1. Why DCEN is commonly used in welding GTAW Welding Process?

DCEN for GTAW for deeper penetration and fast weld. For Al, Mn Alternating
current required for cleaning the oxide on the layer.

2. What is the difference between OCV and arc Voltage?

OCV-is the difference of electrical potential between two terminals of a device

when there is no external load connected, i.e. the circuit is broken or open.

Arc voltage-A voltage across welding arc.

3. Difference between transgranular and intergranular cracking?

Inter granular crack-The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of

grains, separated by grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack
along the grain boundaries, or immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the
bulk of the grains remain largely unaffected. Ex..Sensitization of stainless steels
or weld Decay.
Transgranular crack: Stress corrosion cracks can be transgranular or
intergranular or even a mixture of the two. Transgranular cracks move through
individual grains along strain generated paths. Intergranular cracks move around
the grains along preexisting paths. Chloride SSC in stainless steel.(may be
intergranular or trangranular)

4. What is meant by intergranular cracking or corrosion? Where & when it

occur?

The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated by grain

boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack along the grain boundaries,
or immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of the grains remain
largely unaffected. Ex.Sensitization of stainless steels or weld Decay.

5. How do you prevent IGC?

Intergranular corrosion- prevented by adopting low heat input in SS welding.

Ie.175 deg C max.

6. Why Cast Iron Materials are not tensile Tested? Justify

7. Difference between UTS and Tensile Strength?

UTS-Ultimate Tensile Strength or Tensile Strength-max stress reached during

tensile test.
Yield Strength- The stress when permanent deformation (Plastic deformation)
occurs.

1
8. Why does the stress level decrease beyond UTS Point?

After UTS point the specimen cross sectional area plastically deformed (necking
begins) and become less than substantial to the load (UTS) and reverse stress
curve occurs.

9. What do you called the area under the Stress Strain curve?

The area under Stress strain curve= Strain energy. The area up to the yield point
is known as Modulus of resilience. The area up to the fracture is known as
Modulus of toughness .

10. What do you mean by S-N Curve?

S-N Curve- High Cycle fatigue situation, material performance characterized

by this curve- Name also as Wohler curve. This is a graph of the magnitude of a
cyclic stress (S) against the logarithmic scale of cycles to failure (N).

11. Xx

12. Why the Tensile test is not focused on through thickness side of material?

Through thickness tensile test is for plates, which is to find out lamellar tearing.

13. What do you mean by Work Hardening?

Work hardening- is metal is strained beyond the yield point. Addition stress is
required for additional deformation.
Strain Hardening: Increasing the hardness and tensile strength of a metal
by cold plastic deformation.

14. Distinguish between Strain Hardening & Work Hardening?

Both are same.

15. What is Creep?

Creep: Time, temperature & Load. High load (Below tensile) for long time with
temp.exposure.

16. Why FCC Materials are preferred in Low & High Temperature application
than BCC Materials?

Above 650 C ferrite with BCC materials loose their properties at high elevated
temp. Like tensile, creep rupture strength.300 series austenitic SS (FCC) having
more strength in high temp. Application. Also contribute high corrosion resistance
including oxidization resistance.

2
17. Difference between metal and non metal?

Metal: Good conductor,Ductile,Solid,Basic,Opaque an thin sheet,

Non Metal: Poor conductor,Nonductile,Solid,liquid and gas,Acidic,Transparent a
thin sheet.

18. Difference between polycrystalline and Single Crystal?

Polycrystalline: Composed of many crystalline of varying size and orientation.

Single crystal- Monocrystle

19. List out the application of polycrystalline and single crystal?

Xx

20. All Engineering materials are polycrystalline and single crystal?

Almost all metals are polycrystalline.

21. Why RT cannot be carried out in Non metallic materials? Justify

RT-Gamma ray not on non metals due to sensitivity.(Low density in non metals)

22. Why Heat input is being controlled in case of toughness requirements?

Justify

More heat input will reduce notch toughness property.

23. What are the factors and parameters influencing the Toughness
requirements?

Notch Toughness control factors:-

Crystal structure- FCC & HCP (No transition temp) good than BCC (hexagonal
closed pack).BCC tends low plastic deformation. so experience ductile.

Interstitial atom: Mn: C ratio at leat 3:1, Ni- good for toughness.
Grain size: small good.

Heat Treatment: Tempered marten site steel give good result.\

Specimen Thickness: Larger specimen =more brittle.

Specimen orientation: Logitudional rolling-good than transverse.

24. Why HAZ is always harder than the Weld metal? Justify

3
 During welding HAZ will get heat input and cool immediately.(tempering).So
hardness increase.
25. Why Al, Ti and its composites are widely used and replace other engineering
materials?

Xx

26. What is DSS?

DSS=Duplex stainless steel=Having two phase of microstructure. i.e., Ferritic,

austentic.More strength, ductile and toughness, good for SSC and corrosssion
resistance.

27. What do you mean by radiographic quality electrode? Justify

RT quality electrode= Will give sound metal to the acceptable quality of the
Radiography.

28. How do you get a difference in weld metal, base metal and others in
radiograph?

In radiography, Density is the criteria to differentiate weld, base metal and others.

29. When Steel becomes Stainless Steel?

Steel which have =>12% Cr will form chrome oxide over the surface which will
protect from corrosion. Is called stainless steel.

30. Why do we select a polarity during welding of Aluminum, Stainless Steel etc?

SS welding –GTAW =DCEN (because give good penetration and fast) and
SMAW & GTAW=DCEP.(good for welding, easy cleaning, job get more heat)

31. Why Helium is not used as common shielding gas? Justify.

Helium= require high voltage to start the arc (More heat input), Lighter than air,
More expensive, Large flow rate required.

32. What do you mean by arc blow? Where and when it occurs?

ARC Blow: Deflection of welding arc (electrode to work piece) path from its
direction towards or backwards. Tends to occur when residual magnetism present
while welding. (9% Ni steel).Prevention: adopt AC; use short arc length, Use de
magnetizing coil.

33. What is key hole effect?

KEYHOLE WELD= in plasma arc weld/Laser weld- Light rays incident on job
and get heat by and got melted the melted light get more heat and got vaporized
and cavity formed. The vapour opens a hole around laser beam called key hole.
Keyhole formed and allows to weld that are deep and narrow.
4
34. What is the difference between rimmed, skilled and semi skilled steel?

Rimmed steel: Vary in chemical composition from top to bottom. No deoxidized

agen added<0.25% Mn <0.6%.Ideal for rolling, adopted for cold bending.

Semi killed steel: Intermediate to killed and rimmed steel.C-0.15-0.35 %. For

drawing application. Deoxidized, but some Co2 leaves blowhole pore in ingot.

Killed steel: Deoxidize steel(by usind Si,Al),uniform in chemical, use for

forging, carburizing, heat treatment, free from blow holes and segregation, all
forgings and C>0.25% are killed.

35. What is emissive electrode?

Xx

36. What is the Dwell Time in NDT?

DWELL TIME: in PT application the duration of the penetrant contact with

examination surface.(time depends on temperature, surface
tension,viscosity,capillary pressure, contact angle sp.gravity)

37. What do you mean by Ferrite Number?

FERRITE NUMBER: Used to define the ferrite content in austenitic steel.

38. What is Curie temperature?

CURIE TEMPERATURE: Ferromagnetic and ferrimagment become Paramagnet.

Above curie temp magnetic property will loose.

39. Why Pure Tungsten is not used for welding of all material?

Pure Tungsten rod used for AC welding (Al, Mn Welding).For Dc welding 2%

thoriated. Good arc stabilize and finish.2%Ceriated, 1.5% Lanthaniated,
Zirconiated and pure also in use. Specific purpose.

40. What are the factor effecting the electrode polarity?

Polarity- selection based on penetration (deeper shallow).GMAW-DCEP- smooth,

low spatter, deep penetration. MAW-DCEP-good result .may be AC used. SAW-
slag decides polarity. DCEP, DCEN.DCEP slag consumption high. GTAW-
DCEN- good penetration, oxide removal in AC.

41. What is Autogeneous welding?

Autogeneous weld-No filler metal required Ex. stud weld.

5
42. What is the use of Buttering; build up, hard facing and over lay?

Hard face/Weld overlay- Metallic coating welded on the surface which is to be

protected from wear, thermal abrasion, Corrosion, High resistance to pitting,
gauging.

43. Distinguish between rutile, basic and iron electrode?

RUTILE Electrode: 35% coating is Titanium dioxide, good arc, and general
purpose.

BASIC Electrode: The coating is calcium fluoride+ Calcium+alkaline carbonate.

Thick coating. Fast freezing, backing required, Low hydrogen-Lime coated.
Medium thick wall, Good weld quality.

IRON ELECTRODE: cast iron electrode may be.

44. Why DCEP Always hotter than DCEN?

DCEP (Reverse Polarity)- More heat in Filler wire, DCEN(Straight

Polarity)=More heat in Work piece. Electrons pass from negative to positive.

45. Why the materials should have high ductile to brittle temperature?

DUCTILE to BRITTLE: BCC metals become brittle in low temp. or high strain
rate. FCC remains ductile at low temp.

At high temp yield strength is lower, vibration of atom is high and dislocation of
atom is easy and plastic deformation occurs. At Low temp. Yield strength is high
and vibration of atom is less and atom do not dislocate and finally no plastic
deformation and become brittle.

Dislocation density: dislocation density is more is prone to brittle.

GRAIN Size: small grain size prone to brittle. Dislocation has less space before
hit grain boundary. Dislocation can not move very far before fracture, plastic
deformation decrease. Material becomes brittle.

46. Cast iron can be welded or not? Justify

Cast iron can be welded.

47. Purpose of Electrode Coating?

Electrode Coating: To prevent atmospheric contamination, entrapment of external

particles and air, gases in molten metal, addition of alloying element in weld,
Deoxidizing component, Arc stabilize, Limit Spatter.

6
48. What do you mean by upper & lower transformation Temperature?

Lower transformation Range Ac1,Upper Transformation Range Ac3 – Change

ferrite and pearlite to austenitic by heating, and by slow cooling austenitic change
to Ferrite and Pearlite.(difference lower temp and upper temp.)

Anealing: Heat slightly above Ac3 & slow cool-become ferrite. Small grain, soft,
good ductile.

Normalizing: Heat slightly above Ac3 & slow cool become ferrite. High strength,
hardness, less ductile than annealing.

Tempering: Heating quenched steel below Ac1 to improve toughness

Quenching: Heating and rapid cooling

Preheat: Preheat while welding to prevent crack. Temp. Increase with carbon % and
thick and grade.

PWHT: Heat below Ac1 and hold sufficient to relieve residual stress and slow cool.

Solution Heat treatment: Heat to suitable temp. and hold to allow certain constituent
enter in solid solution, the rapid cooling. Final metal are soften or anneal. Solution
annealing of SS dissolves any precipitated carbide phase at high temperature, then
rapidly cools so that carbides will not be present to lessen corrosion resistance.

49. Why MPT cannot be performed on Ni, Al and gamma iron?

MPT on Ferromagnetic only. Not possible in Aluminum, Copper, Austenitic SS.

50. What is the Purpose of PWHT?stress relieving

PWHT: Heat below Ac1, and hold to relieve residual stress and slow cool.

51. When Tempering is being performed?

Tempering done for improve toughness.

52. What do you mean by Lower & Upper Transformation Temperature?

Lower transformation Range Ac1,Upper Transformation Range Ac3 – Change

ferrite and pearlite to austenitic by heating, and by slow cooling austenitic change
to Ferrite and Pearlite.(difference lower temp and upper temp.)

53. What is mean by fine grain practice?

Fine Grain Practice: In killed steels Al, Si used as deoxidizing agent and produce
fine austenitic grain structure. Good for low temperature toughness. If only Si
used coarse grain structure.(have high brittle transition temperature).
7
54. Why Q & T steels should be PWHT after welding?

Quenched & Tempered steel: During welding the material will face more than
tempering temperature will need PWHT to maintain toughness.

55. Why CE is calculated? Justify

CE: carbon equivalent to determine the percent of alloy content other than carbon.
Used in welding, also in casting, Heat treatment. Mn, Si, Cr, Mo, V, Cu, Ni
increase hardness and reduce weld ability, Relate to Hydrogen induced cold
crack. CE value >0.4 in HAZ potential for crack and more than 0.5 potential for
brittle failure. CE= C %+( Mn)/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Si+Ni+Cu)/15.

56. What do you mean by residual stress?

Residual stress: During welding due to Localized heating cooling process atoms
will dislocate from its original position, create stress is called residual stress.

57. Can we eliminate the distortion?

Control of distortion: Reduce contraction force (reduce shrinkage), Low heat

input, Joint design, stiffener placement, Control cooling.

58. What is the role of S, P, C, Si and Mn in welding?

Solidification Crack: while welding S,P and other impurities form liquid film
layer over boundaries on crystallization. Due to tensile strength of material this
film will break and form crack give greater impact. Si & Ni also improve harmful
effect of S. Mn will control the solidification crack. Maintain certain ration Mn/S
to prevent this.(ratio relate to Carbon Content).

Hydrogen Induced Crack: Low alloy, Alloy and High carbon steel. While welding
dissolved Hydrogen enter into the HAZ area during solidification. In HAZ the
hydrogen will combine and form hydrogen molecule creates stress, will effect in
Crack. Prevent this use low hydrogen electrode, Preheat, Heat treatment to escape
hydrogen and reduce stress, Joint design.

59. In which NDT Method is suitable for Volumetric analysis of Defects?

Radiography testing example of Volumetric analysis. Refer API-577- 9.8.1.

60. In which type of electrode ingredients present more in rutile class of

electrode?

Xx

61. What is the purpose of adding sodium silicate in electrode Coating?

8
 Sodium silicate Coating: shielding the metal, Arc stabilize, alloying
elements.E6010 High cellulose sodium silicate- More penetration.E7018-Low
hydrogen Potassium silicate with iron powder.

62. What is the Relation between hardness and strength?

Hardness: resist plastic deformation, penetration, indentation, scratch.

Tensile strength: The max amount of load withstands to fracture after plastic
deformation.

Both directly proportional,

63. Why Low Hydrogen electrodes are preferable in critical joints / applications?

Low hydrogen electrode has less moisture 0.6%. And control low hydrogen level
in welding and good mechanical and weld properties.

64. Why mild steel wire brush and general grinding wheels should not be used
on stainless steel materials?

galvanic corrosion: when SS contact with CS ,two different electrode potential

contact each other ion will move from negative to positive(anode to cathode).In
cathotic protection place anode cells to avoid corrosion.

65. What is the Purpose of making an edge preparation?

Edge Preparation: Purpose to make Joint design to join two parts by welding. Free
from contamination, oxide, oil, grease and other foreign matters.

66. Why rimmed steel are used as an electrode wire in carbon and alloy steel
materials?

Xx

67. Why carbon steel wire is used for alloy steel electrode materials? Justify

Xx

68. In which electrode would be preferred for low temperature applicatios?Why

E7018-1 for low temp application- 1 denoted impact tested.

69. What are Austenite stabilizers?

Austenite stabilizers: C, N, Mn, Ni, (q.v. Ni alloys);

70. List out ferrite Stabilizers?

Ferrite stabilizers: Si, Cr, Mo, Nb (“Columbium”- Cb), Ti.

9
71. What do you mean by skin effect in NDT?

EDDY Current Testing; Skin effect or standard depth of penetration.

72. What is the High Heat input welding process?

High heat input will change microstructure. May be from ferrite to marten site.
Leads high hardness.

73. What is the role of vanadium and Aluminum in welding?

Vanadium and aluminum alloying elements.

74. Why Couplant is used in UT?

Couplant: is the media to transfer waves from transducer to work piece.

75. In which welding process is used globally about 80% than other process?

SMAW more commonly used welding process.

76. Why mild steel is easily weldable? Justify

Mild steel easy to weld: Due to low tensile, ductile nature, AC or Dc can be used.

77. What is purpose of using iron powder in Electrode?

IRON Powder in Electrode: Benefit of slag removal, Low spatter, better re-
striking, higher efficiency, and good weld metal quality.

78. What are the functions of slag on the solidified weld metal?

Slag help the molten metal prevent from oxidation, Alloy addition, cooling
assistant, absorb or dissolve non metal.

79. What do you mean by Sensitization?

Sensitization: when heating Austenitic SS to 500 C above Cr carbide will

precipitate and rescue chrome %. Will lead metal sensitive to corrosion.

80. How do you prevent sensitization?

To prevent sensitization heat input can be controlled to prevent Chrome

depreciation and solution heat treated material to be used, Low carbon content
0.03%.

81. What are all the roles / function of Mn in Steels?

Mn: Stabilizing element. C/Mn ratio prevent solidification crack. Act as austenitic
stabilizer.

10
Alloying Elements In Steel

Aluminum (Al) Potent deoxidizer in steelmaking promotes graphitization; restricts austenite grain
growth to act as a grain refiner; useful constituent in nitriding steels.

Carbon (C) Primary alloying element in steel; deoxidizer in steelmaking; austenite stabilizer; basic
component of all carbides; a basic to hardenability.

Chromium (Cr) Important carbide-forming element; resists softening on tempering; contributes to

hardenability and modestly to elevated-temperature strength, to secondary hardening in quenched
steels, and to wear resistance in high carbon steels. Important in improvement of resistance to oxidation
and corrosion.

Cobalt (Co) Resists softening at elevated temperatures in either austenite or ferrite; reduces
hardenability.

Columbium (Cb), (Niobium) (Nb) Very strong carbide former; lowers hardenability except in cases of
steel autenitized at extremely high temperature. Prevents grain boundary precipitation of carbides in
austenitic stainless steels.

Manganese (Mn) Moderate carbide-forming elements contributes strongly to hardenability and favors
retention of austenite in quenched steels; increases ferrite strength but reduces plasticity. Forms
manganese sulfide, which aids machinability of steel and eliminates hot shortness due to iron sulfide.

Molybdenum (Mo) Strong carbide former, strong contributor of hardenability; raises high-temperature
strength and creep resistance; improves corrosion resistance in stainless steels and wear resistance in
high-carbon steels; contributes to secondary hardening; reduces temper embitterment.

Nickel (Ni) Strengthens and toughens ferrite; modest contributor to hardenability; alloying addition most
used to develop low-temperature ferrous alloys; essential to austenitic stainless steel and compositions.

Nitrogen (N) Stabilizes austenite; used in some free machining steel; can effectively replace a portion
of the nickel in stainless and high-alloy steels.

Phosphorus (P) Potent ferrite-hardening element by solid solution; used in low-carbon unhardened
low-alloy construction; steels for strength and some corrosion resistance. Otherwise considered an
undesirable or harmful residual.

Silicon (Si) Moderate contributor to hardenability; promotes graphitization; ferrite hardener; important in
electrical and magnetic sheet steel; contributes to oxidation resistance of high-temperature steels and is
a widely used general purpose steelmaking deoxidizer.

Sulfur (S) Commonly used in production of free-machining grades of steel. Otherwise considered an
undesirable or harmful residual.

Titanium (Ti) Very strong carbide former; lowers quench hardenability unless steel is austenitized at
very high temperatures; used on occasion as a steelmaking deoxidizer; used to prevent grain boundary
precipitation of chromium carbide in austenitic stainless steel.

Tungsten (W) Strong carbide former, strong contributor of secondary hardening and to hardenability;
raises high-temperature strength and high-temperature hardness.

Vanadium (V) Strong Carbide former; strong contributor to hardenability when dissolved in austenite;
contributes strongly to secondary hardening and high-temperature hardness. May be used for grain-size
control.

82. What is the Strong carbide former?

Moderate carbide former=Mn, Si. Strong carbide former=Ti, Tungsten, V, Mo.

83. Write down the CE Formula?

CE= C+ (Mn)/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Si+Ni+Cu)/15.

84. In CE Formula, which are the major elements have a influence? justify
11
 Carbon=influence suspect to HIC, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo are benefit to strength,
toughness, and corrosion resistance.
85. Why auxiliary shielding gas is always required when welding Ti & Its alloy
DSS etc?

Auxiliary Gas shield/Purging required for SS to avoid oxidation of weld metal

with contaminant.
86. Is C is the austenite / Ferrite stabilizer? Justify

Carbon is the austenitic stabilizer.

87. What is Half life Period of CO-60,IR 192,& CE-137?

Half life period---- Co 60- 5.27yrs (for 6.3mm-76.2mm) Ir-192- 73days (38mm-
178mm), Ce-137- 8.89 Hrs.

88. In which principle the Radiographic testing works?

Radiography Principle: NDT method to find flaw. Radiography exposure the

elements to differentiate by density variation.

89.
90. x
91. Welding Arc: Arc produced between electrode and work, Electric arc is an
electrical discharge of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma discharge,
resulting from a current flowing through normally nonconductive media such as
air.
92. Carbon steel is low strength, Low corrosion resistance and hardness. Identify by
color code.
93. Filler wire are made by drawing operation, Stick rods by making U shaped tubes
and coating it by flux. And cut into pieces.
94. Hydrogen is more prone to enter weld pool. Sometimes oxygen.
95. x
96. Hydrogen embrittlement: Low Carbon not prone to hydrogen embattlement.
High carbon, high Mn, High Si materials subject to hydrogen embrittlement. In
this crack will appear. Called as UNDERBEAD CRACKING, due to result
increase amount of marten site. Hydrogen absorb in welding, manufacturing of
steel, hydrogen storage. Preheat and PWHT reduce this.
97. Lead Screens; use to intensify primary radiation (front) and absorb secondary
radiation (back).Placed in Front and back of film inside cassette. Leas screens are
cheap, good quality output, readily available.
98. Ox fuel gas Cutting(OFC):High Nickel, cast Iron and SS difficult to cut.
Melting point Oxide of alloying element is more than alloy, and will not leave
easily to continue the burning/cutting process, so difficult to melt oxide. In Iron
oxide having low melts point than iron which oxide melt easily remove as molten
slag. So, in OFC difficult cut alloy steels.
99. Solder Use low melting filler than metals to be joined. Brazing not like that.
100. CO2 mixture will give good penetration in GMAW.
101. Exotic Material- Material not generally used. But used for specific application.
Mostly non ferrous.

12
102. ARC LENGTH: distance between electrode tip to work piece. Keep the length
same as electrode size. ARC VOLTAGE:-is the given voltage given to melt the
filler.
103. Refer 79.
104. LONG ARC IN LOW HYDROGEN Electrode prominent to slag inclusion and
sometime porosity.
105. deoxidizing element in GMAW electrode: Mn,Si
106. Welding Current, and wire speed are controlling GMAW metal transfer.
107. Welding current is the significant parameter for GMAW metal transfer.
108. P-Number-Grouping of base materials (based on chemical, mechanical properties
weld ability).
F-Number-Grouping fillers based on usability character,.
A-NUMBER- Grouping of weld metal, chemical composition.
109. S-Number-material coming under ASTM specification. As per 2010 welding
code sex IX all s numbers considered as P Number.
110. WPS, PQR, WPQT-Responsibility of manufacturer.
111. Bend Test-180 degree bend the specimen, no open discontinuity >3mm is not ok.
112. TENSILE test: Weld tensile more than base, if broke outside weld 5% below
base tensile is ok.
113. Notch Toughness- as per applicable code.
114. Radiography for PQR, WPQT- No written procedure required. No crack is
ok,Linear-3mm for 10mm, 1/3t for 10-57, 19mm for >57mm.Rounded-20%t or
3mm, 3mm thick 12 indication ok,t>3mm rounded 0.8mm max+appendix-1.
115. Essential variables- Mandatory. on Essenetial Variable: mandatory when
impact test required by code.
116. Thickness limit min 5mm max
117. Which is the maximum allowed turbidity in drinking water?

The WHO (World Health Organization), establishes that the turbidity of drinking water
shouldn't be more than 5 NTU, and should ideally be below 1 NTU.

118. What is turbidity?

Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the
presence of suspended particulates.

The more total suspended solids in the water, the murkier it seems and the higher the
turbidity.

Turbidity is considered as a good measure of the quality of water.

119.How to calculate the Holiday Test Voltage?

As a general rule the NACE standard RP-02-74 has been found to work well in most
cases. This is shown below:

Test Voltage formula using thousands of an inch:

13
or Test Voltage formula using microns:

MATERIALS
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
NACE-National Association for corrosion Engineers
MR0175-Materials for use in H2S Environments of Petroleum and Natural
gas industries
MR0103-Standard Material Requirements-Materials Resistant to Sulfide
Stress Cracking in
Corrosive Petroleum Refining Environments
API 598-Inspection and testing of valves
API 5L-Specification for welding of pipeline & related facilities
API 6D-Specification for pipe line valves (Gate, Plug, Ball and Check
valves)
ASTM B16.5-Dimensional inspection for flanges
A36-Standard specification for carbon structural steel
A53-Specification for seamless & welded carbon steel pipes
A105-Specification for carbon steel forged flange fittings
A 106- Specification for seamless carbon steel pipes for high temperature
service
A182-Specification for Stainless and alloy steel forged fittings
A193-Specification of bolts for high pressure service
A194-specification of nuts for high pressure service
A234-Specification for carbon steel seamless wrought pipe fittings
A312-Specification for seamless & welded Stainless steel pipes for high
temperature service
A325-Specification of bolts for structurals
A333-Specification for seamless low temperature carbon steel service
A335-Specification Seamless & welded alloy steel pipes for high
temperature service
A403- Specification for stainless steel seamless wrought pipe fittings
A563-Specification of nuts for structurals

KOC - STANDARDS
KOC-MP-013- Specification for Gate Valves
KOC-MP-014- Specification for Globe Valves
KOC-MP-015- Specification for Check Valves
KOC-MP-016-Specification for Plug Valves
KOC-MP-033 Pt2- Specification for Ball Valves
14
015-IH-001-Piping material Specification
015-IH-002-Piping design
KOC-MP-020-SS PIPES
KOC-MP-26-Colour coding of materials
1) What is Carbon Equivalent?
In welding of pressure retaining parts of carbon steel materials the carbon
value shall not exceed a sum of Ceq >0.36 for PSL2 of API 5L pipes
Ceq =

2) Types of S.S Material & their series?

5 types
1) Ferritic Stainless steel-430 series
2) Austenitic Stainless steel-300 series
3) Martensitic Stainless steel-416 series
4) Duplex Stainless steel-2205
5) Precipitation hardening stainless steel-17-4 PH
3) Minimum requirement for Chromium % in S.S?
12% of chromium in Austenitic stainless steel
4) Property of S.S & Duplex?
Property of SS-A fine layer of Chromium provides resistance to pitting,
rusting & corrosion resistant
Property of DSS-Resistant to Chloride Stress corrosion cracking
5) Chemical Composition for S.S grades?
SS 304/304L
Nickel-8% to 13%, Chromium-18% to 20%, Carbon-0.03% for Low carbon
& 0.08 for Normal grade, Molybdenum-0
SS 316/316L
Nickel-10%-15%, Chromium-16%-18%,-0.03% for Low carbon & 0.08 for
Normal grade,
Molybdenum-2%-3%
DSS
Nickel-6%-8%, Chromium-24%-26%,-0.03% for Low carbon,
Molybdenum-3%-4%
6) What is precipitation hardening?
It is a method of hardening S.S by ageing heat treatment. The P.H.M is
opposed to Quenching & Tempering known as transformation hardening
7) Chemical Elements to be verified for S.S, C.S, A.S?
Material Elements
Stabilized Low carbon Grade S.S Cr, NI, Mo, Ti, Nb, C
Stabilized Low carbon Grade S.S Cr, Ni, Mo
C.S
A.S
8) Ferrite No ranges for Austenitic Stainless steel?

15
Smaw-2-5%
Gtaw-3-11%
9) Role of alloying elements?
Chromium-Chromium causes the spontaneous formation of stable,
transparent, passive protective film
Increasing the level of chromium enhances corrosion resistance
At elevated temperatures chromium provides resistance to oxidation
Nickel-Nickel in stainless steel promotes stability of austenite. Austenite is
stronger & more stable at higher temperatures than ferrite. When
nickel is added the structure changes from ferrite to austenitic.
Adding nickel improves toughness, ductility and weldability, resistance
to oxidation, carburizing, nitriding, thermal fatigue & strong acids
Molybdenum-Addition improves resistance to pitting and crevice
corrosion in chloride containing environments and corrosion by
sulphuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids
10) What are PSL, and their types?
PSL-Product Specification Level
PSL 1-Specification for seamless & SAW pipes in normal service
PSL2- Specification for seamless & SAW pipes in sour service
11) Heat treatment requirements For PLS 2?
For SMLS-Normalized, Quenched & Tempered
For SAW-
12) Mechanical Testing requirements PSL 2?
1) Tensile Strength 2) Yield Strength 3) Impact Strength 4) Hardness
Measurement
13) Chemical analysis for PSL 2?
14) NDT Requirements for PSL-2?
1) Hydotesting 2) Full Body UT 3) Lamination Inspection
4)Magnetic particle Inspection 5)Eddy Current testing (or) Flux Leakage
testing 6)Wall thickness 7)Residual Magnetism 8)Grain Size Measurement
15) Visual & Dimensional Requirements PSL 2?
16) Types of Gate, Check, Ball, Globe, Butterfly valves?
Gate valve types
1) Rising Stem
2) Non-Rising Stem
3) Soft Seat
4) Metal seat
5) Gear operated
6) Manual operated
7) End connections (Flanged, Welded and Screwed)
Check valve types
1) Ball check valve
2) Swing Check valve

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3) Diaphragm check valve
4) Clapper check valve
5) Dual plate Wafer/Lug type check valve
Ball valve types
1) Top entry
2) Trunion mounted side entry ball valves
Globe valves types
1) Cross flow
2) Angle flow
3) Straight flow
Butterfly valve types
1) Lug type
2) Wafer type
17) Pressure retaining parts in Valves?
1) Body
2) Bonnet
3) Disc
4) Seat
5) Stem
6) Wedge
7) Packing Glands
8) Bolts % nuts in body to bonnet connection
18) Types of Valve tests?
1) Shell test
2) Back seat test
3) High pressure closure test
4) Low pressure closure test
5) Pneumatic closure test
19) What is Back seat test?
Is required for all valves except for bellow seal valves when the both ends
open are closed, the gate is fully open & the packing glands are loosened the
valve is internally pressurized to observe for leakage through gland opening.
This test is done immediately after the shell test
20) Leakage types in valves?
Fugitive Emission, Leakage through valves but within the piping system like
Gland Leak, Body Leak
21) What is metal seat, soft seat?
Soft Seat-Valve seats are coated with PTFE
Metal seat-Valve seats are coated with hard facing metals like stellite
coating
Mainly valve seats are protected for wear resistance
22) Purpose of side entry, top entry ball valves?
Side entry –to cut off or open the operating medium in pipelines

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Top entry-In service maintenance is easy with top entry valves
23) What is Surfacing weld, types?
Surfacing welds is the make up of top layer of the metals depending upon
the kind of application
Types
1) Build up-one or more layers for dimensional make up of metals
2) Buttering-one or more layers for metallurgical compatibility in dissimilar
welding on bevel surfaces
3) Cladding-Done for corrosion resistance in metals
4) Hard facing-Done for wear resistance in routine severe cyclic operations
24) What does stellite coating mean?
Stellite-Alloying of the top surface of the metals for improving wears
resistance
25) What do you mean by fully killed?
Steel which is been deoxidized, silicon & titanium are added during the steel
forming process to avoid the formation of gas pore.
26) Types of Impact test?
Charpy, Izard test
27) What does M refers to in nuts & bolt Specification?
Confirms to NACE MR0175 requirements
28) What does -1 in 7018-1 implies?
As per SFA 5.1 -1 Satisfies impact testing requirements V-notch at -45 deg
C
29) Tensile & Impact Values for pipes?
30) Items to be reviewed in nut & bolt MTC?
31) What is PMI, reference standard?
POSITIVE MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
FABRICATION & ERECTION
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ASME B31.1-Power piping
ASME B31.2-Nuclear piping
ASME B 31.3-Process piping
ASME B 31.4-Piping transportation systems
KOC STANDRADS
KOC-C-007-Structural steel work Materials, Fabrication & Erection
KOC-MP-038-Hot tapping and plugging

WELDING & HEAT TREATMENT

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ASME SEC IX-Specification for Welding & Brazing Procedure &
Performance qualifications
API 1104-Specification for welding of pipeline & related facilities
AWS D1.1-Structural welding code
KOC-STANDARDS
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WH-1001-
15-WH-1002-Field welding requirements including welding, heat treatment & NDT of
piping

1) What is WPS?
Welding Procedure Specification-A written qualified procedure document providing
directions for welding test coupons & production welds
2) What is PQR?
Procedure Qualification Record-A record of welding variables & values of a welding
test coupon
3) What is P-No, F-No, A-No?
P-No-Grouping of base metals to reduce the no of welding procedure qualification of
materials
F-No-Grouping of Filler wires & Electrode rods to reduce the no of welding procedure
qualification
A-No- Grouping of Filler wires & Electrode rods based on usability & Chemical analysis
of weld metal
4) F-No, A-No, AWS Classification Ferrite, Austenitic & Duplex Filler wire&
Electrode rods?
As per Sec IX Table QW-432 for F-No & AWS Classification, QW-432 for A-No
Electrode Rod F-3, 4, A-, SFA -5.1 & SFA -5.5 (Ferrite)
Filler wire-F-6, A-, SFA-5.28 (Ferrite)
Electrode Rod F-5, A-, SFA -5.4 (Austenitic & Duplex)
Filler wire-F-6, A-, SFA-5.28 (Austenitic & Duplex)
5) Minimum & Maximum qualified base metal thickness range for
a. Procedure qualification (Pipe, Plate)
Pipe- For Normal C.S as per ASME Sec IX Table- 450 of Welding Procedure
Qualification
 1.5mm to 2T for B.M thickness up to 3/8”
 5mm to 2T for B.M thickness above 3/8”, Unlimited from 13mm of B.M
Thickness with single welding process

For LTCS-0.5T to 2T of base metal thickness

b. Performance qualification (Pipe, Plate)
Pipe- For Normal C.S as per ASME Sec IX Table- 450 of Welding Procedure
Qualification
 1.5mm to 2T for B.M thickness up to 3/8”
 5mm to 2T for B.M thickness above 3/8”, Unlimited from 13mm of B.M
Thickness with single welding process
 For LTCS-0.5T to 2T of base metal thickness

6) Acceptance Criteria for piping welds?

Table 341.3.2 as per ASME B31.3 of BPV Code for linear Indications
7) Acceptance criteria for rounded indications?
As per ASME Sec – VIII, Appendix IV for rounded indications
8) Define Mechanical Properties of metals?
Strength-Ability of the material to withstand load
Ductility-Ability of the material to deform under load without failing
Hardness-To resist indentation or penetration
Toughness-Ability of the material to absorb energy
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Fatigue Strength-cyclic or repeated mechanical action
9) What is heat treatment, types explain?
Heat treatment types
1) Normalizing-A process in which ferrous materials is heated to a suitable temperature
above the transformation range and is subsequently cooled in still air at room temperature
Metal softens but not significant, uniform metal structure by heat treatment
2) Annealing-Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and cooling at a suitable
temp
Improves m/cing , reduces hardness, Metal softens & increases ductility
3) Quenching (hardening)-Rapid Cooling of a heated metal
High hardness, Strength & Ductility
4) Tempering-Reheating a hardened metal to a temperature below the transformation
range to improve toughness. Done after Quenching
To increase Ductility
5) Pre-Heating – To slow down cooling rate to avoid formation of micro structural
contents other than martensite
6) Post-Heating-To reduce residual stresses and to temper hard, brittle phases formed
during cooling or quenching
7) Stress relieving or PWHT-To reduce residual stresses occurs as the strength of the
material reduces due to high temperature welding
10) Why PWHT is done, what mechanical property is improved?
To avert high temperature detrimental effects and temperature gradients inherent in
welding, to remove the residual stresses formed due cold bending & forming process.
The Strength of the material is improved
11) Requirements for heat treatment & Holding Time?
As per ASME B31.3 Table of 331.1.1 Heat treatment requirements
Requirement- Base Metal thickness> 19.05mm for C.S, All Alloy steel materials of P-
No 4, 5, 5A, 5B
Holding Time-1 hr/In
12) Heating rate, Holding time for PWHT, & cooling rate?
Rapid heating up to 300 deg C & heating at the rate of 150 deg/hr up to 593-649, holding
time1 hr/in, Cooling at the rate of 150 deg /hr up to 300 deg and cooling at the
atmospheric temperature
13) What is Interpass temp?
14) What is Low Hydrogen Electrodes?
15) What is hermetically sealed packing?
Packing which is resistant to moisture absorption
16) What is the Baking temperature & time?
450 deg C for 2 hrs
17) Holding oven temperature?
120 deg Celsius
18) Cause for porosity?
Porosity is caused by the absorption of oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen in molten weld pool
and released on solidification to become weld metal
19) What is Basic, Rutile and Cellulosic coated electrodes?

20) If a welder qualified for P1 (C.S) is he qualified for P8 (S.S) considering only the
base metal?
Yes, considering only the Base Metal P-No As per ASME Sec IX of BPV Code table
of 423.1 Welding Procedure Qualifications
21) Reinforcement, Root penetration min& max value?
20
NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ASME Sec V of BPV Code-Recommended Practices for NDE
Article1-General Requirements
Article2-Radiographic Testing
Article3-
Article4-Ultrasonic Testing for in service inspection
Article5-Ulatrasonic Testing for fabrication & Materials
Article 6-Liquid penetrant testing
Article 7- Magnetic particle Testing
Article8- Eddy Current Testing
Article9-Visual testing
Article 10- Leak Testing
ASME SEC VIII-
1) Types of Penetrant, Developer in penetrant testing?
Penetrant-Dye, Fluorescent
Developer-Solvent based, Water washable, Post emulsifiable
2) Techniques in P.T?
Combination of the types of penetrant and Developer six techniques are possible
3) Lifting capacity of Yoke?
As per Art 7 of Sec V -At Pole spacing of 2”, 4”
4.5 Kg (10.1lbs) for A.C Current
18.1Kg (40lbs) for D.C Current
4) Calibration period for yoke?
One year As per Art 7 of Sec V
5) Principle in indication of defects in MPT?
6) What is linear rounded indication?
Any indication having length greater than three times the width of the indication
Any Indication having length three times or lesser than the width of the indication
8) Light requirements for MPI, DPT?
MPT-1000 lx
DPT-100 lx
9) Temperature requirements for MPT, DPT?
MPT-Wet-60 deg C max, Dry-316 deg C max
DPT-50 deg C max
10) Holding time, Dwell time for MPT, DPT?
MPT-DPT-minimum of 5mts after penetrant application & 5-10mts after application
11) Types of Magnetism, MPT?
Longitudinal & Circular magnetic field
MPT-Longitudinal magnetism
1) Yoke method-Wet & Dry
2) Head shot method
MPT-Circular magnetism
1) Prod method-Wet & Dry
2) Coil method
12) Film types, IQI types in RT?
13) Techniques in RT?
1) SWSI-Single wall single image
2) DWDI-Double wall double image

21
3) DWSI-Double wall single image
14) Sensitivity, density requirement?
Sensitivity < 2, Density 2-4
15) Types of Isotopes?
Gamma rays-Iridium192, Cobalt 60 industrial isotopes
16) Isotopes application?
17) How would u prevent Back Scatter in Radiography?
18) Calculation of Pressure test value?
As per ASME B 31.3 Para 345.4.2
Pt=1.5xPxSt/S
Pt-Minimum test gauge pressure
P-Internal Gauge Pressure
St-Stress Value at test temperature, S- Stress value at design temperature
19) Chloride content for hydro test in cs & ss?
Chloride content in C.S-3000 PPM max
Chloride Content in S.S -30 PPM max
20) Limitations of each NDT Technique?
21) What is sensitation of stainless steel?
Another name of this reaction is Carbide Preceipitation, the formation of Chromium
Carbides resulting in depletion of chromium from the individual grains and reducing
metal corrosion resistance to inter Granular Corrosion.
MECHANICAL TESTING
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ASME SEC IX-Specification for Welding & Brazing Procedure & Performance
qualifications
API 1104-Specification for welding of pipeline & related facilities
AWS D1.1-Structural welding code

KOC-STANDARDS
1) Mechanical Testing requirements for
a. Procedure qualification
As per ASME Sec IX Table-
Transverse
Thickness No of specimen Type of Test size Location of
specimen
Up to ¾” 2 Tensile
2 Root Bend
2 Face Bend
- Side Bend

Thickness No of specimen Type of Test size Location of

specimen
Over ¾” 2 Tensile
- Root Bend
- Face Bend
4 Side Bend
Longitudinal
Side bend is not Applicable
No of specimen Type of Test size Location of specimen
2 Tensile

22
2 Face bend
2 Root Bend
b. Performance qualification
Tensile test is not required for performance qualification
Transverse
Thickness of BM No of specimen Type of Test size
Location of specimen
Up to ¾” - Tensile
1 Root Bend
1 Face Bend
- Side Bend
Over ¾” - Tensile
- Root Bend
- Face Bend
2 Side Bend
Longitudinal
Side bend is not Applicable
No of specimen Type of Test size Location of specimen
1 Face bend
1 Root Bend
3) Acceptance range for open discontinuity in bend testing?
The guided-bend specimens shall have no open defects
In the weld or heat affected zone exceeding 1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm), measured in any direction
on the convex
Surface of the specimen after bending. Open defects occurring on the corners of the
specimen during testing shall not be considered unless there is definite evidence that they
result from lack of fusion, slag inclusions, or other internal defects.

4) Requirements for Impact testing in procedure qualification?

a) Selection of Test piece at 10 deg from 90 deg to 0 deg on either sides of pipe test
coupon
b) Impact Testing done at -45 Deg Celsius with a minimum value of 40 joules
5) Reference standard for mechanical testing?
ASTM
6) What is hardness, types in hardness testing?
Hardness-It is the ability of the material to resist Penetration & Indentation
Hardness testing types
1) Brinell hardness tester
2) Rockwell hardness tester
3) Vickers hardness tester
7) Hardness values for C.S, A.S weld joints?
C.S-200 BHN Max, 225 VHN
A.S-235 BHN Max,
8) Location & No of spots in hardness testing?
As per
0, 90, 180,270, deg
Weld Metal-1 spot
Haz-2 spots, Base metal-2 spots
9) Types of mechanical test?
1) Tensile test
2) Yield test
23
3) Hardness test
4) Impact test
5) Bend test
10) What is Etching & Macro examination?

COATING & INSPECTION

INTERNATINAL STANDARDS
NACE SP0188-Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of New Protective Coatings on
Conductive Substrates

NACE RP0274-High-Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings

NACE RP0287-Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Abrasive Blast-Cleaned Steel

Surfaces Using a Replica Tape

ASTM D4541-Standard Test Method for Pull-Off Strength of Coatings Using Portable
Adhesion
Testers1
SSPC PA2 (The society of protective coating- Paint application Standard No 2)-
Measurement of DFT reading with magnetic gauges
A123-Specification for hot dip galvanizing of iron and steel products
A153- Specification for hot dip galvanizing of iron and steel hard wares
KOC-STANDARDS
KOC-P-001-Surface preparation requirements for new metal surfaces
KOC-P-004 Pt 2- External coating of pipelines Field applied Polyolephinic tape
KOC-P-004 Pt 4- External coating of pipelines Fusion bonded epoxy
KOC-P-004 Pt 8- External coating of pipelines High build epoxy
KOC-P-004 Pt 9- External coatings of pipelines High build Polyurethane coating
KOC-P-005-Painting requirements for internal coating of pipelines & vessels
1) Surface finish standard?
SA2 ½ -OFF WHITE METAL FINISH, SA 3-FULL WHITE METAL FINISH
2) Climatic requirements for Blasting & Painting?
Relative humidity-
Surface temperature-
Due point temperature-
3) What is the requirement for chloride test in ss & cs, when it is done?
Chloride content in Surface preparation
For C.S-5 mg/l max For S.S-5 mg/l max, done for Underground coatings
4) DFT requirement for A1-1, underground, internal?
A1-1-ThreeCoats Surface Profile-25-35 microns Total DFT-245
1) Primer coat- 50 micron 2) Mid coat- 125 micron 3) Final coat-70 micron

Underground-High build epoxy -Single Coat: Surface Profile -75 micron, Total DFT-
750-1500 microns
Internal coating-Phenolic Epoxy -3 Coats-Surface profile-75 micron, each coat-100
micron, Total DFT 300 micron
5) When is holiday inspection done?
For underground & internal coated pipelines & vessels
6) Testing Volt for High volt inspection, Pin hole testing?
24
As per NACE RP0287 for High volt inspection
Testing Volt (TV) =1250x√T
T-Coating thickness in microns
Pin hole testing TV=67.5v
7) Galvanizing process?
Galvanizing Process-
1) Caustic Degreasing 2)Water rinsing 3)Acid Pickling 4)Water rinsing 5)Chemical
Fluxing 6)Drying at 120 deg C 7) Galvanizing or Zinc application at 450 deg C
8)Inspection
8) Requirements for Adhesion testing?
9) What is volume of solids?

25