1

Language Structure and Use

Ah, Language!
Verbal language is unique to human beings. It allows us to express our deepest feel-
ings, our broadest concepts, our highest ideals. It takes us beyond the here and now,
and even beyond the possible—by means of language, we might join the attackers
at the siege of Troy or journey through the looking glass with Alice. Language can
connect humans as children listen to stories before the fireplace on a cold winter
night; or it can, together with culture, divide two peoples into bitter sectarian war-
fare. Language communicates the heights of joy and the depths of despair.
Language equalizes—preschoolers as well as professors can be considered
native speakers of their first language. Alternatively, language reflects inequality—
dialect distinctions often demarcate social class. Almost all aspects of a person’s
life are touched by language. Although language is universal, each language has
evolved to meet the experiences, needs, and desires of a particular community.
Understanding language structure and use provides teachers with essential
tools to help students learn. All languages share universal features, such as the abil-
ity to label objects and to describe actions and events. All languages are divided
into various subsystems (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and prag-
matics). What is most amazing is that language users learn all these subsystems of
their first language without realizing it—native speakers are not necessarily able to
explain a sound pattern, a grammatical point, or the use of idiomatic expression.
To them, that is “just the way it is.” Language, then, is a system that works even
without conscious awareness, an inborn competence that unfolds and matures
when given adequate stimulation from others.
This chapter explores the various aspects of language and provides sugges-
tions to help English-language development (ELD) teachers identify student needs
and provide appropriate instruction. Knowledge about language structure and use
also helps teachers recognize the richness and variety of students’ skills in both
first and second languages. Linguistic knowledge—not only about English but also

13
14 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

about the possibilities inherent in other languages—helps teachers view the language world of
the English learner with insight and empathy.

Language Universals
At last count, 6,912 languages are spoken in today’s world (SIL International, 2000). Although
not all of these have been intensely studied, linguists have carried out enough investigations
over the centuries to posit some universal facts about language.

All Languages Have Structure

All human languages use a finite set of sounds (or gestures) that are combined to form mean-
ingful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences. Every
spoken language also divides these discrete sound segments—phonemes—such as /t/, /m/, or
/e/ into a class of vowels and a class of consonants.
All grammars contain rules for the formation of words, and sentences of definite types,
kind, and similar grammatical categories (for example, nouns and verbs) are found in all lan-
guages. Every language has a way of referring to past time; the ability to negate; and ways to
form questions, issue commands, and so on.
Although human languages are specific to their places of use and origin (for example,
languages of seafaring cultures have more specific words for oceanic phenomena than do lan-
guages of desert tribes), semantic universals, such as “male” or “female,” are found in every
language in the world. No matter how exotic a language may appear to a native English speaker,
all human languages in fact share the same features, most of which are lacking in the language
of apes, dolphins, or birds.

Language Is Dynamic
Languages change over time. Pronunciation (phonology) changes—across 400 years, for exam-
ple, Shakespeare’s plays often feature scene-ending couplets whose words may have rhymed in
his day but do not in modern translations. We recognize that pronunciation in English has
altered over time, because the spelling of some words is archaic: We no longer pronounce the
/k/ in knight or the /w/ in write. Semantics change over time, and words disappear, such as
the archaic English words bilbo, costermonger, fluey, and shew. Words expand their meanings,
as with geek and mouse. New words appear, such as nannycam and freeware. Some languages
change more than others: Written Icelandic has changed relatively little since the thirteenth
century, whereas writers for Wired, a New York–based technology magazine, coin an average of
thirty new words in English with each month’s edition.
Teachers who respect the dynamic nature of language can take delight in learn-
ers’ approximations of English. When Chinese speakers fail to produce past-tense markers
(*Yesterday I download a file),1 they may be speaking the English of the future, when the past-

1An asterisk (*) before a word or a sentence indicates that it is phonetically or grammatically incorrect.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 15

tense morpheme (-d, -ed, -t) may be dropped, just as the second-person inflection (-est, as in
“thou goest”) has disappeared.

Language Is Complex
Without question, using language is one of the most complex of human activities, providing
the human race with a psychological tool unmatched in power and flexibility. It is normal
for humans no matter their native language to be able to communicate a wide range of con-
cepts, both concrete and abstract. All languages are equally complex, capable of expressing
a wide range of ideas and expandable to include new words for new concepts. Motu, one of
715 indigenous languages in Papua New Guinea, has a complex vocabulary for indigenous
plants, whereas Icelandic has an elaborate system of kinship names that allows people to
trace their ancestry for hundreds of years.
Language is arbitrary, meaning that we cannot guess the meaning of a word from
its sound (except for a few words such as buzz)—there is no inherent reason to link the
sound and meaning of a word. Because the meaning–symbol connection is arbitrary, lan-
guage gains an abstracting power removed from direct ties to the here and now of objects or
events. Moreover, language is open-ended—an infinite set of sentences can be produced in
any language.
Even though language is complicated, every healthy child—regardless of racial, geo-
graphical, social, or economic heritage—is capable of learning any language to which he or she
is exposed. By the age of five, most children have learned how to make well-formed sentences
in their native language and are thus considered native speakers. Although some students may
be shy or their language skills delayed in development, it is incorrect to say that a young child
“doesn’t have language.”

DID YOU KNOW?

THE KOREAN LANGUAGE
Korean is the only language to have a true alphabet completely native to East Asia, with each
character corresponding to a phoneme (10 vowels, 19 consonants, and vowel-like conso-
nants called glides). Korean has no articles, word gender, or declensions. There are no adjec-
tives; instead, verbs can be used as adjectives. There are also extensive variations of verb
forms used to indicate tenses and honorifics.
Adapted from Herrera, Pérez, & Escamilla, 2010, pp. 94–95.

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language. Phonetics is the science of the pro-
duction, reception, analysis, transcription, and classification of speech sounds, and also, “the
relation of speech sounds to the total language process” (Heilman, 2002, p. 4).
 16 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

DID YOU KNOW

IS IT ENGLISH?
These activities illustrate the characteristics of the English sound system:
■ Which of the following are possible English words and which would be impossible
because they do not fit the English sound system? stgmonic, chetelogo, ndele,
tassitic

(Answer: not stgmonic and ndele—they contain non-English-like consonant clusters)

■ Products are often brought to the market with names that use phonemic enhance-
ment: The gasoline company and product Esso was renamed Exxon in 1973 in part
because test marketing showed that people responded more strongly to the look and
sound of the double X than the double S.

Phonemes
Phonemes are the individual sounds in a language, the distinctive units that “make a differ-
ence” when sounds distinguish words. For example, in English the initial consonant sounds
/p/ and /b/ are the only difference between the words park and bark and thus are phonemes.
The number of phonemes in a language ranges between twenty and fifty; English has a high
average count, from thirty-four to forty-five, depending on the dialect. Hawai’ian, in con-
trast, has one of the lowest phoneme counts, with eight consonants and ten vowels. Table
1.1 lists the phonemes in English (using the International Phonetic Alphabet) with example
words.
If phonemic variations do not distinguish words, they are considered variations of
one phoneme rather than completely different phonemes. For example, in English—at least
in the Pittsburgh dialect—the name “Lynne” is pronounced with the tongue to the back of
the roof of the mouth, whereas when pronouncing the name “Linda” the tongue is tipped
farther forward. However, both are acceptable versions of the /l/ phoneme because this dif-
ference alone does not distinguish two word meanings, as does the difference between pan
and ban.
English learners’ aural comprehension and pro-
DID YOU KNOW? nunciation may be affected when English words con-
ENGLISH PHONEMES NOT FOUND tain phonemes that are unfamiliar to them. The schwa
IN OTHER LANGUAGES (the sound of the “e” in the phrase “the hat”) is often
Some phonemes in English do not exist in difficult for Spanish speakers because Spanish vowels
certain other languages. English learners rarely alter their sound quality in unaccented syllables.
from these backgrounds might experience A digraph—a pair of letters used to write one sound or
difficulty in hearing and producing these a combination of sounds that does not correspond to
sounds. the written letters combined—may confuse the English
Not in Japanese: /dg/ /f/ /i/ /th/ /oo/ /v/ learner who attempts to separate the digraph into two
/schwa/ separate phonemes. The concept of diphthong (defined
Not in Spanish: /dg/ /j/ /sh/ /th/ /z/ as a vowel blend with two adjacent vowels, each of which
is sounded) may transfer in principle from another
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 17

TABLE 1.1 Phonemes in English: Vowels and Consonants

Vowels Examples Consonants Examples

/A/ wake, pain, tray /b/ bet, habit, rub

/a/ pat /k/ cake, naked, lack
/E/ be, beat, flee /d/ do, sadder, wed
/e/ set /f/ far, offer, half, phony
/I/ I, tie, by /g/ gone, digger, beg
/i/ if, tin /h/ head, behold
/O/ no, moat, stone /j/ jam, tragic, stage, ledge
/o/ pot /l/ light, willow, well
/U/ futile, Tuesday /m/ mine, dim
/u/ cup, dumb /n/ none, fun, Lynne
/OO/ to, rue, chew, boot /p/ push, topple, step
/oo/ soot, put /kw/ quiet
/oi/ toil, boy /r/ rope, Larry, bar
/ou/ pout, how, mouse /s/ sip, hustle, miss
/aw/ saw, call, caught /t/ tip, after, bat
/ar/ far /v/ vet, hover, gave
/w/ wag, away
/ks/ or /gz/ sox, exit
/y/ your, yet
/z/ zip, noisy, buzz
/sh/ shout, lotion, wash
/hw/ what
/ch/ chop, pitch
/th/ thing, southside, north
/th/ or ∂ that, mother, soothe
/ng/ wing, running
/zh/ genre, collision, pleasure

language, although the diphthongs may differ from language to language. Mandarin has diph-
thongs (shyueh), as does Spanish (hay).
Phonemic sequences are the permissible ways in which phonemes can be combined in a
language. Languages also have permissible places for these sequences: initial (at the beginning
of a word), medial (between initial and final position), and final (at the end of a word), or in
a combination of these positions. In English, /spr/ as in spring, /nd/ as in handle, and /kt/ as
in talked are permissible phonemic sequences, but neither /nd/ nor /kt/ can be used initially
(*ndaft is not permissible). English allows /sp/ in all three positions—speak, respect, grasp—but
18 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

restricts /pt/ to only one—apt (the word optic splits the phonemes into two syllables; the word
pterodactyl has a silent p).
Phonemes can be described in terms of their characteristic point of articulation (tip,
front, or back of the tongue), the manner of articulation (the way the airstream is obstructed),
and whether the vocal cords vibrate or not (voiced versus voiceless sounds). Not all languages
distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds. Arabic speakers may say “barking lot” instead
of “parking lot” because to them /p/ and /b/ are not distinguishable.

Phonemic Awareness
As children learn language, they acquire phonological awareness in the process of separating the
oral sound stream they encounter into syllables and words. Literacy development builds on this
ability, helping young readers connect sounds to written symbols (Burns, Griffin, & Snow, 1999).
Phonemic awareness is the ability to use the sound–symbol connection to separate sentences into
words and words into syllables in order to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual pho-
nemes within spoken words (Block & Israel, 2005). This is not an easy task, with ten to twenty
phonemes articulated per second in normal speech. Phonemic awareness tasks help students hear
and isolate individual phonemes. This is the basis of phonics instruction (see Chapter 7).

Stress
Besides phonemes, characteristics of language sounds include stress, pitch/tone, and intona-
tion. Stress, the amount of volume a speaker gives to a particular sound, operates at two levels:
word and sentence. Stress is a property of syllables—stressed syllables are longer and louder
than unstressed syllables. Within words, specific syllables are stressed. In some languages, stress
is predictable; in Czech, stress is usually on the first syllable of a word; in French, on the last
syllable of a phrase. Stress is difficult to learn in English because there are “no consistent rules”
(Dale & Poms, 2005, p. 84). Incorrect stress can alter the meanings of words. In the following
examples, the stressed syllable is indicated by the accent mark ´:
désert noun, “dry region”
dessért noun, “sweet foods after the main meal”
ínvalid noun, as in “person with long-term, debilitating illness”
inválid adjective, as in “null, void” (Dale & Poms, 2005, p. 84)

Stress can further be used at the sentence level to vary emphasis. For example, the follow-
ing sentences all carry different emphases:

Kimberly walked home. (It was Kimberly who walked home.)

Kimberly walked home. (She walked; she did not ride.)
She walked home. (She walked home, not to Grandma’s house.)

In some cases, the wrong stress on a word completely undermines comprehension.

Students who learn a second language sometimes have difficulty altering the sounds of
words in the context of whole sentences. Thus, teachers are better served by teaching words in
context rather than in lists.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 19

Classroom Glimpse

A MISPLACED WORD STRESS

Rashid sat down, shoulders slumped. “I’m beginning to get discouraged. People don’t
understand my speaking.”
“Give me an example,” I suggested.
Rashid continued, “At lunch my friend was eating something mashed. I said ‘That
looks like potty toe.’ She gave me a strange look.”
“Potty toe?” I asked. “What in the world do you mean? You’d better write down the
word.” (He wrote the word.)
“Oh!” I exclaimed, looking at the paper. “Potato!”

Pitch and Rhythm

Another sound quality is important in oral speech. Pitch at the word or sentence level is a pho-
nological component of language that plays a key role in determining meaning. “Eva is going,”
as a statement, is said with a rise on the syllable “go,” followed by “-ing” with a falling pitch; but
said as a question, the pitch rises at the end. Tone languages use the pitch of individual syllables
to contrast meanings (examples are Thai, Mandarin, Vietnamese, Zulu, Apache, Navajo, and
Kiowa).
Pitch interacts with word stress to produce prosody, the underlying rhythm of the lan-
guage. The way an individual word fits into a sentence may change the stress. For example, in
the sentence “He’s my uncle—Uncle Bob,” the first use of “uncle” is heavily stressed on the first
syllable because the syllable is placed in the first clause at the climax of the prosodic contour,
just before the final pitch drop. During the second “uncle,” neither syllable is stressed, because
the name “Bob” carries the emphasis, hence the stress.
Because English words are pronounced with different stress depending on their locations
in sentences, in contrast to Spanish, in which the vowels are more apt to maintain their sound
values irrespective of placement, Spanish speakers may have difficulty achieving the prosody
of the native speaker of English.
Typical problems in oral speech include the tendency to pronounce all words with equal
emphasis, avoiding contractions (thus sounding stilted), and pausing incorrectly between
words. To achieve proper prosody, words in phrases are blended together and functional words
are reduced in emphasis (“How are you” sounds like “Howaru?”), and sounds are linked across
words, so that “We’ve eaten” sounds like “We veaten.” Smooth prosody is a combination of
phrasing and pausing: “Please//do your chores//before you go out.”

Intonation Patterns
The use of pitch to modify sentence meaning is called intonation. Each language has a dis-
tinctive sound flow across the sentence. The English pattern is characterized by accented and
unaccented syllables, the same patterns found in English poetry. The iamb is a beat with one
20 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

unaccented syllable followed by an accented one, as in the phrase “too late to go.” An anapest is a
beat with two unaccented syllables followed by an accented one: “in the heat of the night.” Most
sentences in English combine accented and unaccented syllables in an undulating rhythm until
just before the end of the sentence, at which time the pitch rises and then drops briefly.
In contrast, Cantonese, as a tonal language, has intonation variation that distinguishes
words by tone, but an entire sentence does not have a rise-and-fall curve. Because English, for
example, makes use of a questioning intonation to soften the demanding nature of a request
(“Could you sit down over there?”), a Cantonese speaker may sound impolite to English ears
(“Could! You! Go! Sit! Down! Over! There!”). Intonation matters a great deal when language
fulfills social functions.
Contrastive analysis—paying careful attention to phonemic differences between lan-
guages and then spending more time teaching those phonemes that differ—has been found
to be relatively nonproductive as a teaching methodology. There is little evidence that learners
will find general phonemic differences between languages to be difficult. Error analysis, how-
ever, can guide teachers; making careful note of a learner’s difficulties can provide evidence
about the need for specific interventions. Empirical teaching—teaching guided by data—helps
to focus phonological training directly on the learner’s difficulties. Guidelines for teaching
pronunciation are featured in Chapter 6.

Morphology: The Words of Language

Morphology is the study of the meaning units in a language. In some cases in English, indi-
vidual words constitute these basic meaning units (e.g., chase). However, many words can be
broken down into smaller segments—morphemes—that still retain meaning.

Morphemes
Morphemes, small units that cannot be further subdivided, are the basic building blocks of
meaning. Fundamentalists is an English word composed of five morphemes: funda + ment +
al + ist + s (root + noun-forming suffix + adjective-forming suffix + noun-forming suffix +
plural marker). Morphemes can be represented by a single sound, such as /a/ (a morpheme
with two meanings—a stand-alone, or free, morpheme meaning an indefinite article [“a girl”]
or a bound morpheme meaning “without,” as in amoral or asexual). Morphemes can be a single
syllable, such as the noun-forming suffix -ment in amendment, or two or more syllables, such as
in lion or parsley. Two different morphemes may have the same sound, such as the -er in dancer
(“one who dances”) and the -er in fancier (the comparative form of fancy). A morpheme may
also have alternate phonetic forms: The regular plural -s can be pronounced either /z/ (bags),
/s/ (cats), or /iz/ (bushes).
Morphemes are of different types and serve different purposes. Free morphemes can
stand alone (envelope, the, through), whereas bound morphemes occur only in conjunction
with others (-ing, dis-, -ceive), either as affixes or as bound roots. Affixes at the beginnings of
words are prefixes (un- in the word unafraid); those added at the ends are suffixes (-able in
the word believable); and infixes are morphemes inserted between other morphemes (-s- in
mothers-in-law).
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 21

Part of the power and flexibility of English is the ease with which longer English words
are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to root words (cycle, cyclist; fix, fixation). The pre-
dictability of meaning carried by standard affixes can make it easier for students to learn to
infer words from context rather than relying on rote memorization.

Best Practice MORPHEMES

To generate interest in science concepts, at the beginning of each general science unit
Mrs. Silvestri selected several roots from a general list (astro, bio, geo, hydr, luna, photo,
phys, terr ). She then asked students to work in pairs to search their texts for words with
those roots from the relevant chapter in the science text. Next she handed out a list of pre-
fixes and affixes and asked each pair to generate five to ten new words, including definitions.
Students wrote each new word and its definition on two index cards and played a memory
matching game with their card decks.

Word-Formation Processes
English has historically been a language that has borrowed extensively from other languages
or coined new words from extant terms. Studying how new words are formed—largely from
existing morphemes—helps English learners understand morphemes. Table 1.2 displays new
words that have been published in Wired magazine in recent years. Each is derived in part from
an existing word in English.

TABLE 1.2 Neologisms (New Words and Phrases) from Wired Magazine (April 2006)
New Word or Phrase Derivation Meaning

@homer @ = at + home + er one who stays at home

funkatizing funk + atize + ing making something funky
geekonomics geek + economics finance for computer aficionados
geek-year geek + year like “dog year”; different timescale for nerds
middleware middle + ware as in hybrid form of hardware-software
hardware ↔ software
office-chairy office chair + like adj. form of office chair
paraspam para = almost + spam something like spam
transgenic trans = across + genic = life hybrid species
trigger species trigger = early tip-off the first species to be affected, as by global warming
übergroovy über = over the top + groovy supercool
viral video viral = contagious + video video that is rapidly disseminated via the Internet
 22 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

Clipping Clipping is a process of shortening words, such as prof for professor or the slangy
teach for teacher. If students learn both the original and the clipped versions, they gain the sense
that they are mastering both colloquial and academic speech.

Acronyms In English, acronyms are plentiful, and many are already familiar to students—
USA, CNN, and NASA, for example. A list of acronyms helps students increase their vocabu-
lary of both the words forming the acronyms and the acronyms themselves. Who can resist
knowing that laser is light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation?

Blends Words formed from parts of two words are called blends—for example, chortle from
chuckle + snort and travelogue from travel + monologue. Students can become word detectives
and discover new blends (Spanglish, jazzercise, rockumentary) or create their own blends (a hot
dog in a hamburger bun can be a hotburger).

Using Morphemes in Teaching

Students can add to their enjoyment of learning English by finding new words and creating
their own. Those who play video games can make up new names for characters using mor-
phemes that evoke pieces of meaning. Advertising copywriters and magazine writers do this
on a daily basis; the word blog is a combination of the free morphemes web and log; then came
vlog (video added to blog). The prefixes e- and i- have combined to form many new words and
concepts over recent decades (e.g., e-pets and iTunes). The study of morphology is fun and
increases word power.
Depending on the student’s first language,
some morphemes are easier to acquire than oth-
TABLE 1.3 Words with Morpheme en- ers. For example, the prefix en-, meaning “to bring
as Prefix about, to make, or to put into,” is more often used
to make verbs from nouns or adjectives that derive
enjoy enact enliven from the Anglo-Saxon side of English—that is,
enlarge enclose ensure words not directly related to cognates in Romance
enrich encourage entrust languages. For example, one can say “enjoy” but
entrap entangle enroll not “*enmuse.” In contrast, words ending in the
enable encrust enforce noun suffix -ion are relatively easy for Spanish
speakers because they are usually words that have
cognates in Spanish. Therefore, students may not
TABLE 1.4 Words with Morpheme -ion as easily acquire the words in Table 1.3 as they
as Suffix might those in Table 1.4.
Attention to morphemes in the classroom
transportation division translation can accelerate language acquisition if students
action succession comparison are exposed to families of words across parts
examination combination validation of speech—that is, if courage is taught along-
preparation signification respiration side courageous, discourage, and encourage or ice
is taught with icy, ice cream, icicle, ice age, and
certification termination separation
iceberg. Instead of defining new words, students
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 23

may enjoy separating new words into morphemes and finding other words that match these
morphemes. This activity is consonant with a key principle of brain-based learning (see Chap-
ter 2): The brain learns faster when engaged in pattern-matching or pattern-finding activities.

Best Practice WORKING WITH MORPHEMES

The teacher can encourage awareness of comparatives and superlatives using the following
game, called Speed Search.
Students circulate around the room to see how many people they can find who fit the
description on the slip of paper they have drawn from a box. After two minutes, they draw
another slip for a second round of play. Students win if they have the most points after a des-
ignated number of rounds. Sample descriptions: Find a person who believes that dogs are
less intelligent than cats. Find a person who has more than two brothers. Find a person who
is the oldest child in the family. (Kealey & Inness, 1997, pp. 24–25)

Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language

Syntax refers to the rules that govern the formation of phrases and sentences. The words in a
language have semantic properties that entail their use in sentences in some ways and not in
others. A well-formed sentence is more than the sum of the meanings of the words; in English
the position of the word in a sentence is an important part of the overall meaning. Sentence A,
“The teacher asked the students to sit down,” has the same words as sentence B, “The students
asked the teacher to sit down,” but not the same meaning. Not every sequence of words is a
sentence: Sentence C, “*Asked the the teacher to down students sit,” violates syntactic rules in
English and thus has no meaning.
Native speakers of a language have syntactic proficiency—they can distinguish syntac-
tically correct from incorrect combinations of words, even though they may not be able to
explain what syntactic rules have been violated. Even very young English-speaking children
know that sentences A and B are meaningful but sentence C is not. Moreover, the mind is a
strong organizing force, constantly striving to gain meaning, so speakers of a language can
comprehend even imperfectly formed sentences.
Whereas syntax refers to the internally constructed rules that make sentences, grammar
looks at whether a sentence conforms to some standard. An important distinction, therefore,
is the one between standard and colloquial use. Many colloquial usages feature acceptable sen-
tence patterns in English, even though their usage is not standard—for example, “I ain’t got
a pen” is acceptable English syntax but not standard usage. Teachers who are promoting the
standard dialect need to be aware that students’ developing competence will not always con-
form to that standard.
Besides grammaticality and word order, speakers’ syntactic knowledge helps them
understand three other sentence features. Double meaning, or ambiguity, occurs in sentences
such as “She is a Korean karate expert” or the frequently seen “Please wait for the hostess to be
seated.” On the other hand, sentences can have different structures but mean the same thing:
 24 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

“He is hard to please,” “Pleasing him is hard,” “It is hard to please him.” Finally, speakers can
understand and produce novel utterances, the creative aspect of language.

Explicit Teaching of Syntax

In the late twentieth century, it was widely believed that students could acquire a second lan-
guage without explicit teaching of syntactic structures. However, because the mind seeks to
acquire patterns, and syntax is a pattern, it is now thought that creative and systematic teaching
of syntax can accelerate language learning. Grammar books that teach students to label the
parts of speech and build up sentence structures from simple to complex are useful. Balancing
this systematic instruction with grammar games and creative language engagement such as
poetry—or even Mad Libs, the game that has students blindly providing nouns, adjectives, and
verbs without knowing the story
FIGURE 1.1 A Quick-Check Method for Syntax Learning plot—helps students to learn
Center Activity the parts of speech.
Figure 1.1 presents a sim-
The following cards are given to students in random order: ple card for teaching sentence
syntax. A pocket chart in a learn-
The quick fox ran from the fire ing center can be used to teach
sentence structure. Students can
Each card has a single letter on the back. If the cards are in the right order, work in pairs to assemble mean-
the teacher can pick up each finished deck and quickly check to see if they ingful sentences using packs of
spell a word or phrase, as shown: sentence components. Words in
the same sentence should be on
F O X F I R E the same color of index card so
that multiple sentences can be
kept separated as students work.
A trick to checking students’ work quickly is for each set of cards to spell out a word on the back
of the cards if the cards are in the correct order.
Some students have more metalinguistic knowledge than others—that is, they have the
vocabulary to talk about grammar because they learned the grammar of their native language.
As with other kinds of learning, the wise teacher assesses students’ prior knowledge to learn
where to begin instruction.
Describing the characteristic differences between languages—contrastive analysis—is
useful to some degree in predicting what kinds of syntax errors students make (see Box 1.1 for
Mandarin and Box 1.2 for Spanish). However, direct instruction must also be balanced with
rich, authentic exposure to English sentences, both spoken and written, and the learner must
be allowed time for syntactic structures to be absorbed, consolidated, and deployed in many
situations before a given structure can be said to be a stable feature of the learner’s repertoire.

Semantics: The Meanings of Language

Semantics is the study of the meanings of individual words and of larger units such as phrases
and sentences. Speakers of a language learn the “agreed-on” meanings of words and phrases
in their language; these meanings must be shared, or communication becomes impossible.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 25

Box 1.1 English Syntax Contrasted with Chinese (Mandarin)

English learners with Chinese as a mother tongue may need additional teacher assis-
tance with the following aspects of English:
■ Verb tense: *I see him yesterday. In Chinese, the verb form is not changed to mark
the time during which the action occurred—the adverb, not the verb, signals the
time. Conjugating the verb form in English may prove to be difficult for the learner.
■ Subject–verb agreement: *He see me. In Chinese, verbs do not change form to
create subject–verb agreement.
■ Word order: *I at home ate. In Chinese, prepositional phrases usually come before
the verb—the rules governing adverb placement in English are difficult for many
learners.
■ Plurals: *They give me 3 dollar. In Chinese, like English, the marker indicates num-
ber, but the noun form does not change to indicate plural; in English the noun form
changes.
■ Articles: *No one knows correct time. Chinese uses demonstrative pronouns [this
one, that one] but not definite or indefinite articles [a, the]. The rules for such use
in English are complex.

However, English is a flexible language that is responsive to the needs of a dynamic culture, and
new concepts emerge daily that require new words; English learners must acquire vocabulary
continuously in order to keep up with semantic demands.
Some words carry a high degree of stability and conformity in the ways they are used
(slap as a verb, for example, must involve the hand or some other flat object—“He slapped
me with his ball” is not semantically meaningful). Other words carry multiple meanings (e.g.,

Box 1.2 English Syntax Contrasted with Spanish

English learners with Spanish as a mother tongue may need additional teacher assistance
with the following aspects of English:
■ Verb conjugation: Spanish has three groups of regular verbs, in contrast to one
group in English (those that add -ed or -d ), but English has more classes of irregular
verbs (wildly irregular go/went/gone versus mildly irregular like send/sent, break/
broke, etc.).
■ Subject–verb agreement: In Spanish, first-, second-, and third-person forms must
be changed from the base form to create subject–verb agreement. It is sometimes
hard to remember that in English only the third-person form is changed.
■ Noun/adjective order: In Spanish, adjectives come sometimes before and some-
times after the noun (un buen día, un día linda). These alterations, however, obey
regular rules.
■ Articles: Spanish, like English, uses both definite and indefinite articles, but with
different rules (for example, languages need the definite article, el ingles). Both
definite and indefinite articles must match the noun to which they refer (unos
muchachos, las mujeres).

Source: Spinelli (1994).

 26 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

scrap), ambiguous meanings (bank, as

TABLE 1.5 Examples of English–Spanish Cognates
in “They’re at the bank”), or debatable
(Same meaning, same spelling; may be pronounced differently) meanings (marriage, for example, for
many people can refer only to heterosex-
club plural ual alliances, whereas others might apply
director radio it to nonheterosexual contexts).
hotel rural
hospital salmon (Spanish salmón)
mineral sofa (Spanish sofá)
Semantic Challenges
postal tenor In second-language acquisition, there are
perfume violin (Spanish violín) three basic semantic challenges. First is
the process of translating—finding words
(lexical items) in the second language that
correspond to those already known in the first. The second challenge is learning words for
ideas and concepts that are new in the second language for which there is no first-language
counterpart (for example, the Polish term fúcha—“to use company time and resources to one’s
private ends”—has no equivalent in English) (de Boinod, 2006). The third challenge involves
similar words that are in both languages whose meanings differ in small or large ways. Table
1.5 lists words that are cognates in English and Spanish—their meaning is identical. Table 1.6
lists near cognates, and Table 1.7 lists false cognates—those in which the similar appearance is
misleading.
Another challenge in English is the extraordinary wealth of synonyms. One estimate of
English vocabulary places the number at over 3 million words; the Oxford English Dictionary
contains some 290,000 entries with some 616,500 word forms. Fortunately, only about 200,000
words are in common use, and an educated person draws from a stock of about 20,000 to use
about 2,000 in a week (Wilton, 2003). The challenge when learning this vast vocabulary is to
distinguish denotations, connotations, and other shades of meaning.

Best Practice NUANCES OF MEANING

■ For adolescent learners, the teacher provides a list of a dozen common emotions (love,
anger, fear, and fright are the big four; a few others are thankfulness, doubt, guilt, sur-
prise, contempt, delight, hunger, nervousness).
■ Students, working in pairs, make up situations that would engender the emotion.
■ Rich discussion about nuances of meaning might result!

Acquiring Vocabulary
What does it mean to “know” a word? Recognizing a word involves matching stored mean-
ing with meaning derived from context. In addition, knowing a word includes the ability to
pronounce the word correctly, to use it grammatically in a sentence, and to know with which
morphemes it is appropriately connected. This knowledge is acquired as the brain absorbs and
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 27

TABLE 1.6 Examples of English–Spanish Near Cognates

(Same meaning, slightly different spelling; may be pronounced differently)

English Spanish English Spanish

February febrero tranquil tranquilo

March marzo salt sal
April abril violet violeta
May mayo second segundo
June junio intelligent inteligente
July julio problem problema
August agosto cream crema
button botón check (bank) cheque
much mucho deodorant desodorante
office oficina garden jardin
courtesy cortesía map mapa
lamp lámpara paper papel
medal medalla use uso

interacts with the meaning in context, possibly due to the important role that context plays in
forming episodic memory—memory that is tied to emotionally rich experience.
Nation (1990) lists the following as the types of word knowledge necessary for com-
plete comprehension of a given word: its spoken form, written form, grammatical behavior,

TABLE 1.7 Examples of English–Spanish False Cognates

(Close in sound; slightly different spelling; different meaning)

Meaning in English False

Spanish Spanish Cognate Meaning in English

blando soft bland soothing; not stimulating or irritating

blanco white blank colorless; free of writing
campo country camp place for tents or temporary shelter
codo elbow code a system of signals
despertador alarm clock desperate almost beyond hope
dirección address direction the way to go; authoritative instruction
cola tail cola drink
plata silver plate sheet of metal, food dish
 28 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

collocational behavior (what words are frequently found next to the word), frequency, stylistic
register constraints (such as formal/informal contexts), conceptual meaning, and word asso-
ciations (such as connotations).
Vocabulary knowledge can be passive, controlled active, or free active (Laufer & Paribakht,
1998). Passive knowledge involves understanding the most frequent meaning of a word (e.g.,
break—He breaks a pencil). Controlled active knowledge can be described as cued recall (e.g.,
The railway con_________ the city with its suburbs), and free active knowledge describes the
ability to spontaneously use words. Each type of knowledge develops at a different rate, with
passive understanding growing faster than active word use. Passive vocabulary is always larger
than active vocabulary.

Academic Vocabulary
Acquiring the vocabulary used to educate is essential to school success; it is a large part of what
Cummins (1979, 1980) called cognitive academic language proficiency. This vocabulary has
been compiled by various researchers (c.f., Bromberg, Liebb, & Traiger, 2005; Huntley, 2006).
Although no exhaustive list exists of academic terms by grade level, Table 1.8 presents academic
terms by approximate grade level. Table 1.9 displays examples of academic vocabulary.

Vocabulary Teaching and Concept Development

Many methods have been used to teach vocabulary during second-language acquisition; rote
memorization of lists or flash cards with words and meanings is probably the least effective,
even when picture cues are provided. Rich experience of new words in the context of their use
is the way words are usually acquired in the first language. Games such as Pictionary and Total
Physical Response are useful when objects and actions are simple. More nuanced or complex
knowledge requires careful work at all the levels described earlier by Nation (1990).

TABLE 1.8 Examples of Cognitive Academic Words by Approximate Grade Level

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

connect measure indent define summarize minimum

check width proofread method evidence initial
ruler margin paragraph highlight energy estimate
period dictionary hyphen environment positive factor
capital letter schedule topic exhibit gender percent
grade label graph layer nuclear simulate
mistake draft edit region source transfer
chalk chart ignore research substitute variable
file margin select style theme volume
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 29

TABLE 1.9 Examples of Academic Vocabulary

access available component element sufficient
adjust capacity confirm emphasis supplement
alter clarify consistent instance survey
approach comment contrast random undergo
aspect complex core specific visible

Source: From Huntley (2006).

Best Practice KEY PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING VOCABULARY

■ Vocabulary taught with collocations—words that co-appear commonly (for example,

the verb lose is presented as “lose your way,” “lose your temper,” “lose your keys,”
etc.)
■ Vocabulary taught within its grammatical environment (for example, verbs are always
introduced with to—”to apply,” “to return”)
■ Emphasis on register (teach where, when, with whom a word is used; in a formal or
informal setting?)
■ Emphasis on word form (does it include a prefix or suffix as a clue toward meaning?)
■ Emphasis on connotation (nuances of meaning differentiating one word from another)
(Daloǧlu, 2005)

Semantic Shifts
Language users must become aware of the semantic requirements when writing. It may be
understandable when a speaker overuses the colloquial “you know” when telling a story, but
in written English, one must shift toward more formal expression. Learning to make this shift
is an important part of cognitive academic language. Only in certain types of writing—such
as literature when a colloquial dialect is expressed, or in gonzo journalism, a flamboyant, first-
person genre—is the colloquial form acceptable.
Teachers can emphasize this semantic shift by, for example, using a chart that compares
“talk written down” with “more thoughtful writing.” Table 1.10 contrasts these two writing
styles as semantic shifts.
Semantics is a domain in which growth must be sustained at every level of schooling
and in every content domain. Teacher education, for example, has its own lexicon; prospective
teachers are asked to master such terms as assertive discipline, wait-time, manipulatives, mind
mapping, retelling, writing genre, mini-lesson, and so forth. Demonstrating proficiency in these
and similar terms is a measure of professionalism.
 30 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

TABLE 1.10 Semantic Shifts When Writing Language Functions

Informal Register Formal Register Language proficiency is not an end in itself; lan-
guage is used for various purposes—to solve
you know it is evident
problems, communicate feelings, or keep records
a lot of, a whole bunch of multiple as people go about their daily routines. Halliday
getting (dark, warm) becoming (1978) has distinguished seven different functions
a piece of a component of for language: instrumental (getting needs met),
to take a chance to attempt regulatory (controlling others’ behavior), infor-
to make an offer to offer
mative (communicating information), interac-
tional (establishing social relationships), personal
to keep on doing to continue
(expressing individuality), heuristic (investigat-
ing and acquiring knowledge), and imaginative
(expressing fantasy or possibility).
A curriculum might encourage students to perform a wide variety of functions such as
reporting, evaluating, questioning, and critiquing. Many other functions are not necessarily
encouraged by schools but take place nonetheless: interrupting, shifting the blame, threaten-
ing, accusing, arguing, demanding, and making excuses. Learners must begin to understand
how language functions to acquire written as well as spoken competence in the effort to match
forms with functions.

Academic Language Functions

Academic language functions include explaining, informing, justifying, comparing, describing,
proving, debating, and so forth. There is some overlap in the terminology of academic func-
tions and of thinking skills. Academic English—also called cognitive academic language pro-
ficiency (CALP)—is designed for abstract, decontextualized performance across a variety of
content domains, which requires a long period of successful schooling; exposure to academic
language, feedback, and support in its use by students; and explicit instruction in vocabulary,
morphology, syntax, and cognitive strategies (see Chapter 5). Table 1.11 aligns academic lan-
guage functions with typical phrases that are used during that function.
Providing English learners with opportunities to engage in the various functions of lan-
guage is critical for enabling them to develop a full range of proficiency in English. In school,
however, rarely do teachers allow students to practice “out of school” social functions; the
emphasis is usually on language functions necessary for the work of learning.

Functions and Classroom Routines

In every situation, participants are expected to use language to carry out specific routines.
One of the important tasks of kindergarten and first-grade teachers is to teach children
how to respond appropriately in the school setting. Confusion and a sense of alienation can
arise for English learners who are used to the school routines in their own countries and
face the unexpected in U.S. schools. A knowledgeable teacher recognizes that these students
are acting according to the routines with which they are familiar. It may take time—and
explicit language coaching—for students to learn the language functions appropriate for a
U.S. school context.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 31

TABLE 1.11 Phrases Associated with Academic Functions of Language

Function of Language Sample Phrase(s)

Indicating cause and effect Therefore, as a result, gradually

Providing example For instance, that is, one sample, such as, in fact
Comparing Like, likewise, similarly, in much the same way, equally
Emphasizing Moreover, chiefly, above all
Indicating sequence In the first place, starting with, consequently, finally
Summarizing To conclude, in other words, thus

Best Practice ACQUIRING LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

■ Instrumental: Students practice a list of ways to request actions of others, including

“Could you . . .” “Would you mind . . . .”
■ Regulatory: Students take turns acting as timekeeper and taskmaster in cooperative
groups.
■ Informative: Students keep records of classroom pets, weather patterns, or commonly
misspelled words on a bulletin board.
■ Interactional: Students work together to plan field trips, social events, and classroom
and school projects.
■ Personal: Students use personal language in a journal and then share their thoughts and
opinions on a voluntary basis.
■ Heuristic: During projects, students brainstorm questions about which no one knows
the answer.
■ Imaginative: Students “play” with language—the sounds of words and the images they
convey.
Source: Adapted from Pinnell (1985).

Discourse
Discourse is classified using various dimensions, such as written versus spoken. Other dimen-
sions include register (formal versus informal) and genre (a combination of communicative
purpose, audience, and format) as well as considerations of number—monologic, dialogic, or
multiparty (how many are involved) (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2001). Many kinds of analysis
have been used in examining discourse: studies of information structure, coherence, cohesion,
turn-taking, and critical discourse analysis.
Discourse analysis can be defined as the study of language “beyond the sentence”
(Tannen, 2001). Discourse might be characterized as “language associated with a particular
activity, a particular kind of knowledge, a particular group of people or a particular institution”
32 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

(Peim, 1993). The study of discourse looks at language in its larger units, such as oral text
(classroom talk, speeches, casual conversation) and written text (magazine articles, school
assignments, signs, and posters). Discourse specialists have looked at such behavior as how
people take turns, how speakers use contextual cues as they interact, and how people show oth-
ers they are listening. These features are heavily influenced by culture.
In school, language is used differently than in the experiences of everyday life. As stu-
dents acquire a second language—English—they are exposed to a distinct set of language func-
tions that are specially adapted for school. This can work to the benefit of English learners if
educators can affirm the voices that students bring to school and encourage them to build the
second language on the knowledge they have gained in their first language, thus increasing
their academic potential.

Academic Discourse
What does it mean to use language for academic purposes? An educated person lives in a world
in which discourse is used for a wide range of purposes. For many, literacy at work has become
highly computer dependent, with word processing, databases, telephone number files, e-mail,
and Web-based activities, as well as paper dependent, with piles of various folders contain-
ing information, along with books, journals, and newsletters. At home, personal literacy may
include cookbooks, hobby materials, newsmagazines, correspondence, and bill-paying. All
these reading materials have their own place, time, and task orientation.

Classroom discourse patterns involve students as active language users.

Bob Daemmrich Photography

 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 33

Literacy practices are activities that form discourses within the culture or society at large.
By the time a student enters undergraduate education, the discourse demands are intense: read-
ing course syllabi, textbooks, study guides, handouts, laboratory manuals, tests, online materi-
als, and reference materials; listening to lectures and peer discussions; writing tests, research
papers, and other notes; making formal oral presentations; and informally contributing orally
in class or in group working sessions. English learners must prepare for these discourse regis-
ters and activities in elementary and secondary school programs.

Academic Competence: Psychological Factors The demands of producing and understand-

ing academic discourse depend not only on acquiring cognitive academic language proficiency,
but also on developing qualities such as persistence, rapport with one’s teachers, and attune-
ment to the demands of the task, as well as the ability to seek, obtain, and benefit from help.
These personality features help an individual accommodate the demands of a situation.

Academic Competence: Sociocultural Factors Success in previous schooling makes present

and future accommodations easier. The peer culture must sustain patterns of academic activ-
ity; the parental/cultural standards of achievement must also be appropriately demanding and
supportive; and the school must enforce high educational standards, with expert management,
well-certified staff, and adequate resources. In this way, the individual is situated within a social
and cultural context that sustains academic activity.

Oral Discourse in the Classroom

Classroom discourse is a special type of conversation. Intonation, pausing, and phrasing deter-
mine when one person’s turn to speak is over and the next person’s turn begins. Markers signal
the circulation of power. As Foucault (1979) noted, discursive practices in the modern world
prepare the individual for power. Schooling can shape an average person into a “good” student
using discourse.
Good language learners are able to gain access to a variety of conversations in their com-
munities. The communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) in which they participate—even
peripherally—provide access to the utterances of others and the cultural practices they need to
become engaged in community life. This means that the community of practice in a classroom
does as much to create a good learner as the individual’s cognition and striving.
Linguistic features are useful ways to examine classroom discourse. Turn markers gov-
erning who takes the floor signal speaking and listening. Some listeners nod frequently, and
others offer eye contact or feedback such as “hmm,” “uh huh,” and “yeah.” If a teacher is speak-
ing, the type of listening that a learner signals is an important part of that learner’s image in
the mind of the teacher. If someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not
they truly are), the speaker tends to slow down, repeat, or overexplain, giving the impression
of “talking down.”

The Recitation Pattern: A Typical Learning Encounter Classrooms in the United States often
follow a model of instruction based on recitation (Mehan, 1979). Typically, the pattern has
three parts, called the IRE sequence. First, the teacher initiates (I) an interaction by asking a
question. A student responds (R), and the teacher follows up with evaluation (E). Alternatively,
this may be called the IRF pattern, replacing the term evaluation with feedback, which consists
34 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

not only of praise or disguised evaluation but also of reformulation, repetition of the student’s
answer, and summarizing or delivering information.
The IRF pattern shares characteristics of other kinds of teacher talk. The teacher not only
produces the most language but also takes the most turns. Questions asked in this way usually
call for simple information recall, and the responses are limited to this type of thinking. The
teacher tends to ask “known-answer” questions in which students’ responses can be easily eval-
uated (Pridham, 2001). The IRF pattern is easy to identify, partially because of its prevalence.
Invitation to respond:
Teacher: Who knows why names are capitalized? (Some students are wildly waving
their hands, begging to be chosen to respond; others are averting their eyes, hoping
not to be called on) Alma?
Response:
Alma: It’s somebody’s name.
Evaluation or Feedback:
Teacher: That’s true. Good, Alma.
Invitation to respond: (pattern repeats) . . .
Teacher: But who can tell me what the term for that is?
The IRF is not the only discourse pattern in which the teacher dominates, but it is the
most frequent. In teacher-fronted classrooms in general (Harel, 1992), the teacher takes the
central role in controlling the flow of information, and students compete for attention and
permission to speak. English learners are dependent on their ability to understand the teacher’s
explanations and directions.
Clearly the IRF pattern has positive instructional features—to activate students’ prior
knowledge about a topic, review material already covered, present new information, calm a
noisy room, check on the general state of group knowledge on a topic, or evaluate the disci-
pline and cooperation of individual students. This evaluation of the student seems to shape a
teacher’s academic expectations for that student. Many features of the recitation pattern work
for the benefit of instruction, although the same features that benefit some students may create
difficulties for English learners (see Table 1.12).

Recitation Pattern: Questioning Strategies Through skilled questioning, teachers lead dis-
cussions and ascertain students’ understanding. Questions should be framed to match students’
proficiency levels and to evoke the level of critical or creative thinking sought in the response.
Teachers who are sensitive to varying cultural styles are aware that in some cultures students are
reluctant to display knowledge before a large group. The teacher must organize other means for
students to demonstrate language and content knowledge, such as small-group discussions.
A hierarchy of question types can be matched to students’ proficiency levels. Begin-
ning English learners in the “silent period” may be asked a question requiring a nonverbal
response—a head movement, pointing, or manipulating materials. Once students begin to
speak, either/or questions allow them merely to choose the correct word or phrase to dem-
onstrate understanding: “Is the water evaporating or condensing?”; “Did explorers come to
the Americas from Europe or Asia?” Once students can produce language, wh- questions are
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 35

TABLE 1.12 Positive and Negative Features of the IRF for English Learners
Positive Features Possible Negative Features for English Learners

Invitation to Bid

Teacher waits for silence and imposes order on student English learners may not appear as attentive as
behavior. English speakers because they might have difficulty
Teacher controls the scope of the lesson by asking comprehending instruction.
selected questions. English learners may need more time than English
Teacher determines order and importance of speakers to understand questions and frame responses.
information by posing questions. Students with creative and individualistic thinking may
Teacher controls the level of language displayed in wish to contribute related ideas outside the scope of
class by choice of lexicon and complexity of sentence the immediate topic.
structure. Instructional language, including vocabulary, may be
Teacher controls pace and rhythm of discourse. too complex for English learners.
Pace and rhythm of discourse may be different in
students’ native language, causing discomfort.

Response

Teacher evaluates behavior of individuals by looking to English learners may be reluctant to bring attention
see who is willing and ready to participate. to themselves because they are insecure about their
Teacher controls potential for reward by choosing oral language, see such an action as incompatible
respondent. with group cohesiveness and cultural norms, or are
reluctant to display knowledge in front of others.
By acting eager to answer, students can demonstrate
responsivity to instruction, attention, and cooperation Students may lack experience in particular topics
even if they do not really know the answer the teacher under discussion, although their background may be
expects to hear. rich in topics that are not curriculum related.
Teacher controls behavior by calling on students who Students from cultures in which children do not make
may not be attentive. direct eye contact with adults may not appear attentive
during instruction.
Students can practice risk-taking by volunteering to
answer. English learners may be reluctant to volunteer to
answer if they are not 100 percent sure their idea is
Students can show knowledge whether from prior
correct and their culture does not reward ambiguity.
instruction or experience.

Evaluation (Feedback)

Teacher is able to evaluate students’ level of oral Students may need prior language development in oral
participation. participation, including turn-taking, listening, and
Teacher is able to use teacher approval as a reinforcer. speaking.
Teacher is able to establish public recognition for those Students from certain cultures may not depend on
who answer correctly. teacher for approval.
Teacher may use the evaluation turn to correct Individual public recognition may be taboo in some
sentence grammar. cultures.
(continued)
 36 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

TABLE 1.12 Continued

Positive Features Possible Negative Features for English Learners

Evaluation (Feedback) (Continued)

Teacher can withhold negative evaluation by partially Research shows that second-language grammar is not
accepting an incomplete answer. improved by public correction of grammar, but by
Teacher can avoid direct negative evaluation by asking gradual acquisition of forms during language input
one student to “help” another to improve an answer. and output.
Teacher may evaluate students’ success in the recitation Indirect negative evaluation may be confusing for some
pattern as an indicator of facility with “display students, leaving them with unclear concept formation.
knowledge” cultural pattern. Students who are unfamiliar with “display knowledge”
Teacher can elaborate on answer and expand a concept cultural pattern may appear uncooperative.
by delivering direct instruction at this point. Students who are not rewarded by encouragement
Teacher can improve a poor answer by substituting of more complex questions and responses gradually
more correct terminology or restating a sentence in receive fewer hours of attention and instruction.
more correct grammar.
As teacher evaluates students’ responses, he or she
determines what question comes next.

appropriate: “What is happening to the water?”; “Which countries sent explorers to the Ameri-
cas?”; “What was the purpose of their exploration?”
If a teacher is seeking evaluative responses requiring critical thinking by means of ques-
tioning strategies, more wait-time is necessary for students to understand the question and
frame a thoughtful response. Bias is avoided if all respondents are given equal feedback and
support in increasing the cognitive complexity of the answer.
Teachers of English learners cannot avoid using teacher-fronted discourse patterns to
some extent, because of the legacy of traditional teaching discourse. However, awareness of
its strengths (in summary, ease of use, effectiveness for controlling attention and behavior,
and diagnosis of a learner’s responsiveness) and weaknesses (for example, lack of emphasis on
learner oral production, limited peer interaction, and inequity of reinforcement) may encour-
age teachers to better focus the use of teacher-fronted discourse for English learners.

Cooperative Learning as a Discourse Alternative The organization of discourse is impor-

tant for second-language acquisition in content classes. Classrooms that feature flexible group-
ing patterns and cooperative learning permit students greater access to the flow of information
as they talk and listen to peers, interact with the teacher or another adult in small groups, and
use their home language for clarification purposes (Wells, 1981).
In cooperative-learning classrooms, the style of teacher talk often changes: Teachers
assist students with the learning tasks, give fewer commands, and impose less disciplinary con-
trol (Harel, 1992). The teacher plans tasks so that students use language in academic ways.
Students are placed in different groups for different activities. Teachers work with small groups
to achieve specific instructional objectives (e.g., in literature response groups or instructional
conversations, as discussed next).
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 37

The Instructional Conversation as a Discourse Alternative An instructional discourse for-

mat called the instructional conversation is one alternative to a teacher-fronted classroom. With
a group of six to eight students, the teacher acts as a discussion leader, following up a literature,
social studies, or math lesson with a directed conversation that invites a deeper understanding
of the issues raised (Tharp & Gallimore, 1991). The focus is on assisted understanding of com-
plex ideas, concepts, and texts, permitting a more satisfying intellectual relationship between
teacher and students.
Learning to manage and appreciate the instructional conversation takes time, but many
teachers find that the increased attention paid to students’ assisted thinking reaps great ben-
efits in increased understanding of students’ thought processes as well as in students’ sense of
instructional co-ownership. It is difficult for most teachers to keep silent and let students think
and volunteer their thoughts in good time, to move the conversation forward by building on
students’ ideas rather than the teacher’s, to select topics that students find genuinely interesting
and comprehensible, and to have patience with English learners’ struggle to find the words for
their thoughts. However, the rewards are great—a satisfying instructional conversation is the
event for which, at heart, every good teacher yearns.

Discourse That Affirms Students’ Voices

Throughout this book, the emphasis is on the co-participation of the learner in learning. It
is imperative that teachers encourage the language that is needed and desired by the student,
and if that desire does not exist, to evoke those emotions and motivations as an integral part
of instruction. Instruction—particularly in a second language—that is not meaningful and
motivating to the learner becomes empty.
What kind of participation enhances motivation and promotes acquisition? Co-
construction of meaning permits the learner to plan, choose, and evaluate knowledge in relation
to personal needs and goals. Participatory genres help the student to bridge the home–school
divide. For example, the “talk-story” of Hawai’ian culture, when brought into the classroom,
can open up the discourse around reading (Jordan, Tharp, & Baird-Vogt, 1992). By working in
acknowledgment of, rather than at cross-purposes to, these community patterns of discourse,
teachers can choose modifications to teacher-fronted discourse that will be successful for a
particular group of learners.
In summary, using the tools of ethnography and community participation, teachers can
learn how to help the learner participate in meaningful English-language instruction. Studying
how the community uses discourse can help teachers pattern their classroom activities in ways
that increase the likelihood that students’ English proficiency will grow.

Pragmatics: The Influence of Context

Pragmatics is the study of communication in context. It includes three major communica-
tion skills. The first is the ability to use language for different functions—greeting, informing,
demanding, promising, requesting, and so on. The second involves appropriately adapting or
changing language according to the listener or situation—talking differently to a friend than
to a principal or speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground. The third skill is the
ability to follow rules for conversations and narrative, knowing how to tell a story, give a book
report, or recount events of the day.
32 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

(Peim, 1993). The study of discourse looks at language in its larger units, such as oral text
(classroom talk, speeches, casual conversation) and written text (magazine articles, school
assignments, signs, and posters). Discourse specialists have looked at such behavior as how
people take turns, how speakers use contextual cues as they interact, and how people show oth-
ers they are listening. These features are heavily influenced by culture.
In school, language is used differently than in the experiences of everyday life. As stu-
dents acquire a second language—English—they are exposed to a distinct set of language func-
tions that are specially adapted for school. This can work to the benefit of English learners if
educators can affirm the voices that students bring to school and encourage them to build the
second language on the knowledge they have gained in their first language, thus increasing
their academic potential.

Academic Discourse
What does it mean to use language for academic purposes? An educated person lives in a world
in which discourse is used for a wide range of purposes. For many, literacy at work has become
highly computer dependent, with word processing, databases, telephone number files, e-mail,
and Web-based activities, as well as paper dependent, with piles of various folders contain-
ing information, along with books, journals, and newsletters. At home, personal literacy may
include cookbooks, hobby materials, newsmagazines, correspondence, and bill-paying. All
these reading materials have their own place, time, and task orientation.

Classroom discourse patterns involve students as active language users.

 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 39

Teaching Oral Register Shifts Registers may involve conventions of intonation, vocabulary,
or topic that meet the needs of the people and the tasks to be performed in that situation. For
example, car advertising commercials filmed locally often use “car commercial register,” a kind
of frenzied tone performed by a man speaking loudly and quickly, whereas airline pilots who
use the public address system of the airplane adopt a folksy tone, a “captain register” that is
reassuring and paternal. Kindergarten teachers who read fairy tales aloud use storytelling regis-
ter, featuring a tone of wonder and suppressed excitement. Understanding register shifts enables
a language user to adapt to these rules.
Formal oral presentations, for example, may resemble written language, with scholarly
sounding words, passive voice, or use of the subjunctive, because many speakers write out a
presentation in advance. Informal, casual speech often features contractions, slang, and incom-
plete sentences (Cipollone, Keiser, & Vasishth, 1998). Table 1.13 displays a variety of registers
that students might master for use in a classroom.

Best Practice TRAINING STUDENTS IN ORAL REGISTER SHIFTS

■ Set up opportunities for situated practice, require oral presentations, stage dramatic
events, and engage older students in storytelling to children.
■ Offer repeated trials with feedback to help students improve the ability to shift registers.
■ Let students take the initiative in creating settings and events for a variety of register
usages that require leadership and talent in language use.
■ Apply strategies for identifying and addressing difficulties English learners may encoun-
ter in comprehending regional dialects or other varieties of English.
■ Create an instructional environment that respects English learners’ home language and
variety of English.

TABLE 1.13 Typical Oral Registers in the Classroom

Register Description or Example

Student response register A firm tone, spoken confidently, that reaches all other students in
the room
Leadership register The voice of roll call, the call to line up for lunch, or the call to be
quiet and listen
Classroom presentation register Involves eye contact with an audience, confident bearing, pleasing
and varied tone of voice, and an inviting sense of two-way
communication with listeners
Dramatic register Spoken dialogue in a play, in the role of narrator or announcer; it is
“larger than life,” with exaggerated emotion and voice
Storytelling to children Features simplification and a sense of warmth and intimacy, no
matter what the size of the crowd
Cooperative work register The “ten-inch voice”; able to be heard within one’s group but not by
the next group
40 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

Turn-Taking A key aspect of learning to be appropriate is understanding how to take turns.

Native speakers of a language have internalized guidelines for when to speak, when to remain
silent, how long to speak, how long to remain silent, how to give up “the floor,” how to enter
into a conversation, and so on, including how to show respect when doing so. Linguistic devices
such as intonation, pausing, and phrasing are used to signal an exchange of turns. In some cul-
tures, people wait for a clear pause before beginning their turn to speak, whereas others start
while the speaker is winding down.
In some cultures, overlapping a turn with the speaker is acceptable; in other cultures,
this is considered rude and causes feelings of unease or hostility. Some children can interrupt
instruction without receiving negative sanction, whereas others are chided for frequent inter-
ruption. Punishing some students while letting others take unwarranted turns is tantamount
to linguistic discrimination. To avoid this, a skilled teacher instructs second-language students
about how to get turns and monitors instruction to ensure fairness. (It is difficult to see one’s
own behavior in this; it is best for the teacher to ask a peer to observe.)

Nonverbal Communication
An important part of the pragmatic dimension of language is the complex nonverbal system
that accompanies, complements, or takes the place of the verbal: “An elaborate and secret code
that is written nowhere, known by none, and understood by all” (Sapir, quoted in Miller, 1985).
This nonverbal system, estimated to account for up to 93 percent of communication (Mehra-
bian, 1969), involves sending and receiving messages through eye contact, facial expression,
gesture, posture, and tone of voice.
Everyone is adept at sending and receiving these nonverbal messages, but, as in oral lan-
guage, people are often unconscious of the information they are receiving. Because this non-
verbal system accounts for a large part of the emotional message given and received, awareness
of its various aspects helps teachers to recognize when students’ nonverbal messages may not
fit with expected school norms.

Body Language The way one holds and positions oneself—one’s body language—is a means
of communication. Body language can convey power and confidence, or submission and timid-
ity, merely by the tilt of the head, the position of the shoulders, or the grip of a handshake.
Gestures—expressive motions or actions made with hands, arms, head, or even the whole
body—are ways to add meaning to verbal language or to substitute for words. Through the use
of eyebrows, eyes, cheeks, nose, lips, tongue, and chin, people nonverbally signal any number
of emotions, opinions, and moods.
Eye contact is another communication device that is highly variable. Many folk sayings
express the idea that “the eyes are the windows of the soul,” and it is important for some that
the gaze be direct but not too bold. Eyes can reveal or hide emotions; not only the gaze but also
the shape of the eye and even the size of the pupil convey emotions.

Conceptions of Space and Time Physical distance between people, the invisible “bubble”
that defines individual personal space, varies according to relationships. People usually stand
closest to relatives, close to friends, and farther from strangers. Coming too close can be inter-
preted as aggressive behavior; conversely, staying too far away may be perceived as cold. Teach-
ers with students of many cultures in their classes may have the opportunity to observe many
spatial facets of communication.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 41

Use of time, even daily rhythms, varies across cultures. Hall (1959) pointed out that for
speakers of English, time is treated as a material object—a commodity—rather than an objec-
tive experience. English expressions include “saving time,” “spending time,” and “wasting time.”
Teachers often reprove students for idling and admonish students to “get busy.” Standardized
tests record higher scores for students who work quickly. In fact, teachers correlate rapid learn-
ing with intelligence.
With an awareness of mainstream U.S. conceptions of time, teachers become more
understanding of students and families whose time values differ from their own. Some stu-
dents may need more time to express themselves orally because the timing of oral discourse
is slower in their culture. Parents who were raised in cultures with radically different concepts
of time may not be punctual for parent conferences. One group of teachers allowed for this by
designating blocks of three hours when they would be available for conferences, letting parents
arrive when they could without fixed appointment times. Thus, teachers’ accommodation to
the intercultural pragmatics of the situation was key to an improved school climate.

Evaluating the Pragmatic Features of School Programs

Intercultural pragmatics often involves concepts, feelings, and attitudes that are difficult for
teachers and school administrators to discuss. Some teachers, lacking a more nuanced vocab-
ulary, focus on teaching students manners, a term that carries a variety of meanings, from
interpersonal respect to reliance on traditional, hierarchical adult–child rituals. Seeing others’
beliefs, values, and behaviors through the lens of one’s own culture often means that oth-
ers’ culturally based behavior—that of students and their families—is viewed as wrong, mal-
adapted, or rude. Teachers who avoid the trap of “right” versus “wrong” can set an open and
accepting tone.
Making the pragmatic features of the school and other settings explicit for English learn-
ers helps students engage in oral and written discourse that is appropriate for a given context,
purpose, and audience. One teacher wrote a Welcome Book for newcomers to the classroom
that explained routines, procedures, expected behaviors, and shared values. A student’s “buddy”
would have the chance every day to go over sections of the manual with the newcomer, and a
copy was sent home. This helped students and their families know what to expect.

Dialects and Language Variation

The language used in a certain context varies not only according to pragmatic factors of reg-
ister shift (cultural and social norms, social and physical setting, goals, purpose, participants,
audience, and subject matter) but also in long-term variations that influence the way people
produce language. An oral dialect is evinced when people talk a certain way in order to feel
appropriate within a given context. Teachers who take such variation into consideration com-
municate respect and understanding of contextual influences on English-language use.
Within the first few seconds of listening to the voice of a stranger, native speakers can usu-
ally identify not only whether the speaker’s voice is familiar but also a host of other information
about that person. As Wolfram (1991) noted, “It is surprising how little conversation it takes
to draw conclusions about a speaker’s ‘background’—a sentence, a phrase, or even a word
is adequate to trigger a regional, social, or ethnic classification” (p. 1). Dialect refers to “any
42 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

variety of language which is shared by a group of speakers” (p. 2). Dialect varies with region,
social class, and ethnic origin.

Dialects and the Education of English Learners

Language educators cannot help being influenced by dialect considerations. Wolfram (1995)
emphasized the importance of dialect issues for educators of English learners:

The standard version of English provided in most ESL curricula aims unrealistically at a dialect-
neutral variety of English. At the same time, the majority of ESL learners are surrounded by
an array of dialects, including some well-established vernacular dialects for those who live in
economically impoverished conditions. The socialization of many ESL learners into US culture
may lead them to adopt the same uncharitable, biased opinion of vernaculars that is often found
among native speakers of English. . . . It thus seems appropriate to incorporate dimensions of
language variation into the ESL curriculum. (p. 1)

A student’s dialect may affect teacher expectations. The ESL teacher may be tempted to
oversimplify classroom language to match students’ acquisition level. Finding the appropri-
ate balance of language knowledge, pedagogical skill, dialect accommodation, and standard-
language modeling is a challenge for teachers of English learners.
One important question is whether ESL teachers should model Standard English. In
many urban schools, bilingual (Spanish–English) teachers are in demand in elementary schools,
and personnel administrators do not seem to see Spanish-accented English as a negative in
this context. However, some personnel administrators still seem to prefer to hire high school
English teachers who are native speakers, or who speak English without a “foreign” accent.
A central issue, that of honoring the dialect of the learner, means finding the appropri-
ate balance between respecting the home dialect of the student and modeling and teaching
Standard English. Prejudice may be an issue in ESL contexts. Speakers of a regional dialect
(for example, a Mexican-American dialect in Fresno) may not be accorded the same respect
as speakers of Standard English. Yet within a specific community, a dialect may be the norm.
Should English teachers enforce Standard English even if it is not the norm in the students’
community? Thus, dialect issues are also issues of social power and status in society.
Students who speak nonstandard dialects are very aware when they have difficulty acquir-
ing standard forms for academic writing and avoiding stereotyping and discrimination (Nero,
1997). But they are also aware that their very identity and deepest values are linked to their
language, leading to potential conflicts in self-evaluation and acculturation—but also to pos-
sible positive biculturality (Bosher, 1997; LePage & Tabouret-Keller, 1985). The role of dialect
is complex. This section examines dialect from a linguist’s point of view: common features of
dialects, how dialects reflect social and ethnic differences, what types of attitudes people have
toward dialects, and how dialects affect style.

Common Features That Constitute Dialects

Why do languages have dialects? Language differences go hand-in-hand with social differen-
tiation. People speak differently because they are physically separated (regional dialects) or
because they are socially separated (by means of economic ecology and social stratification). A
third explanation is based on linguistic differences between the dialects themselves.
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 43

Regional Dialects Sometimes physical terrain keeps dialects isolated and intact. In the United
States, the geographic isolation of some Southern communities has given rise to so-called
Appalachian English (Wolfram, 1991). The overall dialect terrain of the United States is an
example of regional dialects. The four distinct dialects that most Americans find recognizable
in the United States today can be roughly characterized as (1) New York City, (2) New England,
(3) the South, and (4) everyone else. The use of these dialects often has cultural implications.

Social-Stratification Dialects Within social groups, language establishes and maintains

social distinctions. If people want to be considered a part of a particular social group, they con-
sciously or unconsciously adopt the vocabulary items, pronunciation, and grammatical pat-
terns of that group. This is easy to see in the case of teenage slang. Even when people’s language
receives negative social evaluation from mainstream English speakers, they continue to use
the language of their in-group. Features of the dialect may be associated with ethnic solidarity,
whereas speaking in the mainstream style may cause loss of friends or weakening of family ties.
It is not uncommon for speakers to try to live in two or more worlds.

Deeper Syntactic Causes for Dialects The third explanation for the origin and persistence
of dialects is based on linguistic analysis. Double negation within a sentence, as in the Southern
U.S. dialect construction “The dog didn’t like nobody,” is also found in European languages.
Deletion of the copula (“They late”) is a feature of African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE) but also of Chinese and other languages. Lack of the ’s in the possessive structure (“that
man hat”) in AAVE is true for other possessive structures in English (“her hat”); similarly, the
lack of the noun plural ending (“four girl”) in AAVE is common in many languages. Thus,
dialects persist based on the ways in which languages are constructed.

How Dialects Exhibit Social and Ethnic Differences

Whether dialects have a regional, social, or linguistic explanation, speakers acquire a dialect of
English based on the language used by others of their region, social class, and native language.
The most obvious form of dialect usage is in the sound of the language—the accent. People use
accent to make judgments on a range of personal qualities and capabilities, such as innate intelli-
gence, morality, and employability (Wolfram, 1991). Just because someone speaks with an accent
does not mean he or she is less competent in the language. In fact, as Lippi-Green asserts,
[D]egree of accentedness, whether from L1 interference, or a socially or geographically marked
language variety, cannot predict the level of an individual’s competency in the target language.
In fact . . . high degrees of competence are often attained by persons with especially strong L2
accents. (1997, p. 70)
Standard pronunciation (an accent known as General American or Midwestern) has
become associated with high-status occupations, such as doctors, lawyers, professionals, and
executives of large companies. Thus, language variation is associated with a person’s economic
activity. Economic discrimination based on language is enforced by means of informal, often
invisible, social networks that intersect with social-class stratification.
Many people live in communities in which people are multidialectic, code-switching
back and forth easily between multiple languages, each with its own repertoire of styles. To
overcome the negative effects of social stratification, many people who are non-native speakers
44 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

of English seek to lose the accent that they feel hinders them from assimilating into the main-
stream. On the other hand, in many cultures the dialect they speak is the mainstream, and to
acquire any other accent risks social stigma. In some cultures, being bilingual is acceptable only
to a limited degree.

Attitudes toward Dialects

People who are forbidden by law from discriminating against others on the basis of race or
ethnicity may use accent as a means of social stigmatization or exclusion (Lippi-Green, 1997).
Teachers may unwittingly communicate a negative social evaluation to a non-native-English-
speaking student by speaking louder, using shorter sentences, slowing speech, restricting
vocabulary and range of topics, or signaling a patronizing attitude (curiously enough, this is
also done to the elderly). This puts the non-native speaker in a position of lower status.
Americans, consciously or unconsciously, view certain “foreign” languages as less pres-
tigious than others. Because of racism, the French spoken by Haitians may not be evaluated
as positively as French spoken by a Canadian. Status issues are prevalent in dialect differences
among native speakers of English. In many parts of the world, the prestige form of British
English is considered a preferable dialect to any form of American English.
Language is central to the identification of self and group. Teachers can damage the
teacher–student relationship through prejudice or impair students’ academic success through
lower academic expectations. Student who are made to feel inferior for reasons of accent may
internalize the shame associated with discrimination or maintain a negative attitude toward
learning English. As Lippi-Green (1997) states, “When an individual cannot find any social
acceptance for her language outside her own speech communities, she may come to denigrate
her own language, even when she continues to use it.”

Dialects and Style

A speaker’s or writer’s choice of language variation for a given discourse may be influenced by
the context or setting of the discourse and by the speaker’s age, gender, culture, level of edu-
cation, social class, or vocation. Formal settings call for formal language; a student skilled in
making this distinction may be chosen for public speaking at school assemblies.
Male–female differences have been shown in women’s greater pitch changes to show
emotion, higher overall pitch, and greater use of expressive adjectives and intensifiers (Brend,
1975). Characteristics of female speech are related more to powerlessness than gender, suggest-
ing that women have learned to use these linguistic forms because they have traditionally been
relegated to relatively powerless social positions (O’Barr & Atkins, 1980). English educators
may find that male and female learners acquire different dialects of English, transferring to
English the different roles and speech patterns in the native language. For example, female stu-
dents may be more reticent to speak than male students, or vice versa. In these cases, a teacher
might openly discuss the differences and find ways to equalize speaking opportunities.

Vernacular Dialects and Language Teaching

Because accent and intonation patterns are important in second-language acquisition, stu-
dents need to understand four basic truths about dialect usage in English: (1) One’s dialect,
 Chapter One Language Structure and Use 45

if widely used by the surrounding racial, ethnic, or cultural community, is equally valid as a
subset of English as any other dialect; (2) dialects are often used as a basis for discrimination,
combining with underlying issues of power and race relations; (3) it is common for individuals
all over the world to learn more than one dialect of English and to switch from one dialect to
another depending on the context; and (4) such features of dialect as accent can be altered, if
so desired, by specific, albeit time-intensive, drill.

Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? In a language as varied as English, there are
naturally some who feel that it is important to establish a standard, or norm, against which
usage is measured. Experts who publish grammar and usage books usually prescribe correct
or standard language forms, but in English, no such standard in fact exists. Generally speak-
ing, Standard American English is a composite of several subdialects spoken by the educated
professional middle class. People seeking success in school and in the job market tend to adopt
the language used by people in positions of power.
Many educators feel it is their right and privilege to enforce Standard English on their
students. Teachers may subordinate the language of their students using a variety of messages,
both overt and covert. Some teachers believe it is their right to correct students in public, to
reprimand them for incorrect usage, or to refuse to communicate until a standard is reached
(“You must answer in a complete sentence,” “I can’t understand you—say it again”) (Lippi-
Green, 1997).
Varieties of language are a result of normal social processes rather than inadequacies
of individual speakers. The unique voice of the student is lost if educators insist on the use of
Standard English exclusively in the classroom. Just as the worldview of the Native American is

Students speaking a nonstandard dialect of English are a rich source of language input to English
learners in urban schools.

Will Hart/PhotoEdit
46 Part One Teaching English to English Learners

lost if the indigenous language dies away, so is the interlanguage of the student lost if no one
listens. By balancing the need to teach Standard English with the zest and delight in each indi-
vidual’s vernacular, education can become a reservoir of English-language diversity.

In summary, language affords rich and dynamic expression. Familiarity with the
structures and functions of language helps teachers to promote English-language
development while supporting students’ self-expression in their primary lan-
guages. Teachers with knowledge about the various subsystems of language can
recognize the effort involved in developing English ability and incorporate stu-
dents’ language-development objectives into all facets of the daily program.
Language is accompanied by a nonverbal system that surrounds and
supports grammatical competence. Knowledge about and skill in nonverbal
communication enhances teachers’ rapport with students. Understanding the
basics of language helps to make language learning a meaningful, purposeful,
and shared endeavor.

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