MODULE I: INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The following topic to be discuss in this module, to wit:

Overview of Foundation Engineering; Requirements of a Good Foundation;
Process of Designing a Foundation; Design Of Foundation Engineering

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you will be able to:
1. Define the Foundation Engineering
2. Identify the requirement of good foundation.
3. Determine the process of designing a foundation
4. Determine the foundation engineering design

LEARNING LESSON 1
Overview

Any structure consists of two parts, a sub-structure, and a super-structure. These

two parts of a structure are separated by a line called the plinth of that structure. The
plinth is typically the top of the foundation wall. The sub-structure is the part below the
plinth and the superstructure is the part above the plinth level.

Foundation engineering:

 is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics in the

design of foundation elements of structures.

 A branch of civil engineering which involves the study and design

of sub-structure that is the study and design of structure below the
plinth level. It is applied soil mechanics and findings in the design
of foundation elements of a structure.

 A branch of geotechnical engineering which applies soil

mechanics, structural engineering, and project serviceability
requirements for design and construction of foundations for
onshore, offshore, and in-land structures.

In engineering, a foundation is the element of a structure which connects it to the

ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally
considered either shallow or deep. A foundation is the part of the structure that bears the
load of the superstructure. Also, the foundation transfers load from the structure to the
ground/soil.

Foundation design is a process of designing the footing and foundation walls of

the structure. The footing can be of many varieties, for example, strip or continuous
footings, drilled piles, mat foundations, etc. Designing a foundation is dependent on the
geotechnical report. According to the geotechnical report, it is decided whether the
structure should have a deep foundation or a shallow foundation.

A building foundation actually performs a number of functions. The three most

important are to bear the load of the building, anchor it against natural forces such as
earthquakes, and to isolate it from ground moisture. The relative importance of these
functions changes with the type of land underneath the building and the building design.
For smaller accessory buildings such as sheds, a foundation is less important

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LESSON 2: REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION

The following are the requirement of a good foundation:

 The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess

some basic requirements that must not be ignored. They are:

 The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can
sustain as well as transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This
transfer has to be carried out without resulting in any form of settlement that
can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.

 Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the

foundation. These issues are more pronounced in areas where the
superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.

 Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so

that it can guard any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused
due to the problem of shrinkage and swelling because of temperature
changes.

 The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or
influenced by future works or factors

Factors affecting the depth of a foundation

 Thickness of top layer

 Ground freezing
 Depth of volume change
 Depth of scour
 Groundwater Level
 Underground utilities and defects
 Property line and adjoining structures
 Sloping ground
 Foundations at different level

LESSON 3: THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING A FOUNDATION

The following are the processes of designing a foundation consists of:

 Basic site survey

 Geotechnical survey

 Checking of bearing capacity of soil and depth of soft and hard

strata.

 Consultation of a structural engineer.

 Design of footing.

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 Basic site survey

If you are building on on a piece of land, it’s important to have a foundation

location survey conducted by a licensed land surveyor once the foundation is laid. A
Surveyors which has the knowledge and experience to provide these surveys as
needed with guaranteed affordability and accuracy.

What Is A Foundation Location Survey?

Foundation location surveys are designed to locate improvements on a

property with respect to the property boundary. This survey is not typically combined
with a recorded boundary survey because boundary information should already have
been recorded on the plat of subdivision. Rather, this survey collects information
about the position of a foundation that was poured by a contractor to ensure that it is
in the right location and that it is built with the proper setbacks and zoning methods.
There are always rules and regulations to follow with regard to foundation placement,
and a survey helps ensure that those rules have been met.

A professional land surveyor will typically be called out once the foundation
has been poured and cured. The surveyor will take measurements, compare the
measurements of the property to those of structure foundation, and make notes about
size and location to be recorded in the property description on the deed. These results
will also be filed with the relevant permitting agencies so that construction workers
can continue with a project once the foundation is poured.

When are Foundation Location Surveys Needed?

Foundation location surveys have become a common necessity with the

increase in new construction. Many city and county agencies request these surveys,
and even when they aren’t required, in many cases the banks and mortgage
companies will want a licensed professional to certify that the house or building they
are backing with a mortgage is in the clear with regard to zoning setbacks, building
setbacks and existing easements. You may also need this type of survey if you are
building an addition to an existing home or structure.

It is critical to make sure the foundation of your new structure is correctly

placed for the simple fact that it’s much easier to fix a noncompliant foundation before
anything has been built up on it.

 Geotechnical survey

Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical

engineers or engineering geologists to obtain information on the physical properties of
soil earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to
earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. This type of investigation
is called a site investigation.
Additionally, geotechnical investigations are also used to measure the thermal
resistivity of soils or backfill materials required for underground transmission lines, oil
and gas pipelines, radioactive waste disposal, and solar thermal storage facilities. A
geotechnical investigation will include surface exploration and subsurface exploration
of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used to obtain data about sites.
Subsurface exploration usually involves soil sampling and laboratory tests of the soil
samples retrieved.
Geotechnical Investigation is very important before any structure is built--
whether it is your own dream house, an industrial shade, a multiplex, a shopping mall,
a warehouse, a multi-storey building or even small and big infra projects like bullet
train. metros and so on. There are many organizations like ACTS and Durocrete
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 construction material testing lab and Geo-Engineering firm who carry out the Geo-
technical investigation worldwide with their own team of experts -- man and machine.
Surface exploration can include geologic the following:
 geophysical methods,
 mapping
 photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical
professional walking around on the site to observe the physical
conditions at the site.
To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form
of subsurface exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below the
surface, obtaining samples, and determining physical properties of the soils and rocks
include test pits, trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring,
and in situ tests. These can also be used to identify contamination in soils prior to
development in order to avoid negative environmental impacts.

 Checking of bearing capacity of soil and depth of soft and hard strata.

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL - WHY SOILS MATTER

In addition to providing a level platform for forms or

masonry, footings spread out the weight of the house so the soil can carry the
load. The load spreads out within the footing itself at about a 45-degree angle,
and then spreads out in the soil at a steeper angle, more like 60-degrees from the
horizontal.

As the load under a footing spreads out, pressure on the soil diminishes.
Soil directly under the footing takes the greatest load, and therefore should be
thoroughly compacted.
Because the load spreads out, the pressure on the soil is greatest right
beneath the footing. By the time we get down below the footing a distance equal
to the footings width, the unit soil pressure has dropped by about half. Go down
the same distance again, and the pressure has dropped by two-thirds. So it's the
soil right under the footing that is the most critical and also, typically, the most
abused.
When we excavate for the footings, the teeth on the bucket stir up the soil
and mix air into it, decreasing its density. Also, soil from the embankment may fall
into the trench. Soil that's loose has much less bearing capacity than the original
soil.

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 That's why it is so important to compact the trench bottom. Use a vibrating
plate compactor for sand or gravel soils, and a jumping jack compactor for silt or clay
(learn more about compaction equipment in this guide to subgrades and subbases). If
you don't compact that soil, you could get 1/2 inch of settlement in just the first 6
inches of soil.
If you dig too deep and replace the soil to recover the grade, you are
adding back soil that has expanded by as much as 50%. Under load, it will
reconsolidate and cause settling. So when you replace material in the trench,
compact it thoroughly, or else use large gravel. One-inch-and-a-half or larger
gravel is virtually self-compacting as you place it. Under the weight of a wood
house, it won't settle to any significant degree.

Soil Bearing Capacities Chart

Load-Bearing Pressure
Class of Materials
(pounds per square foot)

Crystalline bedrock 12,000

Sedimentary rock 6,000

Sandy gravel or gravel 5,000

Sand, silty sand, clayey

sand, silty gravel, and clayey 3,000
gravel

Clay, sandy clay, silty clay,

2,000
and clayey silt

Source: Table 401.4.1; CABO One- and Two- Family Dwelling Code; 1995.

Soil Properties & Bearing

The type and density of the native soil is also important. The International
Building Code, like the CABO code before it, lists presumed bearing strengths for
different types of soils. Very fine soils (clays and silts) typically have lower
capacities than coarse granular soils (sands and gravels).
However, some clays or silts have higher bearing capacity than the values
in the code tables. If you have a soil test done, you could discover that you have a
denser clay with a much higher bearing strength. Mechanically compacting the
soil can also raise its bearing capacity.

Determining Bearing Capacity on Site

Check soil density in a footing trench using a penetrometer. The bearing

capacity of your soil will help you determine if you need a shallow foundation or
deep foundation. Soil strength directly under the footing, where loads are
concentrated, is crucial to foundation performance.

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 Consultation of a structural engineer.

Everyone has an opinion on whether or not your house needs foundation

repair. You see cracks in the walls and ceilings, floors are not level or your trusted
friend commented that you have foundation "problems". Or you may have had a buyer
that did not buy your house because a foundation repair company said you had
problems. You can call a foundation repair company to give you a bid for "repairs"
with sell pitches and 1000 year warranties or you can consult with a structural
engineer to provide a non-biased opinion on whether or not your foundation needs to
be repaired. You may need foundation repair, but wouldn't it be more valuable to have
a structural engineer explain why you need the "repair" and the risks and benefits that
come with it before you make the final decision?

No one can force you to get foundation repair; but there are plenty of
confusing and intimidating reasons that can convince you to have this major surgery
done to your house without any clear objectives in sight. We offer explanations and
information for "why" you should or shouldn't get foundation repair. WE believe that
understanding the risks and benefits of foundation repair will help you make better
decisions for your home and family.

 Design of footing.

The type and the location where the stratum hold the foundation affect its
bearing capacity value. This study aims to map the bearing capacity of the
foundation and the distribution of the depth of the hard stratum to support it.

Footing is the part of a structure which transmits the load to the underlying soil or
rock. The main purpose of the footing is to distribute the load from the substructure to the
ground in such a way that the settlement of the total structure or any part of the structure
relative to any part is held to a minimum.

PROPORTIONING OF FOOTING FOR UNIFORM SETTLEMENT

Footing areas must be proportional that it is safe when only the permanent load is
acting and will still be safe when both dead load and live load are acting. The settlement of
the footing may be assumed to be proportional to the bearing pressure caused by the dead
load plus a fraction of love load, usually this amount to approximately 30%. Since live load
varies with time, its effect on settlement is less predictable than that of the dead load which
is present at all times.

DL = Dead load
LL = live load TL = total load
PL = permanent load TL = DL + LL
𝑃𝐿
B = soil bearing capacity r = 𝑇𝐿 (bearing ratio)
𝑃𝐿
A = 𝐵𝑟 (Area of Footing)

LESSON 4: DESIGN OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

The design of the foundation depends on soil consolidation and bearing

capacity.
Soil consolidation refers to the mechanical process by which soil changes
volume gradually in response to a change in pressure. This happens because soil
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 is a two-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually
groundwater. When soil saturated with water is subjected to an increase in
pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of water compared to the soil matrix means
that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing
volume, creating excess pore water pressure. As water diffuses away from
regions of high pressure due to seepage, the soil matrix gradually takes up the
pressure change and shrinks in volume. The theoretical framework of
consolidation is therefore closely related to the diffusion equation, the concept of
effective stress, and hydraulic conductivity.
In the narrow sense, “consolidation” refers strictly to this delayed
volumetric response to pressure change due to gradual movement of water. Some
publications also use “consolidation” in the broad sense, to refer to any process by
which soil changes volume due to a change in applied pressure. This broader
definition encompasses the overall concept of soil compaction, subsidence, and
heave. Some types of soil, mainly those rich in organic matter, show significant
creep, whereby the soil changes volume slowly at constant effective stress over a
longer time-scale than consolidation due to the diffusion of water. To distinguish
between the two mechanisms, “primary consolidation” refers to consolidation due
to dissipation of excess water pressure, while “secondary consolidation” refers to
the creep process.

Source: [Link]

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING DESIGN

Geotechnical engineers use oedometers to quantify the effects of consolidation. In

an oedometer test, a series of known pressures are applied to a thin disc of soil sample,
and the change of sample thickness with time is recorded. This allows the consolidation
characteristics of the soil to be quantified in terms of the coefficient of consolidation and
hydraulic conductivity.

The bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the
ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between
the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate
bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without
failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of
safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded
foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing
capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement. There are three modes of failure
that limit bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear failure, and punching shear
failure. It depends upon the shear strength of soil as well as shape, size, depth and type
of foundation.

A general bearing failure occurs when the load on the footing causes large
movement of the soil on a shear failure surface which extends away from the footing and
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up to the soil surface. Calculation of the capacity of the footing in general bearing is
based on the size of the footing and the soil properties. The basic method was developed
by Terzaghi, with modifications and additional factors by Meyerhof and Vesić. The
general shear failure case is the one normally analyzed. Prevention against other failure
modes is accounted for implicitly in settlement calculations.

Foundation design is a process of designing the footing and foundation walls of

the structure. The footing can be of many varieties, for example, strip or continuous
footings, drilled piles, mat foundations, etc. Designing a foundation is dependent on the
geotechnical report. According to the geotechnical report, it is decided whether the
structure should have a deep foundation or a shallow foundation.

Feedback

Are you already starting your head STUMBLING? Relax…you better focus on
the provisions and sample problems in order for you to get a remarkable and
exemplary rating… Don’t turn to the next page until you comprehensively
solve the questions and problems given. You may review your answer. Good
luck to the next Lesson!
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ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT SUGGESTED READINGS
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REFERENCES/RESOURCES

 Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, National

Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP C101, Vol.1 Buildings
and Other Structural Vertical Structures), 7 th Ed. 2016

 Besavilla, Venancio I, Jr., Reinforced Concrete Design, 2nd Edition