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A. Measuring' Instruments
4ff. I lntroduction: i'
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Measurement, meters and measuring instruments play an important role in all phases of
electronics. They help us in determining how an electronic circuil is performing.
Measurement of voltage, current and impedance are the most fundamental electrical
measurement. A measuring device converts a primary indication into some form of energy that
can be easily displayed on a scale.

48.?- Output Power Meters :

An output power wattmeter is designed to directly measure the outpr.rt in an arbitrary load. In
this instrument a set of resistive loads are provided to be selected for power measurements. 'Ihis
instrument can be used to measure impedance and frequency response characteristics"

Figure shorys a simple circuit for an output - meter :

fhe input impedance netr.vork consists of two tapped resistances and coil" The input impedance
can be varied in steps from 2.5Q to 40kf2.

oA 1ow impedance vaiues, the coil shunts a portion of R, an increase in resistance

result power tums of the coil. This arrangement keeps the meter rea.ding proportional
to the energy dissipated by the resistor.
o At high resistance values, the coil is replaced by another tapped resistance R.r, The
losses of the coil is compensated by placing an RC frequency compensator in parallel
with the low. At low frequency as Xc is high, it decreases as frequency increases.
q R.esistance R3 is the control in a T - Network. This amounts to a variable meter shunt,
r.ihich is used to extend the range of the meter.

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o The reset of the circuit is a combination of a calibration and frequency compensation
network.
o 'Ihe input meter is subjected to a waveform error when the input is other than
sinusoidal.
This meter can also be used to
i. Measure output impedance by adjusting the maximum power.
ii. Check the frequency response characteristics ofaudio frequency devices. . . ."! .
4B.5 FieldStrengthmeter:Thefieldstrengthmeterisusedtomeasuretheradiationintensityfrom ' ':i ' '
a transmitting antenna at a given location. With its own small antenna" It is essentially a simple
receiver r,vith an indicator.
Antenna

VR
lffi
I

1,ilrt
ifu'*'
:
tc, c,T
0,hT:.L
The fleld strength measurement should be made at a distance of severai wavelengths from the
transmitting antennas to avoid misleading readings.
'Io enable the wavemeter combination to act as a fieid strength meter, greater sensitivity can be
easily obtained rvith the addition of transistor dc amplifler"

Y
I
1
1

i
:-
J

Field Strength rneter (transistor)

The transistor provides very high current gain, thus good sensitivity is obtained. The transistor
is connected in a common emitter configuration. When no signal is received the quiescent
current is balanced out by the back upcurrent, through the variable resistor R2" 'Ihis zero balance
should be checked at intervals. Since the quiescent current is sensitive to temperature changes.
The collector current through the meter provides an indication of the strengh of the RF yrave
being picked up. This ct-:.ii:ent is not proporlional to the field strength" Holvever the response rs
satisfactory fbr the reiati.re comparison of f,eld strength.

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4h.tt StroboscoPe :

Principle : The stroboscope uses a high intensity light rvhich flashes at precise intervals. This
light is directed upon rotating or vibrating object. f'he stroboscopic effect is apparent when the
rotational or vibratory speed is in a proper ratio rvith the frequency ofthe light flashes"

The block diagram is as shown in figure.

o The oscillator provides trigger pulses to flashes mechanism to control the flashing rate"
The vibrating read serves as a reference for accurately calibrating the stroboscope.
o The need is driven from aclines and vibrates a,.7200 times per minute. Tlis steady
rate is used to standardise the calibration scale over a narrow range.
,'.
o The flashes produces the illumination for the measurement. The flashes tube is filled
with a suitable inert gas which produces iight when it is ionised.
When the frequency of movement exactly matches the stroboscope frequency the moving
object is viewed clearly only once during sach revolution. This causes the moving object to
appear as a single stationary image.
Muitiple still images appear when the stroboscope frequency is some multiple of the rotation
frequency. In this case the light flashes more thah once during each rotation ofthe object.
Moving images are obtained rvhen the light frequency and the rotation frequency are not
synchronized. A stroboscope may be used to check motor or generator speed ranging from 60
to 1,000,000 rpm. It gives an accuracy of 0. 1%.
t+4. 5 - Phase meter : Figure shows a phase sensitive detector for compai'ing an ac signal with a
reference sigral.
The detector produces a rectifled output, which is fed to a dc meter. To illustrate clearly that the
output of the phase sensitive detector swings the zero centre pointer in one director for an in-
phase error voltage and is the opposite direction fbr an out - phase condition. Thus the function
of this dual rectifler circuit is to deflectthe zero centre galvonometer not only to indicate the
value of the signal voltage Vs, direction of this error and phase polarity of the error comparator
to a reference voltage.
ln fig (a), for the flrst half cycle the instantaneous polarity of the reference voltage V causes
the rectified current to flow through the conduction rectifier D1, producing a positive voltage to
ground across R1 and a tendency for the meter to deflect to the righ1.
On the second halfcycle, the instantance is polarity ofthe reference voltage V, causes an equal
rectified current to flow through diode D2, Producing an equal tendency for the meter to deflect
to the left" Since these two equal and opposite tendencies are averaged over the full cycle, the
galvanometer reads zero over the cyc1e, with input Vs : 0'
When Vs is applied, it either aids or opposes the reference voltage, depending upto whether
it is in phase or out of phase with it. If Vs is in phase with Vr, the signal voltage will aid the
instantaneous ac voltage in the upper half of the transformer secondary. Producing a larger
current through D, and a larger dc output rroltage on the first halL D, does not conduct unless
Vs is greater than V,, so that the voltage across R. is the reclifled result of V, - V, and that across
R,isV,+V
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-a a
DC meter
zero centre
,l DC meter
'zero
centre

NL_
,D2
(a) Positive Half (a) Negative Half
NS'b Vector Impedance Meter (Direct Reading) :
lfsome information of the reactive and resistive and resistive f-actors are needed in addition to
obtaining a direct reading of the magnitude of impedance (z), a lot method for determining the
vector impedance may be employed"
This method determines z in polar form, that is, it gives the magnitude
izl an<] the phase angle
(0) of the impedance being tested, the test circuit is shorvn in fig. Two resistors of equal vaiue
R is used. The voltage drop across R^u & Ru., i.e., v.u and vu. will e equal (half of vo. Since
).
the same current flows through Rl" The unknorvn impedance in series, the magnitirite of 2x
can be determined by the equal deflection method by obtaining equal voltage drops across fut
and Zx ie V,* & Vr. and reading the calibrated standard resistor Rst required t6 produce
this
condition.
.,t.,,i"

Vector Impedance Meter

The phase angle 0 of the imped ance Z*can be obtained from the reading of the voltage at points
B and D that is Vr" . The deflection ofthe meter will be found to vary with the of the unknown
e
impedance zx. the angle between the voltages and v* v*
is half is made equal to vr..
e%^ o"
tan
--
2V*
Since V* is half of \,, the voltmeter reading of V* can be interpreted in terms of Ql 2 and,
hence the phase angle 0 of the unknown Z..canbe determined.

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4A.? Q - Meter :

The efficiency of coils and capacitor for RF application is been evaluated using the Q value" The
Q meter is an instrument designed to measure some electrical propertics of coils and clpacitors.
Principle : The principle of Q - meter is based on series resonance; the voltage drop across the
coil or capacitor is Q times the applied voltage where Q is the ratio of reactance to resistance
XI/R). If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit. a voltmeter across the capacitor can be
calibrated to read, Q directly.
At resonance Xr: X. and Vr: IX, , V. : IX. , V : IR
Where V - applied voltage V,, - Inductive voltage
I - Circuit current X. - Inductive reactance
R - Coil Resistan X. - Capacitive reactance
V. - Capacitor voltage.

..-'.-Xr-x.-Vc
v- R - R - v
From above equation, if V is constant the voltage across capacitor can be measured by a
voltmeter and can be calibrated to read directly in terms of Q.
X' =X'
r=I7I!)- T,L
tlt

I
t'
L--_--.:--
(zxr)'c

Tunins J-^
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4A.s Megger:
iv{eggers (or Megohmmeters) are instruments which measures the insulation resistance of
-l'he
electric circuit relative to earth and one another. megger has tr.vo main elements, a magnet -
fype dc generator to supply current for making measurements, and an ohmeeter r,vhich measures
the resistance value.
Megohmeter has two windings. One in series with the reference R, across the output of the
generator, and is tvound in such a way as to move the pointer towards the high resistance end of
the scale when the generator is in operation.
'The other wincling coil (A) and resistance R, are comected in series betlveen the -.re pole of the

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generator and the line terminal. This winding is so wound that the current flows through it from i.." iJ n_
the generator it tends to move the pointer but at right angles to each other.
Grc,und

(a) Basic Megger Circuit

When an extremely high resistance appears across the terminals, such as in open circuit, the
pointer reads infinity. On the other hand when the resistance of relatively low value appears, ie
when the cable insulatic,n is wet, the current through the series winding causes the
fointer to
move toward zero"
When an unknown resistance R, is across the test leads, the current flows in coil A. The
corresponding torque developed increasing strength until the torque flelds between A & B are
equal' Variations in the speed of the head generator voltage affects both coil in the same maruler.

Analog pH Meter
+A.q pH is defined as the negative lo,earithm of the active hydrogen ion. It is a measure of the acidity
of an aqueneous solution. rhe pH scale runs from 0 - 14 with pH7 the neutral point.
The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution is usualiy the pH is measured by immersin_e a
special glass electrode and reference electrode into the solution. There are two
rypes of method
used to measure the pH, the calorimetric method and the electrical method.

Hydrogen

G1ass tabe
Hollow Tube
To
Measuring
Circuit
Platinum
wire

Permeable
Stopper
The Colorimeteric method is based on the assumption that if an indicator has the same colour
in two solutions, then the pH of both solutions is the same. But this assumption does not hold
good aiways.

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The electrical method is the most popular and is based upon a measurement of the electrode
potential" The principle of this method is that when an electrode is immersed in the solution, a
potential arises at electrode solution boundary known as the electrode potential.
The electrode potential, at a given temperature depends upon te concentrations of ions of the i.;'li
electrode.

Telqmetry:
Definition : Telemetry is defined as a technology which allows user to lollect information from
inaccesible and inconvenient locations and to transmit it to the accessible places tg.piocess,
record and display inforrnation in presentable lorm"
(or)
Telemetry means measuring at a distance.
Figure shows the biock diagram of a general telemetring.
{-rnpul Stage+Inl erme d iate S tage---><-?ij::t stage
---
Telemeter
'I'ransmitter

f-Recordingl
tl
l-Indicatine i
l-Disptay I

[-controt )

The telemeter transmitter converts the output of primary detector into an electrical signal and
transmits it to the channel. The signal in electrical form is received by a telemeter receiver
placed at a remote location. The receiver converts the signal into a usable from and is indicated
or displayed by the end device.
Tlpes of Telemetry Systems :
1. According to the link between the telemeter transmitter and the telemeter receiverl.
1. Land line @.C) telemetry system
i. Voltage telemetering system
ii. Current telemetering system
iii. Position (or ratio) telemetry system
2. Radio Frequency (RI) telemetry system

o Frequency telemetering system

o
Pulse telemetry system.
2. According to the form in which the information is transmitted.
l. Analog telemetry system
2. Dig\tal telemetry system

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, B. Brid-g"j. , , .. .. ._,.\" -1r;

4B.f lntroduction :

The bridges are used for not oniy the measurement of resistances but also used for the
measurement of various component values like capacitance, inductance etc.
A bridge circuit in its simplest from consists of network of four resistance arms forming a
closed circuit. A source of current is applied to two opposite junctions. The current detector is
connected to other two junctions"
The bridge circuits use the comparison measurement methods and operate on null - indication
principle. The bridge circuit in applied to trvo opposite junctions. The current detector is
connected to other two junctions.
The bridge circuits use the comparison measurement methods and operate nu1l - indication
principle. The bridge circuit compares the value of an unknown component with that of an
. . abcurately known standard component. Thus the accuracy depends on the bridge components
and not on the null indicator" Hence high degree ofaccuracy can be obtained.
In a bridge circuit, when no current flow, through the null detector which is generally
galvobameter, the bridge is said to be balanced. The relationship betr,veen the component
values of the four arms of the bridge at the balancing is called balancing condition or balancing
equation. This equation gives us the value of the unknown component.

Advantages of Bridge Circuit

I'he various advantages ofthe bridges circuit are,
1" The balance equation is independent of the magnitude of the input voltage or its source
impedance. 'Ihese quantities do not appear in the balance eqitation expression.
2" The measurement accuracy is hi-eh as the measllrement is done by comparing the unknorvn
value with the standard value.
3. The accuracy is independent ofthe characteristics ofa null detector and is dependent onthe
component values.

Types of Bridges
The two types of bridges are
i. D.C bridges and
2. A.C bridges
The d.c bridges are used to measure the resistance while the a.c bridges are used to measure
the impedances consisting capacitances and inductances. The d.c bridges use the d.c voltage as
the excitation voltage while the a.c voltage use the alternating voltage as the excitation voltage.
The two types of d.c bridges are
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge
The various types ofa.c bridges are
1. Capacitance comparision bridge

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2. Inductance component bridge
3. Max wells bridge
4. FIay's bridge
5. Anderson bridge
5. Schering bridge
Let us discuss in detail, the various types ofbridges.

4b. > Wheatstone Bridge

The bridge consists of four resistive arms together with a source of e.m.f and a null detector.
'Ihe galvonometer is used as a null detector.

The Fig.7.3 " i shows the basic wheatstone bridge circuit.

.. i-3 r..

Unknown
ResistanE6
Standard Resistance

Wheatstone Bridge
The arms consisting the resistances R, and R, are called ratio arms. The arm resistance R^ is
called standard arm. The resistance R, is the unknown resistance to be measured the bafiery is
connected between A and C lvhile gelvinometer is connected betlveen B and D.

Balance Condition
When the bridge is balanced, the galvanometer carries zero current and it does not show any
deflection. This bridges works on the principle of null deflection or null indication"
To have zero current through galvanometer, the points B and D must be at the same potential.
Ihus potential across arm AB and be same as the potential across arm AD.
Thus I,R, = IrRo ..."..."..".....(7.3. 1)
As galvanometer current is zercl
:
l, l, and I, = lo ..........('7 "3 "2)
Considering the battery path under balanced condition

t,=t,= E ....".........{7.3.3)
R.,
' Rl
and I, = I,, ........"(t .2.+)
R, +Ro

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Using equation (2.:.:) and equation (7.3.4)in (7.3. l)
E-ExR, __--xR.
R, +R, ' R, +-R. $

.'. R, (R, + Ro) = Ro (R, +Rr)

.'. R,R, + R,R,, = R,R, + RrR*

This is required balance condition of wheatstone bridge. E ''$l '

The following points can be observed
1' It depends on the ratio of R, and
& hence these anns are called ratio arms.
2. As it works on null indication, this results are not dependent on the calibration and
characteristics of calvanometer.
3. The standard resistance R, can be varied to obtain the required balance.

4b2.1 Wheatstone Bridge under Small Unbalance

The bridge sensitivity can be calculated by solving the bridge for small unbalance.

Atbalancecondition,Ro = R,,R,
+
31
i'e'' 13- =
R3 R2

Let the resistance \ is changed by AR creating the unbalance. Due to this, the e.m.f appears
across the galvanometer. To be obtain this e.m.f , Let us use thevinin's method. Remove the
branch of galvanometer and obtain the voltage across the open circuit terminals.
E* = I,R,..............(2.:.0)

I, ==l^ .".........(l.z.l)
R,+R, \

Eao = I, (Ro + AR)...........(7.3.8)

rz=- *- ^ ..........."(t.t.s)
Rr+Rr+A*
v"o = vo - EAD -EAB..........(7.3.10)

(R, +Ro +AR) R, +R,

v*='[dftft,fr;) (z:rr)

a.&= *, ,h., *, - Ro
R3 R2 R,+R, Rr+R,

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E
Bridge under unbalance
Using above relation in equation (7.3. 1 1)

v-.=pl Rn*{. - R. }
rn
lRr+Rn+A" Rr+Roj
[*.*. *,trAR+R:+RrRo-FO
' ,2-*.*l
-"lf
_.1 " I

ti
ER3AR

But as AR is very small, (R, + R, ) lR .. (R, * Ro )'

ER

Now S"
" :+=
AR/R
= Bridgesensitivity

^d ryR
= y* there is change in Ro
^as
F rom the galvanometer sensitivity SV
0= SuX. where Voltageacrossgalvanometer=%
Using 0 in the expression of S"

. (. s,% _ scER3aRRl ,., sv ER3R.

''rts-AR,&-G_R,
E
s^-
b
Rr,Ro
R4
-+Jf- R3

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Thus the bridge sensitivity depends on the bridge parameters the supply voltage and the voltage
sensitivify of the galvanometer.
Application of lvheatstone bridge
The wheat stone bridge is basically a d.c bridge and to low maga ohm.
It is used to measure the d.c resistance of various types of wires for the purpose of quality
control of wire.
it is used to measure the resistance of motor winding, relay coils etc.
It is used by teiephone companies to locate the cable faults may be of the type line to line short
or line ground short.

Advantages of Wheatstone Bridge

The various advantages ofwheatstone bridge are
1. The results are not advantages ofwheatstone bridge are, the results are not dependent on the
calibration and characteristics of glavanometer as it works on null cieflection"
2. The source e.m"f and inaccuracies due to the source fluctuations do not affect the balance of
the bridge" Hence the corresponding errors are completaly avoided.
3. Due o nuil defleclion method used the accuracy and sensitivity is higher then direct deflection
meter.

Erample 7.3"2 The four arms of the wheatstone bridge have the following resistance.
AB = 1000Q, BC = 1000Q, cD = 120 o D"A = 120Q. The bridge is used for strain
measurement has sensitivity of 1mm I pA with interval resistance of 2004 to 212t2
and arm CD decreates to 1149O.
Sol : The bridge given is shown in the Fig. 7.3.7
Rr =100C),Rz =1000f)
R: =119C),Rc=121p.
R, =200el,Sr =lmm/pA
Let us find i, using thevenin 's equalant

tL-
vrs = r [--v-
IR, + Ro-
+ R,
= s[--J
=+=l_] [12] il9- ---ryql-l
R, + 1000 + 1000_]

= 0.02083 V
andR"o = (R, ll nr)+ (n, ll Ro) = 500 + 59.9958 = 559.995C)

. r _ vrH
..I"=:--- 0.02093 ^-
-
" R.o +R, 559.995+200
=Zi.408pr\

.'. 0 = Ie xS =27.408x 1 = 27.408mm

This is the required deflection

Exarnple 7.3.3 : Using the approzirnation of slighttry unbalanced hridge, calculate the
curnent through the ganvanorneter having internatr resistance of n25 f2 for the bnidge
showm in the Fig. 7.3.8

fl€ , For the bridge shown

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R:500CI andAR =20f)

Using approximate resul1
EAR lo x2o
'rH=
v-, - =
4R 4x500
o. rv 10V

WhileR." = R = 500f)andR* - l25f2given

.. I = rr, -- o'l = 16orr.{

" R.o + R* 500 - I25 Fig 7"3.8

Example 7.3.8 : An unbalanced wheatstone's is shown in Fig 7.3.12. Calculate the current
through the galvanometer.

,'ttt,.a.

Fig7.3.l2
Sol : Finding thevenins equivalent ciurcuit assuming branch with galvanometer as load branch.
To flnd V-.
o :: Opern circuiting branch ab as shown in the Fig 7 "3.12(a)

6V

Fig 7.3.12 (a)

Vo =V"u =V" -%
-l
-u.-t-ut-
3soo I -t loooo I
13s00 + 10001 110000 + 2500-]
: -0.1333 V
= +0. 1333 V with node b more positive than node a.
To FindReq:Short circuiting voltage source as shown in the Fig 7.3. l2 (b)
R.o = (1000ll 3500)+ (zsoo ll 1000) =z7i7lre
Thus equivalent circuit is as shown in theFig7 .3 .12(c)

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ByKVL,
,v* 0" 1333

' Requ+R^ 300 + 2777 .78

vo
0.1 333 Ro:300f)

Fig 7.3.12 (c) Fig 7.3.12 (b)

4 6. S. Ketvin Bridge
In the wheatstone bridge, the bridge contact and lead resistance causes significant error. While
measuring low resistance. Thus for measuring the values of resistance below 1f2. The modifled
from the consideration ofthe effect ofcontact and lead resistances is the basic aim ofthe kelvin
bridge.
The Fig 7.4.1 is the basic circuit of the kelvin bridge.

Fig : 7.4.1 Kelvin bridge

The resistance R
represents the resislance of the connecting heads from R3 to Rr. The
ressitance Rx is the unknown resistance to be measured.
The calvanometer can be connected to either terminal a.b or terminal c. When it is connected to
Rr hence the value measured by the bridge , indicates much higher value of Rx.
If the galvanometer is connected to lerminal C, than Ry gets added to R3. This results in the
measurement of R-x much lower than the actual value.
The point b is in between the pointer a and c, in such a way that the ratio of the resistance from
c and b and that from a to b is equal to the ratio of Rl and R2

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R"o
... = Ir...........(r.o. r)
R"bR2\/
Now thebridge balance equation in its stanardformis,
R,R, = RrR."""""'(7'4'2)
But R, andR, now are changed to R, + R* andR* + R.o respectively due to leadresistance.
. .,1 .: '. +.
.'. R, (R, + R*) = R, (R, +n.o)..........(2.+.:)
R' /o r D \ /
."(R- *R"o)= + R"u )........... ..17.4.4)
*,(n,
R'
R"b- R2
NowwehaveR"t

.R"u,r_Rr
.. +r= + 1.........addingltobothsides
-R,b -R2
R"o + R* R, * R,
= .... ......0.qs\
\ /
R"b .R,
But R* + R"b = Rr.......totalleadresistance

Substituting in equation (7.4.5) we get,

I, _ R,_+ R,
.........(z.a.o)
R"b R2
RrR,
.'..P
R"u -
= .(1.+.1)
\.&
Now R.o + R* = R,
R"r = R, - R* ".."' ..{l .+.t)
"'
Substituting equation (7.4.7 ) into equation (2.a. A)
R"R
/
R--=R
(u Y- Y

R,+R,
R'
.1

=n[r-
'L R, +Rr_l
R.R
. D _ __r__y_..........(1.+.s)
..r\cb_\*R,

Substituting these values of R"o and R* in the equation{l .1.+) we get,

R* n
R'R'
* *'*,
R,+R,=3'[*.
I
RrL-' R,+Rr-l
R'R,
R,R, R,R,
... R- * = *
^ R,+R, R2 R,+R,

Esrns*a'r Exann &.nrtrie,r !J

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 III Se,ywEC/TC El,erh. owio I n rtr u,+n evtta.tbw
Thus equation (7.4.10) represents standard bridge balance equation for the wheatstone bridge.
Thus the effect of the connecting lead resistance is completely eliminated by connecting the
galvanometer to an intermediate position 'b'.
This principle forms the basis of the construction of kelvin's double which is popularly cailed
kelvin bridge.

Abb,l Kelvin's Double Bridge :

This bridge consists of another set of ratio arms hence called double bridge. The Fig 7.4.2
shows the circuit diagram of Kelvins. Double Bridge
The second set of ratio arms is the resistance 'a' and 'b' lvith the help of these resistance
the galvanometer is connected to point'3'the galvanometer gives null indication when the
potential of the terminal '3' is smae as the potential of the terminal '4'.

Fig'7 '4'2 Kelvin double bridge

Thus Eo, = Er,,
Here F+s = Potential across R,
Er. = PotentialaccrossR, andb
The ratio of the resistances a and b is same as the ratio of R, and R,
' :=5.
bR,
.. ..........(t.+.rz)

Now Eo, = Rr.=j:-

' R, +R, ..........(1.+.tl)
consider the path from 5 - |- 2- 6 back to 5 through the battery E" The resistance
between the terminals I - 2 is the paralled combination of R, and ( a + b)
.'. E= I'[R, +R, ll (a + b) + R.]
I fa+u)n I
...E=Il R, +R.
' L ^+r-r_Z-
a+b+Rr]1.......(1.+.t+)
t

-!_ b Srin#ar Exana B,-r,nnsr

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 t4odillP/ - + M e,aatr inq, I n *r unue.nty
Sutrsrituting in equation {l .+.ll)
R,
4' R, +R.,r[n-*n* *(a+b)n,'l
E..=
L' a*b+R,]
For Er,r.Consider the path from the terminal5 to 2 as shown in theFig 7.4.3

Big'7'4'3
NowfromFi g7.4.36wecanwrite,
* o)l
[*'(u
'' =,*L*,
v,^
+a+bl
and Y, =-!.v,,
a+D

v,, =
b .r[n,(a+u)l
'' a+b Lnr+a+bl
Er,r=IRr+V,,

Er,, = IR, *, u In' (u * b)lb-]

". LR/ ".
b

't^ u In, (a + u) ll
E,,, =I[R, -.*bLRffi]]

NowEo, =Er,,

*, [*.** *(u*b)R,l=,[*.* u {n,(a+u)}l

R,+Rr[ ^ a+b+Rr] a+b[a+b+nr.J_]
['
R.+R *(a+b)R,
' a+b+R, =*,**,[o-* u fn,(a+u)fl
R2 u+bl.a+U+n,j_l
L"''
R. +R. *
(a+b)R,
=[,.&l[*" * o*, I
a+b+R, L Rr_lL' Rr+a+b-]
. D - R,R, bR, aRv
""-E--Rr+a+b-G;b.RJ

S,uotsfar Exarv, Exanne,rr L7

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D = R,R,-(R bR .(2,+. r s)
^ R, -"*b) R2b
1=&. Rr_&=0
But tnm
bR, R2b

This is the standard equation of the bridge tralance. The resistances a,b and R.. are noi present in
this equation thus the effect of lead and contact resistances is completely eliirinated.
Key point : The important condition for this bridge balance condition is that the ratio of the
resistances of ratio arms must be same as the ratio of the resistances of the second ratio arms.
In a typical kelvin;s double bridges, the range of a resistance covered in 1t2 to 10 pf2 with an
accuracy of t0.0 1 5o/o to * 0.2o/o.
Example 7.4.2 : In the Fig 7.45 the kelvin's double bridge is shown the ratio of R, + Rb is
1200 O rvhile R, is 10Q and R, = 0.5 R, " Calculate the value of unknown resistance
R,.

Sol ; From the Fig7.4.5 and the balance condition we can write.
R*
R2-R,
Rr
For kelvin's double bridge,
R'
= Rutio of resistances of ratio arms
Rr

ura& = Ratioof resistanceof secondratioarms

R"
.Rl R,
' ----i- -----f- r.
R* Rb
-R2 Ru
1

Rr Ru - 1200
Now R, = 10C)andRr = 0.5R2
R,
... R^ =
' 0.5=9=2oa
0.5 1...-L=
'
I
20 1200
20
R.
" =1200 =0.0167f)
1E SrAas*a.,r Lxaon S<a,nn -r

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 l'4oililPr - + M ea+u. r ing, I vt fir wmenlv

4$t4A.c.Bridges :

An a.c bridge in its basic form consist of four arns, a source of exitation and a balance detector.
Each arm consists of an impedance. I'he source is an a.c supply which supplies a.c voltage at the
required frequency. For high frequencies, the electronic oscillators are used as the source. The
balance detectors commonly used for a.c bridges are head phones; tunable amplifler circuits
or vibration galvanometers. l'he headphones are used as detectors at the freq.uencies of 250
Hz to 3 - 4lcl1z. While working with single frequency a tuned detector is the most sensistive
detectorthe vibration galvanometers are useful for low audio frequency SLIz to 1000 Hz but
are commonly used below 200 Hz. Tunable amplifler detectors are used for frequency range of
lOHz to 100 Hz.
The simple a.c bridge is the outcome of the wheatstone bridge. Supply the impedances at audio
and radio frequency range can be easily determined by such simple a.c wheatstone bridge" It is
shown in the Fig 7.5. i .
phones as nu11
detector

AC
Suppl

This is similar to d.c wheatstone bridge, the bridge anns are impedanres. The bridge is exited
by a.c supply and pair ofheadphones is used as a null detector. The null response is optained by
varying one of the bridge arms.

Bridge Balance Equation

For bridge balance, the potential of point c must be same as the potential of point D. These
potentials must be equal interms of amplitude as well as phase.
Thus the drop from A to C must be equal to across A to D in both magnitude and phase for the
bridge balance.

BaC = EAD
.'.

The vector notation indicates, both amplitude andphase to be considered.

V = 1r2r""""""""(l 'S 'Z)

When the bridge is balanced, no current flows through thehead phones
.".L =! and Io=I,
E'
Now It' =
Zr+2,
-L........,.......(2.S.:)
E
and lz" =:---...............(1.5.+)
Zz+Zu
Strnsfao, Exann &^annw 19

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 ElB.cfrr onkt l n tfi, t uvne,nta.tt aw
Substituting equation (2"S.3) and equation (7.5"4)into (7.5.2)we get
"'..o1i "

:+ ,Elz-
Z,+Z:= Zr,Z,
i.e..zr" +z,Z = z.z. = zz.
I

The equation (z.s.s)t ttre balancing equation in theimpedanceform

In the admittance form the condition can be expressed as,

Y,Y. = YrY, ."."(7.5.6)

The admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance
Now in the polar form fhe impedance are expressed as,

7,=2,<Q, 1=2r.0,
Lt='Lt10.
=- Zr=Zr<0.
Where Z, , Z, ,23, Z o are the magnitudes and 02 , e2 , 0, and 0o are the phase angles
Note that the product of the impedances must be carried out in polar form where magnitude
get multiplied and phase angle get added.

Substituting in equation (2" S.:) we get.

Z, <0rrZ,, <00 = Z, ( 0, x 2,, .0u
ZrZ, oe, +00 = ZrZr< 0, + 93..",.".".(7.5.7)
The equation (Z.S.Z)gives the trvo conditic;ns to be satisfied fbr the bridge balance

Equating magnitudes of both sides we get the magnitude condition as

ZrZo = ZrZ, (zss)

Equating phase angles lve get

0,+00=0r+0, (7 "s.e)

Key point : The phase angles are opposite for the inductive impedances and negative for the
compactive impedance for inductive branch. Zr: R+ jX, :
lZrl < +O
For compactive branch Z. : R - j X. : lzcl < - e

Where X. = 2rfl- {IandX.

' = -l2nfC g
Example 7.5.1: The impedances of the basic a.c bridge are
Zr = 50Q<80o,2, =250t W_,4 = 200C)<300
Calculate the constant of the unknown impedance

Sol : The bridge balance equation is

Z 12 o rZ, magnitude condition
= Z

50xZo = 250x200
"'
).Zo - 1000O
2D Sqns*ar Exam Seannsr

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 l4odrilAr - 4 la e.aa+w i,rq, I n *r u,vn entY

r. Thusthemagnitudeof Zo isl000Qwhilethephaseanglecondition is
0, + 0o :02 + 0.,

""'80o+0+=0+30"
.'. 0. = 30" - 80" = -50o

Hence the unknown imPedance is

Zo = rooEl01a
The negative angies indicates , it is capacitive in nature converting it to rectangular form
we get,
1== 642.19 * j166.1o(usingP -+ R)comparingwithR- jX.,wecan say thatthe
-
resistance partof Zois642"79e2whi1e it is in series with capacitive reactance of 766.1 Q

Example i.5.2: The arms of an a.c bridge have impedances as shown in the Fig1.5.2"
Determine whether the bridge is bridge is balanced or unbalanced.

100 < 90" f)

< 30" c)
15<40"Q
B
Fig 7.5.2
Sol : From the given bridge.
Z, = 50140" o,Z, = 1001-90o,zt =15145' o = 30130" Clthebridgebalanceequationis

23, =zrz,
E qu atin g m ag nitudeslZ rZ ol = lZ rz rl

:.lzrzol= 50 x 30 = ts00andlZ ,zrl=100x 215=1500

Thus magnitude condition is satisfied

Now 0o =40o,02 =-90o,0: =45o,0+ =-90o +45o =-45o

0, = 0o = 02 + 0r"""""""'fuglecondition
0, +0n =40+30=70" andQ, +0: =-90" +45'=-45o
Thus zLngle oondition is not satisfled.
Hence the bridge is not under balanced condition.
48'g capacitance comparison Bridge
in the capacitance comparision bridge the ratio arns are resistive in nature. The impedance Z,
consists of the knor.vn standard capacitor C, in series with the resistance R", . The resistance R.,

S,,rels#ar Exa^n &anraw ?1

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 III Se.ywEC/TC Elertr owi,o I n rtr u,yn ea$afloyv
is variable used to balance the bridge. The impedance Z, consists
of the unknown capcitor e.
and its small leakage resistance R...
The unknown capacitor C, is compared with the standard capacitor.
By using the balance
equation. The capacitor and its leakage resistance value is obtained,
the bridge is shown in the
Fig 7 .6.1.
Here Z, : R, + j}Q,Z, = Rz + jOe

Z, = R, -
' -:[llo
jZ"t=*, "Lrc,
J

Z* = R* - jX.. - R* J[-!j()
LrDx. l
From balance condition

Fig Capacitance Comparison Bridge

ZrZo = ZrZt

*,[*.,[#)]=*,[*,,[#)]
R'R*
'[#)=R+' '[&)
Equating real pats
R,R" = RrR,

Euqating imaginary parts,

R, R,
@C, 0C,

ir.4:'

By using equation (7.61) as (7.6.2) the unknown capacitor and its leakage
resistance can be

22 Sans*ar Exann &a,t,lr,,r

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determined. By varying R, and \ simultaneously true balance can be obtained.

Example 7.6.1 z A capacitance comparison bridge is used to measure a capacitive
impedance at a frequency of 2 kHz. The bridge constant at balance are Cr: 100p8
\ = 20kO, Rz = 50kO, & = 1OO kQ. Find the equalent series circuit of the unknown
impedance. Show the bridge diagram.
Sol : The bridge is shown in the Fig 7.6.2
Here Z, = R, + j()f)
Zr=Rz+j0C)
/ _\
) r r., , -l-i l"
zt=R.- jX". =R,
(acr,/
Zo=R*-jX."

=R- - '[i[r')o
rC, .,J
\i\1,
From balancecondition
=--
Z'Zo = Z'Z'
f / r-r ' r )l
*,1
L'
+
*, -j["[rC,]] .(
ir --- |
] l=*"1 n, - '',oC,,/J
L'
I

.. R,R, - jf + l= r\:'\:
'Ioc. ]-
R,n, jl,3j_)
'l .:rc, J
Equating real parts,

R,R* = R,R, i.e.,

EH..........(7.6.3)
Equating imaginary parts,

R, R.
l_1.r .(t.0.+)
c,rC orC"
-
Rr = 20kf),Rz = 50kO,R; = l00kQ,C, = I00pF,F=2kHz

. R = R,R, _ 50xl03xl00xl0r
".'Y Rr 2oxlol
=o1i(-)

C'R' 100x10{x20x103
andC,R^
= - 5U x 1U'
=40pF

Example 7.6.3: An a.c. bridge is balanced at2l<E\zwith the following components in each
arm.
Arm .dE = 10kO
Arm BX = l00pF im series with trO0kQ
,drrn AD:50hf)
Find the umknowm irmpedamce R" * jx im the anma D.C if detecton is hetween BD.

S,!ar,s*ar Vxan Euanavr Z3

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Sol : The bridge is shown in the Fig 7.6.4.
A

Fig7.6.4
Zr = 10kf')
Zz=50kQ

zt=took-jf+l=rooxto,-j("tZ^.Z"f
^ 1 \
\oC, / O',f OO,.f O* I
= 1o0x rc3 - j0.7957 a
Zo=Z*
From the basic balance eqution
Z,Z, = Z,Z,
. - ZrZ.
.2,
jo.zqsz]
_
so x to3
[toox to, -
10x103
= s[too x 102 - jo.lgsi)= 500 x 103 - F.9788o
= R*jXc
.'. R* = 500 x 102 C2 = 500kC)
andX" =3.9788O==]^
2nFC*

.'.
" =2nx2x10'x
C-
3.9788
=20uF

4,8",t @ lnductance Comparison Bridge

By this bridge unknown inductance Lx and its intemal resistance Rx can be determine. The
schematic diagram of bridge is shown in the Fig 7.7.1.

24 Suns*ar Lxaan Se.afl ne,r

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S
FHz ar 'tl
. :..ttr: t

Fig 7.71 inductance comparison bridge

The bridge consists of pure resistance R, and R, in the ratio arms. The third arm consists of
a standard inductor L3 and the variable resistance R3 while the fburth arm corsists of the
unknown inductor with its intemal resistance Rx.
Here Zr: Z, =R,
Rr and
Z, =R, + jXr.: = R: * j(orl,r)O
Z, =R" + jX,_r:Rn * j(coI-,)O
From balance condition

ZrZo = Z"Z,
R,[R. + jcoi-" ] = n, In, + jc'rl. ]
R,R* + jcoR,L- =RrR,, + joR,L,
Equatingrealparts, R.,R. = R,R-,

Equating imaginaryparts, co R,R- = coR"L,,

By using (7 "7 .l) and \'l .'1 .2) unknown elements can be determine. In this bridges R2 is selected
as inductive balance control and R3 as resistance balance control. The balance is optained by
altemateiy varying L3 or R3.

Example 7.7"1 : An impedance comparison bridge is used to measure the inductive

impedance at a frequency of 1.SkHz. The bridge constants at bridge balance are
L3 = 8mI{, Rl = lkf), R2 = 25kf2, R3 = 50kQ, Find the equivalent series circuit of
unknown impedance.
Soi : From bridge balance equation of inductance comparison bridge.

.=?=3l!*jl4=r.25mc)
andt.* =?= 25x103x8x10-3
I x 103
= 200mH

Sans*ar Exa^,,' Sranne,r LJ

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Equating real terms we can write,

R,R, = R, (R. + r)

R* =R'(R^+. (2. a":)

R,t'
Under the balanced condition, the vector diagram for maxwell's inductance bridge is as shown
in the Fig 7.8.1(b).
4 B.t. t Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge :

Using this bridge , we can measure inductance by comparing with a variable standard capacitor.
The bridge circuit diagram as shown in the Fig 7.8"2(a).

v1"..
rrcl-.A.
AC
Supply
FHz

(a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram

Fig 7.8.1 Nlarrvell's inductance capacitance bridge

One of the ratio arms consists of resistance and capacitance in parallel" Hence it is simple to
write the bridge equation in the admittance form.
The general bridge balance equation is

Z,Z. = ZJ"

. ='r',
.1.,2, = 2221y,",. ..... .(z.s+;

I
Where Y,'7= Jl.e., R, in parallel with C,
Ll

Z, =R,
1=x,
4 = R - + jcol-,, as L* in series with R,
,|

Now --+- jorC,.. . .........(7

Y,RI 3.5)

S'ra,ns*ar 7x am S,eanartr {. //

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Substituting all the values in equation (7.8.4) we get

R, + jarL- = R,R, [l. r.a, lI

"LR,
.'" R* * jc,:L. = E**' * jR,Rrroc,"......"...(z.s.o)
r: r
Rr
I

I .tr.#i i-

Equating imaginary parts

c:L" = RrRrcoC,

E iR -ne,}...". ".."".(z"a.a)
The quality factor of the coil is given by

v-
^_0L* _orRrRrC,
& -7R,nl
t-, j
fa = rR,cI
The advantages of using standard known capacitor for measurement are
1. The capacitors are less expensive then stable and accurate standard inductors.
2.The capacitors are almost lossless.
3. External fields hav,e less effect on a capacitor. The standard inductor will not
present its rated value of inductance unless current flow through it is precisely
adjusted.-
5. The capacitors are smaller in size. This bridge is also called maxwell wien
bridge.
Advantages of Maxwell Bridge
The advantages of the maxwell bridge are,
I. The balance equation is independent of frequency of measurement.
2.The balance equation is independent of frequency of measurement.
3. The scale ofthe resistance can be calibrated to read the inductance directly.
4. The scale of R, can be calibrated to read the Q value directly.
5. When the bridge is balanced , the only component in series with coil under test is resistance
R2. If R2 is selected suclt that it can carry high current. Then heavy current carrying capacity
coils can be tested using this bridge.

/x Sqns*a,. :E<a;n Beannu.r

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Disadvantages of Maxwell bridge

The disadvantage of the Maxwell bridge are
1" It cannot be used for the measurement of high Q values. Its use is limited to the measurement
of iow Q values from I to 10. This can be proved from phase angle balance condition which
says that sum of the angles of one pair of opposite arms must be equal"
0,+00=0r+0,
But 0, and 0, are zero,as the corresponding impedances are pure resistances, for high 1 2 values.
The angie 0o is almost 90o . Hence 0, must be -900 " But 0, gets decided by parallel combination
of R, and C, . To get 0, as almost -90", the vaiue of R, shouid be very very high. Practically
such high resistance is not possible. Hence hi-eh Q values can not be measured.
2. There us an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. Getting the balance
adjustment is little difficult.
3. It is unsuited for the coils with low Q values, less than one, because of balance convergence
problem.
4. The bridge balance equations are independent offrequency. But practically, the properties of
coil under test with frequency which can cause error.
Commercial maxwell bridge measures the inductance from 1 - 1000 H, with *2Yo enor.
Example: 7.8.1 : The arms of an a.c maxwell's bridge are adjusted as:
Arrn AB : Non - reactive resistance of 700Q
Arm CD : Non - reactive resistance of 300Q
Arm AD : Non - reactive resistance of 12000 in parallel lvith capacitor of 0.5 prF
If the bridge is balanced under this condition, Find the components of the branch
B.C.

Fig 7.8.3
Sol : The bridge is shown in the Fig 7.8.3
From the bridge,
:
C, 0.5 pF, R, 1200fi
\=700Q,\=300O
From bridge balance equation,
: RrR, Toox3oo
^ Rr -
R..
1200
= ro5mH

andL* = RrRrC, = 700 x 300x 0.5 x 10i = l05inH

Suns*at Exam &a,nnre,r 49

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Example 7.8.2 : Find the series equivalent of the unknown impedance if the bridge
constants at balance are C, = 0.01 pS R, = 470k{1,
& = S.t kO, R, = 100 O.
Sol : The bridge can be drawn as shown in the Fig 7"8.4
Cr =0.01pF,R* =470kQ
Rz=5.1kO,Rr=100kf2
From bridge balance condition,

o _RrR, (s.t*to')(rooxlos) = 1.085 k() E

^.=-il=--l47ox10)
L* =R= R:cr = (s.r, ro,)(too x ror)(o.ot x i0{)
= 5.1H
Fig 7.8.4
Example 7.8.3 : The arms of an a.c Maxwell's Bridge are arranged Is follorvs. AB and BC
are non - reactive resistor of 100Q each. DA is a standard variable inductor L1
of resistance32.TQ and CD comprises a standard variable resistance R in rvith
Ll = 47.8mH arid R = 1.36O. Find the resistance and inductance of coil.
Sol : The lvlaxweil's bridge is as shorvn in the Fig 7.8.5 the balance is obtained when L" :
47"8 mH and R = 1.36 fl
At balance

\\-
, J=?-
\a
i=tD

^,rr)

Fig 7.8.4
100(r, + jrl,): roo[(n, + r,)+ jrlr]
Equating real and imaginary terms. We get
Lr=L, andR, *rz =!
or f, =r, -R,
.'. Inductance of coil in branch CD is L, - L, = 4.7 mTI

Resistance of coilin branch CDis given by

fz = tt - Rr = 32.7 - 1.36 = 31 34 A

<l I
Drnstar'Exaorn b,eaa1rte,tr

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4 b,E ffi wien Bridge

Basically the bridges is used for the frequency measurement but it is also used for the
measuring of the unknown capacitor with great accuracy"
Its one ratio arm consists of a series RCI circuit i.e.. R, and C, . The second ratio arm
consists of resistance \. Ihe third arm consists of the parallel combination of resistance
and capacitor" The circuit of the wein bridges is shown in the Fig. 7.9. i .

AC
Supply
FHz

Fig 7.9.1Wein Bridge

From the Fig 7.9.1 we can write

Z,=R, -t(+),rz=Rz
Iou,,/
Zr=RrllC,,+=a+jroC,
)/1 J
.1 , R- '
. -.'"
n i,l li r\n l-\.und'Z, r=ft(o} +'r'lrr tt,i.r,i '
The balance condition is,

ZrZ" =ZA
7",2,
=1)-!=ZrZrY,

*, =[*,,(#)]..[*,. j",]
R,=Ro[+. jroR,c, -,#o .t]
R, = Ro
[+.4]
+ jn.
[ron,c,
-#o ]
Equating real parts of both sides

D _RoR,
l\r
, CrRo
"R3Cr
--i-

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R2 R, C. "j ' ?'.3 i,"

R4 R. C'

Equating imaginary parts of both sides

roR,C.- I =oie.i,l'=---l
coC,R, RrRrC,C.,
-
1

{R,c,R,c,
1
F_
rclR3c3
The equation (2.e. t)gives the resistance ratio while the equation (7.9.3) gives the frequency

of applied voltage.
Generallyin wienbridge, theselectionof the components issuch that
R, =R: =RandCr =C: =C

$
R4
= r......... .......(t.s.+)

r---.-_.-.--:-l
*a lr='
| 2nRCl \
1............(z.s.s)
'/

The equation (7 .9.5) is the general equation for the frequency of the bridge circuit.

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urlo6nc.b €qAhn gbd?ag s,tad
The various bridges discussed uptil now consist of the lumped imp'edances, which do not
interact in any lvay.
In practice, the stray capacitances between the various bridge elements and ground, and between
the bridge arms themselves exist" These stray capacitances shunt the bridge arms and cause
considerable error in the measurement"
The stray capacitances are uncertain in magnitude they often very with the adjestment of bridge
arms and position of operator.
The shieiding and grounding of bridge is one way of reducing the effect of stray capacitances.
But this technique does not eliminate the stray capacitances but makes them constant in value
and hence they can be compensated.
One very effective and popular method of eliminating the stray capacitances and the capacitances
called wagner ground arms is using a ground connection in the Fig.7. 10. 1 .
The circuit is a capacitance bridge where C, and C, represent the stray capacitances. The wegner's
connection is the use ofseparate arm consisting ofthe resistance Rw and the capacitance Cw
across the terminals C and D forming a potential divider. This arm is also called guarding arm.

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AC
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Fig 7.10.1 Wagner ground connection Bridge

The procedure for the adjustment is as follows :

The switch S is connected in series with the detector. The switch is connected to position 1 and
R, sound in head phones.
The switch is then throlvn to position 2; which connect the detector to the wagner ground points
abjected to get the minimum sound the switch is again throrvn back to position 1 . There is some
imbaiance present now. The resistance Rl and R3 are then adjusted to get minimum sound.
This procedure is repeated till a null is obtained on both the switch position I and 2. This null
obtained at both the positions indicates that the points I and 2 are at the same potential. But the
point 2 is at the ground I and 2 are at the ground potential. 'Ihus the stray capacilances C I and
C2 are effectively short circuited. Thus they have no effect.
There are capacitances existly lrom points C and D to ground but the addition of the wagner
ground connection eliminates them as current through these capacitances will enter through
wagner ground connection.
Key Points : As the addition of lvagner ground connection does not effect the balance conditions
the procedure for the measurement remains unchanged"

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