IS231: Web Technology

Python

By: Neamat El Tazi

References

- W3Schools - Python

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Python Operators
 Python divides the operators in the following
groups:
• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Identity operators
• Membership operators
• Bitwise operators

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Python Arithmetic Operators

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y
- Subtraction x-y
* Multiplication x*y
/ Division x/y
% Modulus x%y
** Exponentiation x ** y
// Floor division x // y

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Python Assignment Operators
Operator Example Same As
= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

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Python Comparison Operators

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y

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Python Logical Operators

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both x < 5 and x < 10
statements are true
or Returns True if one of the x < 5 or x < 4
statements is true
not Reverse the result, returns not(x < 5 and x < 10)
False if the result is true

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Python Identity Operators
 Identity operators are used to compare the
objects, not if they are equal, but if they are
actually the same object, with the same
memory location:

Operator Description Example
is Returns True if both x is y
variables are the same
object
is not Returns True if both x is not y
variables are not the same
object

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Python Membership Operators
 Membership operators are used to test if a
sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence x in y
with the specified value is
present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence x not in y
with the specified value is
not present in the object

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Python bitwise Operators
 Bitwise operators are used to compare
(binary) numbers:
Oper Name Description
ator
& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1
| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1
^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1
~ NOT Inverts all the bits
<< Zero fill Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the
left shift leftmost bits fall off
>> Signed Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the
right shift left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

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Python Collections (Arrays)
 There are four collection data types in the Python programming
language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered and changeable. No
duplicate members.

 When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the

properties of that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data
set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase
in efficiency or security.

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Python Lists
 Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 Lists are created using square brackets:

 thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

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List Items
 List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate
values.

 List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the
second item has index [1] etc.
 Ordered
 When we say that lists are ordered, it means that
the items have a defined order, and that order will
not change.
 If you add new items to a list, the new items will
be placed at the end of the list.

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List Items
 Changeable
 The list is changeable, meaning that we can
change, add, and remove items in a list after it
has been created
 Allow Duplicates
 Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with
the same value:

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List Functions
 List Length
 Len()
 Constructor
 List()
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) #
note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)
 Insert
 thislist.insert(2,”watermelon”)
 Append
 thislist.append(“orange”)

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List Functions
 Extend List
 To append elements from another list to the
current list, use the extend() method
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
 Add Any Iterable
 The extend() method does not have to
append lists, you can add any iterable object
(tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

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List Functions
 Remove
 The remove() method removes the specified
item.
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")

 Remove Specified Index

 The pop() method removes the specified index.
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop(1)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last
item

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.

List Functions
 The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist

 It can also deletes the specified index

del thislist[1]

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content

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List Functions
 Sort List
 thislist.sort()
 thislist.sort(reverse = True)
 thislist.sort(key=str.lower) #perform a case-sensitive sort
 Copy List
 You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1,
because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and changes
made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
 Mylist = thislist.copy()
 Mylist = list(thislist)

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Change List Items
 To change the value of a specific item, refer to
the index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

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Change a Range of Item Values
 To change the value of items within a specific
range, define a list with the new values, and refer
to the range of index numbers where you want to
insert the new values:

 Example: Change the values "banana" and

"cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]

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Loop Through a List
 You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

A shorthand for loop that will print all items

in a list using list comprehension:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[print(x) for x in thislist]

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List Comprehension
 List comprehension offers a shorter syntax
when you want to create a new list based on
the values of an existing list.

Without list comprehension With list comprehension

fruits = fruits =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "
"kiwi", "mango"] kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []
newlist =
for x in fruits: [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x) print(newlist)

print(newlist)
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List Comprehension Syntax
newlist =
[expression for item in iterable if conditio
n == True]

The return value is a new list, leaving the old

list unchanged.

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Python Tuples
 Tuples are used to store multiple items in a
single variable.
 A tuple is a collection which is ordered
and unchangeable.
 Tuples are written with round brackets.

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

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Create Tuple With One Item
 To create a tuple with only one item, you have
to add a comma after the item, otherwise
Python will not recognize it as a tuple.

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

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Tuple Items - Data Types
 Tuple items can be of any data type:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

 A tuple can contain different data types:

 tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

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The tuple() Constructor
 It is also possible to use
the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

thistuple =
tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note
the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

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Access Tuple Items
 You can access tuple items by referring to the
index number, inside square brackets:

Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

 Negative Indexing:
 Negative indexing means start from the end.

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

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Check if Item Exists
 To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use
the in keyword:

Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits
tuple")

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Update Tuples
 Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its
values. Tuples are unchangeable,
or immutable as it also is called.

 But there is a workaround. You can convert the

tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the
list back into a tuple.

 x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

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Pack and Unpack Tuples
 When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to
it. This is called "packing" a tuple.

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

 But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the

values back into variables. This is called "unpacking":

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you must
use an asterix to collect the remaining values as a list.

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

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Loop Tuples
 Looping in Tuples is the same as Lists
 You can use for loop or while loop

 thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

 thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

i = 0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i = i + 1

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Multiply Tuples
 If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given
number of times, you can use the * operator:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

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Tuple Functions

Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of
where it was found

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Python Sets
 Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

 A set is a collection which is both unordered and

unindexed.

 Sets are written with curly brackets.

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

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Create a Set
 thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)

 Set items are unordered, unchangeable,

and do not allow duplicate values.

 In case of duplicate values, they will be

ignored:

thisset =
{"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}
print(thisset)
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The set() Constructor
 It is also possible to use the set() constructor
to make a set.

thisset =
set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note
the double round-brackets
print(thisset)

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Access Set Items
 You cannot access items in a set by referring
to an index or a key.
 But you can loop through the set items using
a for loop, or ask if a specified value is
present in a set, by using the in keyword.

 thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

 print("banana" in thisset)

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Add Items to a Set
 Once a set is created, you cannot change its
items, but you can add new items.
 To add one item to a set use the add() method.

 thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)

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Add Set to Another Set
 To add items from another set into the current set, use the update()
method.

Add elements from tropical and thisset into newset:

 thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
thisset.update(tropical)
print(thisset)

 The object in the update() method does not have be a

set, it can be any iterable object (tuples, lists,
dictionaries or sets).

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Remove Set Items
 To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard()
method.

Remove "banana" by using the

remove() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.remove("banana")
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.discard("banana")
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will NOT raise an error.

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Remove Set Items
 You can also use pop() to remove an item, it will
remove only the last item and that item will be
returned in the result.

 thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

 Remember that sets are not indexed so you cannot

use pop with an index number. And since sets are not
ordered, you will not also know which item got
removed!
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Set Functions
 The clear() method empties the set
 The del keyword will delete the set completely
 The copy() returns a copy of the set
 The difference() returns a set containing the
difference between two or more sets.

 Check the rest of set functions:

https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_sets
_methods.asp

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Python Dictionaries
 Dictionaries are used to store data values in
key:value pairs.

 A dictionary is a collection which is unordered,

changeable and does not allow duplicates.

 Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and

have keys and values:

 thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

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Dictionary Items
 Dictionary items are presented in key:value
pairs, and can be referred to by using the key
name.
 Unordered
 When we say that dictionaries are unordered, it means
that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot
refer to an item by using an index.
 Changeable
 Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or
remove items after the dictionary has been created.
 Duplicates Not Allowed
 Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key. Duplicate values
will overwrite existing values

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Duplicate values
 thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
# will return
{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 2020}

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Dictionary Length
 To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the
len() function:

 print(len(thisdict))

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Dictionary Items - Data Types
 The values in dictionary items can be of any
data type:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}

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Accessing Items
 You can access the items of a dictionary by
referring to its key name, inside square
brackets:

 Get the value of the "model" key:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

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Accessing Items
There is also a method called get() that will
give you the same result:

x = thisdict.get("model")

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Get Keys
 The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the
dictionary.

x = thisdict.keys()

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary,

meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

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Get Keys Example
 Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see
that the keys list gets updated as well

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change
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Get Values
 The values() method will return a list of all the values in
the dictionary.

x = thisdict.values()

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Get Items
 The items() method will return each item in a dictionary,
as tuples in a list.

 Get a list of the key:value pairs

 x = thisdict.items()

#will return:
dict_items([('brand', 'Ford'), ('model', 'Mustang'), ('year',
2020)])

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Check if Key Exists
 To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary
use the in keyword:

 Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

 thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

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Change Dictionary Items
 Change Values
 You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key
name
 Change the "year" to 2018:
 thisdict["year"] = 2018

 Update Dictionary
 The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the
given argument.
 The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with
key:value pairs
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})

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Add Dictionary Items
 Adding an item to the dictionary is done by
using a new index key and assigning a value
to it:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

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Adding items using update
 The update() method will update the dictionary with the items
from a given argument. If the item does not exist, the item will
be added.

 The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with

key:value pairs:

 thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})

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Remove Dictionary Items
 The pop() method removes the item with the specified
key name:
 thisdict.pop("model")
 The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in
versions before 3.7, a random item is removed instead):
 thisdict.popitem()
 The clear() method empties the dictionary
 The del keyword removes the item with the specified key
name:
 del thisdict["model"]
 The del keyword can also delete the dictionary
completely

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Loop Through a Dictionary
 You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

 When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the

keys of the dictionary, but there are methods to return the
values as well.

 Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)

 Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

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Loop Through a Dictionary
 You can also use the values() method to return values of
a dictionary:
 for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
 You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a
dictionary:
 for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
 Loop through both keys and values, by
using the items() method:
 for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

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Copy Dictionaries
 Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

Another way to make a copy is to use the

built-in function dict()

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Nested Dictionaries
 A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested
dictionaries.

 Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

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Nested Dictionaries
 Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will
contain the other three dictionaries

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

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Python Conditions and If statements
 An "if statement" is written by using
the if keyword.

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

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Python Conditions and If statements
 The elif keyword is python’s way of saying "if
the previous conditions were not true, then
try this condition“

a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

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Python Conditions and If statements
 The else keyword catches anything which isn't
caught by the preceding conditions.

 a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

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Python Conditions and If statements
 You can also have an else without the elif:

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

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Short Hand If
 If you have only one statement to execute,
you can put it on the same line as the if
statement.

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

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Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions
 If you have only one statement to execute,
one for if, and one for else, you can put it all
on the same line
 a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

 You can also have multiple else statements on

the same line
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a ==
b else print("B")

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The pass Statement
 if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason
have an if statement with no content, put in the pass
statement to avoid getting an error.

a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

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Loops
 Go through while loops in
https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_while_loops.as
p
 Go through for loops in:
https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_for_loops.asp

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Functions
 In Python a function is defined using
the def keyword:

 def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

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Number of Arguments
 By default, a function must be called with the
correct number of arguments. Meaning that if
your function expects 2 arguments, you have
to call the function with 2 arguments, not
more, and not less.

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error

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Arbitrary Arguments, *args
 If you do not know how many arguments that will be
passed into your function, add a * before the parameter
name in the function definition.

 This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments,

and can access the items accordingly:

def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

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Keyword Arguments
 You can also send arguments with
the key = value syntax.
 This way the order of the arguments does not
matter.

 def my_function(child3, child2, child1):

print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2

= "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

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Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs
 If you do not know how many keyword arguments that
will be passed into your function, add two asterisk: **
before the parameter name in the function definition.

 This way the function will receive a dictionary of

arguments, and can access the items accordingly

def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

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Lambda Function
 A lambda function is a small anonymous function.
 A lambda function can take any number of
arguments, but can only have one expression.

 Syntax
lambda arguments : expression

 Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

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