯ Because of this decline in the external demand, more and more slaves were
supplied to the Arab owned plantations on the Islands of Zanzibar and
Pemba.
Effects of slave trade
The slave trade affected Africa for close to 400 years.
1. East Africa was ravaged and depopulated into the interior.
¯ The slaves that reached the Coast are thought to be about 150 of the total
destroyed by the trade.
¯ Many more died in the inter-tribal wars organised by African chiefs to catch
slaves for sale to the Arab settlements.
¯ More died on the long march to the Coast.
¯ In this respect, the effects of the trade on East Africa were similar to what
happened in West Africa.
2. The trade caused as much uncertainty in East Africa as in West Africa.
¯ Plans for the future were abandoned. Homes became temporary,
expensive cultivation of crops became impossible. People started to live
from day to day.
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¯ Starvation and malnutrition were inevitable consequences with the result

that many more people died of malnutrition or from lack of resistance to
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diseases as a result of malnutrition.

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3. As in West Africa cultural development was brought to a halt.

¯ The Africans who had acquired the skills of spinning and weaving, iron craft,
basket and pottery were provided with ready-made articles.
¯ Instead of concentrating on developing their own skills, they diverted their
attention to raiding each other and in that way obtained the ready made
goods.
¯ In addition, the development of these skills needed political and social
stability. This was shattered by raids.
4. Several powerful kingdoms came into existence in East Africa
¯ The Nyamwezi of Tanganyika, the Bemba of Zambia, the Bisa and the Yao
are the good examples of this.
¯ This is not really a credit to the Arab slave traders for the existence of these
powerful kingdoms, only made them more destructive to the weaker ones.
SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
Definition of terms
¯ Scramble means a struggle against others for something.
¯ Partition means a thin dividing war or cutting up into parts.
¯ Imperialism means the process of acquiring administering and exploiting
colonies or it means the acquisitions of regions or pieces of territories that
were originally not used or it means the process of exploiting foreign lands
and foreign people for personal benefit. It normally involves conquering and
subjugating (place under your control normally by force) a foreign people.
European powers which scrambled for Africa
1. Britain
2. France
3. Germany
4. Portugal
5. Italy
6. Spain
7. Belgium
Reasons for the scramble
1. The need to get and control areas of vast economical resources in Africa e.g.
minerals, land and animals.
2. Land for agriculture e.g. cotton, maize, tobacco, rice, wheat, sugar etc.
3. Cheap labour for their plantations and mines. Europeans believed that Africa
had many people who are lying idle.
4. Ready markets for European supplier goods.
5. To invest surplus capital or profit made in Europe.
6. To have a large sphere or area of social, economy and political influence
outside Europe.
36

THE BERLIN COLONIAL CONFERENCE OF 1884-1885

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¯ The conference was held in Germany aiming at putting rules to prevent

conflicts among imperial powers.
Terms agreed
1. All powers to enjoy freedom of navigation on major rivers that is Zambezi,
Congo, Niger.
2. Before areas could be claimed as colonies, treaties would be signed with
African chiefs.
3. Other imperial powers should be notified of any claim to allow them to make
counter claims.
4. All claims to be followed by effective occupation in order to be valid.
5. The European powers were to stop slave trade in the areas occupied.
NB – The conference stimulated the race for colonies in Africa hence the process
which had begun earlier was speeded up in a peaceful atmosphere.
How Africa was divided by Europeans

Colonial Power Colonies

a) Britain Zimbabwe, Gambia, Sierra Leone,

Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan,
etc.
b) France Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Mali,
Guinea, Dahomey, Chad, etc.
c) Germany Cameroon, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia,
etc.
d) Portugal Mozambique, Angola, Part of Guinea, etc

e) Belgium Congo

f) Spain Part of Morocco

g) Italy Libya, Somaliland, Eritrea, etc

Results of the partition of Africa

¯ New boundaries were created in the conquered African states.
¯ Local families which had history were separated as the Europeans were
dividing Africa amongst themselves e.g. in Zimbabwe the shona fell some in
Mozambique and others in Zimbabwe.
¯ In the colonies the British for example installed new chiefs who were loyal to
British needs and those who resisted were removed from power.
¯ African chiefs lost their duties to the settlers/whites for example duties of
distributing land and presiding over court cases.
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¯ The locals were recruited to work in farms and mines which had been created
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by the colonizers.

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¯ Local resources such as land and minerals were exploited and any resistant
was severely crushed.
¯ Forced labour was introduced to the Africans.
¯ Infrastructure was developed in administration centres such as Salisbury in
Zimbabwe, Lusaka in Zambia etc.
¯ Many African chiefs were killed or sent into exile because of the scramble and
partition in east Africa for example kabalenga and Mwanga were exiled while
chief Mkwawa of the Hehe was beheaded for resisting German colonial rule in
Tanganyika.
¯ Introduction of new systems of administration i.e. indirect rule by the British,
direct rule by the Germany and assimilation by the Portuguese.
¯ Slave trade was completely wiped out and replaced by legitimate trade
especially in East Africa.
¯ Agriculture was promoted and developed and some of the cash crops were
introduced became the export base for many African states.

THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

Background
¯ Britain under its representative in South Africa called Cecil John Rhodes
picked Zimbabwe as its colony.
¯ He sent various messengers to king Lobengula of the Ndebele to sign
different treaties after the Boers and individual concession seekers had made
their own attempts which were successful.
Why Zimbabwe was colonized
(a) Mineral wealth
¯ Zimbabwe was suspected to have rich mineral deposits such as gold and
diamond.
¯ This was after the discovery of gold and diamond in South Africa in the 1880s.
¯ The Portuguese thus described the land between Zambezi and Limpopo as
eldarado meaning “a land of gold”
¯ Eager to seize land of gold, Rhodes strove to take Zimbabwe against the
Boers, Portuguese and Germans.
(b) Strategic motive
¯ Zimbabwe was colonized by the British as a result of the British attempt to
force the Boers to accept the confederation of South Africa under the British
rule.
¯ The British wanted to prevent the Boers from expanding north of the Limpopo.
¯ The strategic motive is shown when the Boers signed the Grobler treaty;
Rhodes hurriedly ensured the signing of the Moffart treaty.
(c) Prestigious motives
¯ Rhodes was an imperialist who believed in the increase of British prestige and
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wanted to seize the whole Africa.

¯ The Cape to Cairo scheme shows that Zimbabwe would have been colonized
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to raise British supremacy.

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¯ The British wanted to colonize Africa to show their strength and greatness to
other European Powers.
(d) Missionary factor
¯ Missionaries played an important role in the colonization of Zimbabwe.
¯ They supported the colonization of Zimbabwe because they had failed to convert
any single soul in Matebeleland.
Treaties signed by Lobengula between 1870- 1894
1. Tati concession (1870)
2. Grobbler treaty (1887)
3. Moffat treaty (1888)
4. Rudd concession (1888)
5. Lippert concession (1890) etc.

Tati concession

¯ Lobengula granted too small but important mineral concessions in 1870.

¯ He gave Thomas Baines of Northern Gold Fields a concession around the
modern Midlands area of Zimbabwe.
¯ He also granted John Swinburne of the London and Limpopo Company a
mining concession in the Tati area.
Terms
¯ They were granted permission to operate machinery and erect buildings.
¯ Lobengula would be paid 60 pounds per year.
Why Lobengula granted the Tati concession

¯ Lobengula granted permission due to his insecurity on the throne and hope
that the two companies would support him in case of any trouble. This is
because there was a succession crisis following the death of Mzilikazi in
1868.
NB –The concession was not granted within Matebeleland but in the Tributary
states.

Grobbler treaty 1887

¯ It was a treaty signed between Lobengula and Piet Grobbler, a man from
Transvaal who was an agent/ representative of Paul Krugger.
¯ It was an agreement of friendship between Transvaal and Matebeleland.
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Terms
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¯ It was a verbal agreement whereby the King agreed to catch and extradite all
criminals who escaped from the South African republic.
¯ Hunters and traders from the South African republic would be allowed to
operate in Lobengula’s kingdom without hindrances.
¯ It was also agreed that a permanent ambassador would administer justice the
citizens of the Boer republic in South Africa who might violate Lobengula’s
law.
¯ Lobengula agreed to provide military assistance to the Transvaal in the event
of war between the British and the Boers.
¯ Lobengula was not allowed to administer the Boers and thus the content of
the treaty was entirely in favour of the Boers.
Effects
¯ It triggered the scramble for Zimbabwe as a lot of concession seekers
streamed into the country.
¯ Robinson, the then British governor in the Cape was alarmed by the Boer
activities and thus dispatched John Smith Moffart to the Ndebele Kingdom to
cancel the Grobbler treaty in 1888.

The Moffart treaty (February 1888)

Aims
¯ The main purpose of Moffart’s mission was to reverse the Gobbler treaty of
1887 and to bring Matebeleland into the British sphere of influence as a step
towards the British occupation of Zimbabwe.
¯ The treaty was signed by Lobengula and John Smith Moffart. Moffart was sent
because he was the son of Robert Moffart who had been friended
Lobengula’s father during the 1820s. It was hoped that this relationship would
help to oil the wills of diplomacy.
Terms
¯ It affirmed that peace and amity should continue to prevail between the British
and the Ndebele.
¯ Lobengula was persuaded to make no dealing with any other foreign power
without the knowledge and permission of the British High commissioner or
Lobengula promise that if and when he tended to cede any land to another
imperial power, he must consult the British first.
NB – Lobengula had no intention to cede land to another imperial power and thus
probably why he signed.
Effects
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¯ It brought the British a step forward towards the colonisation of Zimbabwe. In

order for the British to safeguard or consolidate their position they now sought
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for another concession from Lobengula.

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¯ It eliminated other players in the scramble for Zimbabwe.

THE RUDD CONCESSION (30 OCTOBER 1888)

It was signed on 30 October 1888. It was signed between Lobengula and three
concession seekers Rochfort Maguire the lawyer, Francis Thompson and Charles
Rudd and these men were sent by Cecil John Rhodes.
Written terms
¯ 1000 rifles and hundred thousand rounds of ammunition.
¯ £100 per month.
¯ A gun boat to be placed in the Zambezi river in return.
¯ Lobengula promised to grand mining rights to Rhodes.
Verbal terms

¯ Lobengula promised that no more than ten men would enter his kingdom.
¯ He promised that those entering the Ndebele kingdom would follow the
Ndebele laws/rules.
¯ If and when acquired to do so, those entering the kingdom would assist
Lobengula in defending his state.
¯ No entrance of men and machinery into the Ndebele kingdom before the
payment of first instalment of the guns promised.
¯ The concession to be published in newspaper for the world to know.
NB- because these promises were not included in the final draft of the written
document it means they were useless. If there had been included Lobengula could
have reserved his sovereignty.
Effects

¯ It led to the colonisation of modern day Zimbabwe.

LOBENGULA’S REACTION

¯ Now is important to look at Lobengula’s reaction after the Rudd concession.

¯ After E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated by Rhodes’s
men, he wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession.
¯ He also wrote a letter to the British High Commissioner based in Botswana.
¯ He also sent two emissaries to the Queen in England accompanied by
Maund.
¯ Lobengula even killed his two Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, because they
had misled the king into signing the Rudd Concession.
¯ Lobengula invited many explorers to explain to him about the Rudd
Concession.
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¯ He continued to emphasize the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to

those at his court.
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¯ Lobengula publicly denounced the Rudd concession and a search party was
sent after Maguire.
¯ Lobengula finally signed the Lippert treaty to frustrate Rhodes
¯ However despite Lobengula’s efforts to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe,
the diplomacy of Rhodes as well as missionary chicanery made the
colonization of Zimbabwe predetermined.

LIPPERT CONCESSION
After failing to repudiate the Rudd Concession Lobengula made his one last attempt
to delay colonisation he attempted to play off the BSAC against an individual
concession seeker. Lobengula granted the Lippert Concession to Edward Lippert
under the agreement: Lippert was given a land grant to build infrastructure that is
roads and settlement. However this move was thwarted by Rhodes who purchased
the concession from Edward Lippert.
THE ROYAL CHARTER 1889
¯ After the Rudd concession, Rhodes wasted no time in seeking a royal charter
from the queen.
¯ A charter is an official document from a queen granting somebody a
permission to do something on behalf of a certain government.
¯ The charter was granted to Rhodes in October 1889 by the queen.
¯ The Charter granted Rhodes and his group the following:
(a) To promote good governance
(b) To preserve peace and order
(c) To issue mining concessions
(d) To grant plots of land
(e) To establish banks
(f) To make roads, railways and telegraphs
(g) To promote trade and commerce
(h) To promote civilization
(i) To respect the local customs, laws and religion
(j) To ban the sale of liquor to the locals
(k) To abolish slave trade

¯ By the provisions of the charter the result was that Rhodes and his group
were given all power to take over and rule the region to the north of Limpopo.
¯ Another result was the formation of the BSAC which was to invade Zimbabwe.

THE PIONEER COLUMN

¯ The charter made Rhodes to form a company which was to invade Zimbabwe.
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¯ Rhodes’ main partner in the invasion of Zimbabwe was Leander Star

Jameson.
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¯ In 1890 they organized a private army to occupy Zimbabwe.

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¯ This was called the Pioneer Column which was made up of traders, farmers,
carpenters, builders, bakers and blacksmiths.
¯ The members of the Pioneers had each been promised 15 gold claims and
1200 hectares of land in Mashonaland.
¯ In June 1890 they started their journey to Mashonaland.
¯ The guider of the party was FC Selous.
¯ They travelled quickly keeping away from the Ndebele State in case they
were attacked.
¯ On the way they established Forts at Tuli, Victoria and Charter.
¯ On 12 September they hoisted the Union Jack in Fort Salisbury signifying the
occupation of Mashonaland.
¯ From that day up to 18 April 1980, the country was a colony opf Britain for 90
years.
.
ANGLO NDEBELE WAR 1893-4
Causes
1. The company wanted to destroy the Ndebele kingdom because it symbolise
the independent African state.
2. The British settlers under Doctor Jameson the residence commissioner and
the Ndebele had divergent interest over the Shona people. The Ndebele
regarded the Eastern part of Zimbabwe as part of their tributary state system
whiles the company and the white settler farmers saw the Eastern part as
their source of labour.
3. Jameson thought the solution was on drawing and defining a boundary where
the Western part was Matebeleland and Eastern part Mashonaland under
whites. The problem was that it kept shifting into Matebeleland and Lobengula
was not willing to confine his raids within the Western part.
4. Arrival and settlement of white settlers in Eastern Zimbabwe interfered with
Ndebele tributary. Some Shona chiefs thought that an end to Ndebele raids.
Some stopped paid annual tribute e.g. chief Nemakonde and chief Chivi and
were killed for failure to submit to the Ndebele rule. To the British such acts
were unacceptable because they interfered with the British activities as the
Shona were their main source of cheap labour on their farms.
5. The BSAC envied Ndebele land and Cattle at the same time they were hoping
to discover gold, they had found little amount of gold in Mashonaland and the
company shares were failing.
6. The existence of large of large and powerful independent Africa State i.e.
Ndebele was greatly resented by the settlers who viewed it as a symbol of
Africa independence. They also thought that it would have a negative
influence of Africans under their control.
7. The Victoria incident- this incident took place following an attempt by
Lobengula to asset his authority over his tributary state system. 1892 incident
43

occurred in and around Masvingo which was a potentially wealthy agriculture

branching and mining. The white settlers were engaged in farming and mining
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using Shona as labourers. In May 1893 chief Gomara used Lobengula cattle

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to pay a fine to the British when his men had cut and carried away about 500
yards of telegraph wire. In the meantime Chief Bere took belonging to
Lobengula. A primitive expedition was sent by Lobengula with strict instruction
to avoid clashes with the settlers.
In July 1893 a raid was carried out, homes burnt, man killed and women and girls
driven in the neighbourhood of Fort Victoria. Farms and mines in Eastern were
deserted of African labour force. As a result economic activities came to stand still.
Jameson ordered Ndebele to leave the area within two hours but the Ndebele failed
to withdraw on time resulting in skirmishes between them and the white forces.
Eleven Ndebele worries were killed and the rest fled. Sensing victory the settlers
now demanded full scale war in order to destroy the Ndebele kingdom once and for
all.
The course of the war
¯ The Victorian incidents made Jameson to decide to destroy the Ndebele State
to preserve peace.
¯ After the incidents both the Whites and the Ndebele made preparations for the
war.
¯ By September 1892, Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed
Whites.
¯ They were aided by Black mercenaries from South Africa.
¯ Jameson promised them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each, if the
Ndebele were defeated.
¯ They would also receive a share of the Ndebele cattle.
¯ The settlers wanted to attack the Ndebele from three sides: Harare, Masvingo
and South Bulawayo.
¯ In October 1893, Matebeleland was invaded.
¯ The Ndebele strongly resisted but using traditional tactics which were no use
against the guns.
¯ The settler armies were able to break through the Ndebele defence along
Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers.
¯ Other Amabutho were attacked separately and forced to flee.
¯ On November 3, the settlers captured the Ndebele capital city, Bulawayo.
¯ Lobengula fled with his senior Indunas and were persued by Allan Wilson’
Party.
¯ The Ndebele Amabutho killed the Company patrols.
¯ In early 1894, Lobengula died and the rumour of his death marked the
surrender of the Ndebele and White victory.

Results
¯ Matebeleland was opened up for white settlement.
¯ The white settlers were given land grants, thus 6350 acres and 20 gold claims
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plus part of Ndebele cattle.

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¯ Two reserves namely Gwai and Shangani were created by Ndebele and were
dry infertile hot tsetse infested.
¯ The rest of the Ndebele cattle were taken over by the company by virtue of
conquest.
¯ White settlement brought taxation, forced labour and other forms of political and
exploitation.
¯ New communication channels were developed in Bulawayo.
¯ Telegraph line was erected which linked Bulawayo with Cape Town.
¯ Trading stores, Banks and new houses were established.
¯ A printed paper was produced.
Who is to blame for the war?

¯ The Whites played a part in causing the war of dispossession, hence they are to
blame.
¯ Jameson kept on shifting the boundary to the side of the Ndebele.
¯ More so the time given to Manyao and Mgandani was short and it was very
difficult for the Amabutho to move out of Masvingo.
¯ The Whites also deliberately delayed the letter sent by Lobengula soliciting for
peace.
¯ There was a secret arrangement between the BSAC and volunteers to destroy
the Ndebele state.
¯ The Amajaha are also to blame because they were restless trying to vent out
their exasperations.

THE FIRST CHINDUNDUMA 1896-7

Causes

a) The Ndebele regarded Gwai and Shangani reserves as graveyards.

b) The Ndebele cattle were taken by the Whites after the war of dispossession.
c) Both the Ndebele and the Shona were subjected to taxation e.g. hut taxes.
d) The use of Shona police angered the Ndebele who regarded the Shona as
inferior.
e) Both the Shona and the Ndebele were subjected to forced labour in mines and
farms.
f) The Whites were brutal to both the Shona and the Ndebele.
g) Natural disasters such as drought, rinderpest and locust made the native to fight
against the Whites as they were misinterpreted by the religious leaders.
h) The Shona were angered by the loss of their trade with the Portuguese.
Course of the war

¯ In March 1896 the Ndebele launched an attack against the Whites.

¯ They targeted isolated farms and areas where the Whites settled.
¯ About 130 Whites were killed during the last week of May 1896.
¯ The struggle was organized by Priests such as Umlugulu, Mkwati,
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Singinyamatshe and Mwabani.

¯ Many attacks were carried out by small Ndebele groups and larger regiments
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too.

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¯ In late April the Whites were winning the war , but the settlers did not realise
that the Shona were organizing another uprising in Mashonaland.
¯ In June the Chimurenga started in Hartely and this surprised the Whites who
regarded them as inferior.
¯ Between June 18 and 22, the Chimurenga spread to Mutoko, Marondera,
Headlands and Makoni District.
¯ Native Commissioners, White farmers and Miners were killed in few days.
¯ The Chimurenga in Mashonaland was organized by religious leaders and
paramount chiefs.
¯ Chiefs like Mashayamombe, Mashaba, Tumbare, Seke, Chinamora, Chihota,
Mangwende and Zvimba were united by religious leaders.
¯ The settlers dynamited the caves where the Shona hid and the capture of
Nehanda and Kaguvi led to the surrender of the Shona.

Results

¯ The Natives were defeated.

¯ Many natives died, but the number of the Whites was few.
¯ Trade and agriculture was disrupted.
¯ A system which was to check African ill-treatment was established.
¯ Hut tax was reduced.
¯ Effective control of the colony began.
¯ Many locals turned to Christianity to follow Western culture.
¯ More reserves were created.
¯ A land commission was established.
¯ There was railway expansion from Mafeking to Harare and from Beira to Harare,
and Bulawayo line reached Harare in 1897.
¯ Britain decided to monitor and control the operation of the BSAC in Rhodesia by
stationing the Commandant General and the British High Commissioner.
¯ The Chimurenga had effect of delaying the development of modern politics in
this country.
¯ Peace settlement called the Indaba Agreement was negotiated between
Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas.
The Indaba Agreement
¯ The war continued unabated and Rhodes was worried because:
(a) The fighting was costing the BSAC a lot of money.
(b) The mines were not working and the BSAC was losing its profits.
(c) The Whites were fighting war from two fronts i.e. Matebeleland and
Mashonaland.
¯ Rhodes decided to talk with the Natives.
¯ The Ndebele also wanted peace with the White because the villages, crops and
grain stores were being burned by the Whites.
¯ In August 1896, Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas had a meeting and agreed
46

the following:
i. Rhodes promised that the Ndebele could return to their lands if they
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agreed to stop fighting.

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ii. Rhodes chose 10 Indunas who would be paid a monthly salary.

iii. The trial of the Ndebele officials who committed crimes in the war.
iv. Mwari cult officials should be punished for their role in the war.
v. The Ndebele weapons were to be submitted to the settler government.
vi. Rhodes would give the Ndebele grain, food as well as seeds.
¯ By this agreement the Ndebele lost freedom and independence.
¯ Their arms were lost to the Whites and leaders were tried and sentenced to
death.
¯ The Whites therefore benefited at this agreement.
Reasons for Shona-Ndebele defeat
¯ The use of inferior weapons such as bows and arrows, etc.
¯ Superior weapons used by the Whites such as guns made the Natives to be
easily defeated.
¯ Lack of unit among the Natives.
¯ Collaboration with the Whites made the defeat of the Natives inevitable.
¯ The Natives lacked strategy as vital routes through which the Whites received
reinforcement were left open.
¯ The White received aid from Botswana, Britain and South Africa.
¯ Economic crises made the Natives to surrender.

POLITICAL STRUCTURES 1894-1923

¯ Zimbabwe was governed by the BSAC up to 1922
¯ The Administrator and the legislative Council were appointe4d by the
company.
¯ Voting was through property qualification.
¯ This resulted in Africans beings segregated from the voting roll as they did not
own the property demanded by the company for one to vote.
¯ The Whites used traditional chiefs to rule and to keep order among the
Africans in their Districts.
¯ Chiefs who refused to cooperate with the Whites were removed to be
replaced by those who were loyal.
¯ The Resident Minister approved any bill which was regarded unfair to the
Africans.
¯ The High commissioner based in South Africa dealt with most important
matters affecting the colony.
¯ The settlers occupied important positions in the government e.g. magistrates
and Native commissioners.
¯ Magistrates dealt with important issues affecting the settlers such as land
application and civil matters.
¯ The African chiefs assisted Native commissioners.
¯ By 1913, there were more settlers on the Legislative Council than company
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men.
¯ A referendum was held in 1922 and the majority of the settlers opted for self-
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rule rather than to be ruled by the company.

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¯ In October 1923, the settlers became responsible for all government except
defence and African affairs which were reserved for the British government.
¯ Thus Southern Rhodesia became an exclusive White colony.
THE COMPANY BSAC RULE 1894-23

¯ After the invasion and occupation of Zimbabwe, the BSAC started to enhance
infrastructure development.
¯ The Mutare to Beira railway was built and later linked to Salisbury.
¯ The Cape to Mafeking railway was later connected to Bulawayo.
¯ It is important to realise that African labour was used to build these railway
lines.
¯ In 1903 coal mining began in Wankie and in 1908 asbestos mining started at
shabanie.
¯ Mining activities led to the development of the economy.
¯ More so large tracks of land were used for farming by the volunteers of war.
¯ The BSAC remained with large tracks of land which it reserved.
¯ This land was left open for sell especially to the whites as the Blacks could not
afford.
¯ In 1914, 23% of the country was allocated as reserve land, 32% was given to
European individuals and 45% was for future use.
¯ This reveals how brutal were the Whites.
¯ Though they were few numerically they owned large tracks of land than the
Blacks who were the majority.
¯ The settlers were concerned with land ownership and they resented that the
land belong to the company.
¯ Due to such disagreements between the settlers and the company, the issue
was resolved in the court from which the verdict was that the company did not
own land but the Crown (British Government).
¯ With frustration, the company relinquished is power and in 1923 it was settler
independence.
¯ This became the reign of the Responsible Government up to 1953.
THE RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT 1923-53
¯ In 1922, referendum was held where the settlers voted for a responsible
government and the end of the company (BSAC) rule.
¯ A referendum is a general vote by the electorate on a single political question
which has been referred to them for a direct decision.
¯ The responsible government meant that the government control their own
affairs, but could not change the constitution without the British Government’s
approval.
¯ The new government continued with the system of exploiting the locals.
¯ The Africans played no political part in the responsible government.
¯ Due to settler exploitations in the early 1920s, Africans reacted by forming
organisations which would champion their grievances.
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¯ The idea of forming organizations came from South Africa, where workers had
organized themselves into groups to press for better working conditions.
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¯ A good example is the Mandebele Burial Society of 1915, Nyasa Boys Club
1917 and in 1918 the Port Herald Burial Society.
¯ In 1928 Masocha Ndlovu became the leader of the Industrial and Commercial
Workers Union (ICWU).
¯ This organization championed the grievances of the workers in urban areas
for better wages.
¯ The reign of the Responsible Government was characterised by exploitation
of resources and oppression of the Blacks.
EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES

¯ After implementing the constitutional changes, the Whites ensured maximum

exploitation of resources of Zimbabwe.
¯ As early as 1923, Wankie mine was being fully utilised taking coal which was
used in making tar and power for electricity as well as steam engines.
¯ Coal was exported to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) where it was used in
copper industries
¯ Asbestos was extracted from Shabanie and Shamva mines to develop fibre
related good and some exported.
¯ Chrome at Selukwe and Iron at Kwekwe were other minerals were taken by
the settlers.
¯ Land was used to develop agriculture
¯ In 1931, the Land Apportionment Act (LAA) was passed by Howard Moffart’s
(1927-1933) government.
¯ LAA was an act based on complete separation of Blacks and Whites.
¯ By this act the Blacks lost their land as large tracks of land were given to the
Whites.
¯ European agriculture developed to a larger extent because of this act.
¯ Several new methods of farming were introduced.
EARLY MINING

¯ The whites entered Zimbabwe to exploit minerals such as gold, copper, iron
etc.
¯ Big mines and small mines were opened in the early stages of colonization.
¯ Big mines included asbestos mine in Shabanie and Mashava; Chrome at
Selukwe; gold at Shamva and Iron at ZISCO Steel in Kwekwe.
¯ The locals were forced to provide labour in these mines.
¯ Before 1903, African chiefs were forced to send able bodied men to work in
mines and failure resulted in severe punishment.
¯ The company police could also raid the locals and forced them to work in
mines and any deserter were shot at.
¯ The Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) was an employment agent for
Africans.
¯ To avoid seasonal contracts, Africans were forced to sign long contracts.
¯ Many Africans died in mines because of poor working conditions and
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collapsing of the mines.

¯ The social conditions in mines were pathetic e.g. a single room could be used
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by 10 people.

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¯ All forced workers were called the Chibaro workers.

REPRESSION AND CONTROL
¯ To repress means to subdue by force.
¯ The Whites used many methods to oppress the Africans as well as controlling
their movement.
¯ In 1896, pass controls were introduced.
¯ Any Africans were asked to move with his passes when seeking a job, visiting
and travelling.
¯ Africans were asked to carry tax receipts with themselves.
¯ Africans responded to pass laws by using certificates belonging to other
people and even refused to produce the passes.
¯ Africans were subjected to direct and indirect forced labour.
¯ The Whites introduced many taxes as an indirect way of forcing Africans to
work.
¯ Taxes noted include:
a) 1893 – 240000 cattle were as tax from the Ndebele
b) 1894 – hut tax was introduced
c) 1903 – wife tax was imposed
d) 1912 – dog tax and grazing tax were imposed
e) 1931 – slaughter tax imposed
¯ The Whites created the RNLB was created for capturing men in rural areas
and forced them to sign long contracts for minimum or no wages.
LAWS PASSES BEFORE 1950 TO CONTROL AFRICAN ECONOMY
¯ Matebeleland Order in Council 1984
¯ Order In Council 1898
¯ Industrial Conciliation Act
¯ Native Registration Act
¯ Cattle Levy Act
¯ Land Commission Act
¯ Native passes Act
¯ Land Apportionment Act
PEASANT AGRICULTURE
¯ Up to the 1930s peasant agriculture was successful.
¯ This came as a result of the establishment of the government sponsored
agricultural colleges for example at Domboshava.
¯ New scientific methods in agriculture such as crop rotation were introduced.
¯ African students were recruited and taught.
¯ Agricultural demonstrators did a lot of work in the reserves.
¯ Successful farmers were given money and the title ‘master farmer’ and this
motivated them.
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¯ Peasants were encouraged to build contours to prevent erosion.

¯ Surplus maize could be sold through the Maize Marketing Board (MMB),
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while cattle through Cold Storage Commission (CSC).

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¯ The sale of cattle increased in the 1920s as the number of cattle had
increased to about two million.
¯ Overgrazing made the government to begin to control the number of cattle.
¯ The building of dip tanks was done to eradicate cattle diseases and improve
the quality of cattle.
¯ Successful farmers could buy land in the purchases areas.
¯ However the Land Apportionment Act (1930), Maize Control Act (1934) and
many controls done by the government; led to the fall of peasant farming.
FALL OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE
¯ Peasant farming finally declined due to the changes brought by the Whites.
¯ The LAA (1930) resulted in separation of land ownership and Africans were
given infertile barren land.
¯ The Rhodesian Government also set up a Settlement Department to promote
White settlement on good land and Blacks were given inhabitable areas.
¯ The government reduced the land that was in the hands of the natives.
¯ The Native Reserve Commission of 1914-15, for example, reduced the size of
the reserves by one million acres at a time when the African population was
growing.
¯ The Rhodesian government created white farming committees heavily
subsidised by the government.
¯ They grew similar crops to those grown by the natives.
¯ The White farmers had an advantage of access to roads, railways, markets
and cheap labour from the Africans.
¯ The whites were given loans to buy seeds and machineries while Africans
were neglected.
¯ White farmers were paid high prices for their produce while Africans were paid
lower although the quality of the crops was the same.
¯ All this led to the fall of peasant agriculture.
¯ The fall was worsened by the 1934 Maize Control Act which downgraded
African maize.
THE SETTLER AGRICULTURE
¯ Historians pointed out that settler agriculture prospered due to deliberate
exploitation of Africans to poverty.
¯ The settler farmers were highly funded by the government and this made
them to prosper.
¯ White farmers crops were bought at higher prices by the government.
¯ The White farmers received loans, seeds and machineries.
¯ The White farmers had an advantage of access to roads, railways, markets
and cheap labour from the Africans.
¯ Many Acts passed by the government favoured the White farmers, for
example the Land Apportionment Act of 1930 and the MCA of 1934.
¯ The settlers were given land at low prices.
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¯ All this led to the rise of settler agriculture.

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THE LAND APPORTIONMENT ACT 1930

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¯ It was a segregating law passed in 1930 by the colonial government and it

came into effect in 1931.
¯ The whites wanted to reserve land for their unborn children.
¯ The white, by this Act, owned large tracks of land while the Blacks who were
the majority owned few acres.
¯ The whites gave themselves 49 million acres while the Blacks were given 21
million acres and the rest land was reserved for future use.
¯ White district commissioners were given power to allocate land.
¯ The Blacks who lived on the land given to the whites were removed or were to
be workers of the whites e.g. the Tangwena people.
¯ The LAA divided Zimbabwean land into white owned and Black owned.
¯ The result of the act was that there were overcrowding into the reserves.
¯ Overgrazing became the order of the day because of overcrowding.
¯ The Backs were given land away from towns and roads and this made it
difficult for the peasants to transport their crops.
¯ Land given to the natives was not adequate and this made peasant
agriculture to be totally crippled.
THE LAND HUSBANDRY ACT 1951
¯ Peasant agriculture became seriously poor especially in the 1930s and the
government tried to improve the conditions.
¯ In 1951 the Land Husbandry Act was passed and by this act each peasant
household was given four to eight hectares of land.
¯ The family thus had to register this land as theirs.
¯ Common grazing lands were divided into plots for the people to settle.
¯ This was aimed at making space in the overcrowded reserves.
¯ All peasants household were forced to reduce their cattle herds.
¯ They were allowed no more than six animals each.
¯ Peasants became poorer than before after this act.
¯ Many peasants were unable to get land at all.
¯ The poor and the landless had no choice but to work for the whites
employers.
¯ This act resulted in continuous suffering of the Blacks.
¯ It also resulted in the rise of the second Chimurenga.
EDUCATION IN COLONIAL ERA
¯ Education introduced by the Whites segregated the Africans.
¯ Europeans had two aims when they introduced education to the Blacks:
a) To spread missionary work by enabling Africans to read and write.
b) To train people for industrial work.
¯ The curriculum (activities done at school) was European based.
¯ Children were taught European history and were forced to learn more about
European heroes like Napoleon, Queen Victoria and Vasco Da Gama.
¯ Local history was despised and people such as Nehanda, Tshaka, Kaguvi
52

and others were regarded as barbaric (primitive)

¯ By the educational ordinance of 1899, education of the White children was
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financed by the colonial government.

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¯ In 1903 the Education Ordinance emphasized the teaching of English to the

Africans for the purpose of communicating at work places.
¯ Schools were opened at Domboshava in 1920and Tsholotsho in 1922 for
industrial training.
¯ Government grants to mission schools remained low as compared to
government expenditure to European education.
¯ According to Norma Kriger, government expenditure per enrolled African
student was twenty nine dollars between 1972and 1973; compared to 338
dollars for enrolled European student in the same period.
¯ The first African secondary school was established at Goromonzi in 1946.
¯ Education during the Federation was better; however during the UDI
education faced many setbacks.
THE IDEA OF A FEDERATION
¯ A federation is a system of government in which self-governing states
unite for certain functions.
¯ In 1913 Jameson wanted a federation of Zimbabwe, Zambia and
Botswana.
¯ In 1930 the Victoria Falls Conference was called to discuss for a
federation.
¯ This conference failed to achieve its objective.
¯ Another conference was organised again at Victoria Falls in 1936.
¯ Sir Godfrey Huggins of Southern Rhodesia also favoured the federation of
Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi.
¯ It was at the 1936 meeting that that the idea of the federation was first
suggested.
¯ Britain sent the Bledsoe Commission to find out about the proposed
federation.
¯ The commission rejected the proposals.
¯ When the Afrikaner National Party won in elections, the Whites finally
agreed to form a federation.
¯ The reasons for the formation of a federation are:
a) Fear of African nationalism
b) The need to share profits
c) The need to share electricity
d) The need for Zambian copper
e) The need for common services such as education, health and
communication
f) To form a partnership with Blacks
THE WORK OF THE FEDERATION
¯ The Federation of three territories came into being in 1953.
¯ Africans had few representatives in the federal parliament.
¯ The federal Legislature had 35 members, 25 whites and only 6 Africans.
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¯ The work of the federal government benefited Southern Rhodesia to a

larger extent.
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¯ The capital of the federation was Salisbury in Southern Africa.

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO ZJC HISTORY
By
Magama & Madududu

¯ The Kariba Dam was built on the Southern side of the of the Zambezi river
against the advice of the economists.
¯ They agreed that in could cost less than 1 million pounds if built on the
Kafue River.
¯ The Federal university was in Salisbury.
¯ The federation also led to the development of infrastructure.
¯ It enabled the establishment of agricultural training centres such as Mlezu.

REACTION OF THE AFRICANS TO FEDERATION

¯ The Africans were not happy about the federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland.
¯ This was because the federation perpetuated racial discrimination.
¯ Furthermore the Africans were not represented well in the Federal
Parliament as there were only six African Members of Parliament.
¯ More so the African workers were lowly paid and the Africans were not
consulted to make political decisions.
¯ Due to such grievances, the Africans started to form political parties which
opposed the federation.
¯ These parties include the African national Congress (ANC), National
Democratic Party (NDP), Malawi Congress and Zimbabwe African
National Union (ZAPU)
¯ The leaders of such political parties include Joshua Nkomo, Kamuzu
Banda and Kenneth Kaunda.
¯ Through trade Unions the Africans staged strikes and demonstrations to
show their antipathy to the federation.
¯ Many writings were published which criticised the federation.
¯ Envoys were even sent to Britain to oppose the federation.
¯ Moreover, many violence campaigns were carried out especially in Malawi
(Nyasaland).
¯ However though the Africans opposed the Federation, it is important to
acknowledge that to a lesser extent they benefited from the establishment
of schools, hospitals and agricultural institutions.

ROLE OF BRITAIN IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEDERATION

¯ Britain refused the idea of amalgamation which the settlers were
spearheading.
¯ The colonial power (Britain) suggested a federation instead, based on
equal partnership between Africans and Whites.
¯ In 1950 Colonial secretary James Griffiths called for a conference at
Victoria Falls to discuss the federation ideas.
¯ In 1951 Churchill supported the idea of a federation and argued that all the
people would be satisfied.
¯ A conservative politician was sent by the British government and he
reported the affirmative response of the Africans.
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¯ A conference was called in London which finalized the formation of the

federation.
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 AN INTRODUCTION TO ZJC HISTORY
By
Magama & Madududu

¯ The Whites were happy because the Federation would preserve White
domination.
¯ However the Blacks were not happy because they were not consulted in
the conferences.

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