RFIC Design and Testing for Wireless Communications
A PragaTI (TI India Technical University) Course
July 18, 21, 22, 2008
Lecture 6: Basic Concepts
– Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range
By
Vishwani D.
D Agrawal
Fa Foster Dai
200 Broun Hall, Auburn University
Auburn, AL 36849-5201, USA
1
RFIC Design and Testing for Wireless Communications
Topics
Monday, July 21, 2008
9:00 – 10:30 Introduction – Semiconductor history, RF characteristics
11:00 – 12:30 Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range
2:00 – 3:30 RF front-end design – LNA, mixer
4:00 – 5:30 Frequency synthesizer design I (PLL)
T
Tuesday,
d July
J l 22,
22 2008
9:00 – 10:30 Frequency synthesizer design II (VCO)
11:00 – 12:30 RFIC design for wireless communications
2:00 – 3:30 Analog and mixed signal testing
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 2
Units for Microwave and RFIC Design
Peak-to peak voltage: Vpp
V pp
Root-mean-square voltage: Vrms =
2 2
Power in Watt :
V 2
V pp2
Pwatt = =
rms
R 8R
Power in dBm :
⎛ Pwatt [mW ] ⎞
PdBm = 10 log 10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1mW ⎠
On a 50Ohm load, 0dBm=1mW=224mVrms=632mVpp
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 3
Noise Figure
• In RF design, most of the front-end receiver blocks are
characterized in terms of “noise figure” rather than input
referred noise
noise.
• Noise factor F is defined as
SNRin Si N i No N o ( total ) N o ( source ) + N o ( added ) N o ( added )
F= = = = = = 1+
SNRout S o N o GN i N o ( source ) N o ( source ) N o ( source )
Noise Figure, NF = 10 log 10 F
• Noise figure measures how much the SNR degrades as the
signal passes through a system.
• For a noiseless system,
y , SNRin = SNRout,, namely,
y, F=1,,
NF=0dB, regardless of the gain. This is because both the
input signal and the input noise are amplified (or attenuated)
by the same factor and no additional noise is introduced.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 4
Thermal Noise
• Thermall noise
Th i (Johnson
(J h noise)
i ) – due
d tot random
d thermal
th l motion
ti off
electrons and is generated by resistors, base and emitter resistance
rb,rE,and rc. of bipolar devices, and channel resistance of MOSFETs.
Thermal noise is a white noise with Gaussian amplitude distribution.
• Thermal noise floor: ⎛ kT ⎞
10 log⎜ ⎟ = −174dBm / Hz at 290 K
0
⎝ 1mW ⎠
Vnb2 rb
_
Q M I n2
R +
+
2
Vn _ re
⎛2 ⎞
V 2
+
I n2 = 4kT ⎜ g m ⎟Δf
ne _ ⎝3 ⎠
V = 4kTRΔf
n
2
>2/3 for submirocn MOS
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 5
Shot Noise
• Shot noise (Schottky noise) – due to the particle-like nature of
charge carriers. Only the time-average flow of electrons and holes
appears as constant current. Any fluctuation in the number of
charge carriers produces a random noise current at that instant.
Shot noise is a Gaussian white process associated with the transfer
of charge across an energy barrier (e.g., a p-n junction). This
random process is called shot noise and is expressed in amperes
per root hertz.
Q
I n2 = 2qIΔf I n2,c
I n2,b
i bn = 2 qI B i cn = 2 qI C
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 6
Flicker noise
• Flicker noise (1/f noise) – found in all active devices. In bipolar
transistors, it is caused by traps associated with contamination and
crystal defects in the emitter-base depletion layer. These traps capture
and release carriers in a random fashion with noise energy
concentrated in low frequency. K depends on processing and may vary
by order of magnitude.
a
I
I n2 = K C Δf , a ≈ 0.5~ 2
f
• In MOSFETs, 1/f noise arises from random trapping of charge at the
oxide-silicon interfaces. Represented as a voltage source in series with
the gate, the noise spectral density is given by
K 1
V =
n
2
WLCox f
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 7
Noise Power Spectral Density
-135
Noisee Power (dBm/Hzz) -140 10dB/Dec
-145
Total Noise
-150
-155
Thermal and Flicker Noise
Shot Noise
-160
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (kHz)
The 1/f corner frequency
can be significantly higher
for MOSFET
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 8
BJT Model with Noise Sources
b vb rb Cμ
b’ c
4kT b
4kTr ibn icn
ibf rπ Cπ gmvb’e ro
2qIB 2qIC
e 1/f noise Base Collector e
Shot Noise Shot Noise
a) c b) c
vrb rb
b b’ icn b rb b’ icn
4kTrb ibn 2qI
qC ibn 2qIC
2qIB e e
collector
2qIB
base 4kT
shot noise
shot noise rb
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 9
CMOS Model with Noise Sources
CGD
vo Input-referred noise
2 8 kT
Vn =
vgs CGS gmvgs Ind
ro
3 gm
2 8 kT
2 ⎛2 ⎞ In =
I nd = 4kT ⎜ g m ⎟ 3 Zin 2 g m
⎝3 ⎠
• Gate resistance can be added to the noise model with gate resistivity ρ
1 W
RGATE = ρ
3 L
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 10
Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems
• A system is linear if for any inputs x (t) and 1
x (t), x1(t) Æ y2(t), x2(t) Æ y2(t) and for all
2
values of constants a and b, it satisfies
a x1(t)+bx2(t) Æ ay1(t)+by2(t)
• A system
t is
i nonlinear
li if it does
d nott satisfy
ti f
the superposition law.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 11
Effects of Nonlinearity
• Harmonic Distortion
• Gain Compression
• Desensitization
• Intermodulation
• For simplicity, we limit our analysis to
memoryless time invariant system.
memoryless, system Thus
Thus,
y (t ) = α1 x(t ) + α 2 x 2 (t ) + α 3 x 3 (t ) + ... (3.1)
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 12
Effects of Nonlinearity -- Harmonics
If a single tone signal is applied to a nonlinear system, the
output generally exhibits fundamental and harmonic
frequencies with respect to the input frequency. In Eq. (3.1), if
x(t) = Acosωt, then
y (t ) = α 1 A cos ωt + α 2 A 2 cos 2 ωt + α 3 A3 cos 3 ωt
α 2 A2 α 3 A3
= α 1 A cos ωt + (1 + cos 2ωt ) + (3 cos ωt + cos 3ωt )
2 4
α 2 A2 3α 3 A3 α 2 A2 α 3 A3
= + (α 1 A + ) cos ωt + cos 2ωt + cos 3ωt
2 4 2 4
Observations:
1. even order harmonics result from αj with even j and vanish if the system
has odd symmetry, i.e., differential circuits.
2. For large A, the nth harmonic grows approximately in proportion to An.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 13
Effects of Nonlinearity -- Gain Compression
α 2 A2 3α 3 A 3 α 2 A2 α 3 A3
y (t ) = + (α 1 A + ) cos ωt + cos 2ωt + cos 3ωt (3.2)
2 4 2 4
• Under small-signal
g assumption, the system y is
normally linear and harmonics are negligible. Thus,
α1A dominates Æ small-signal gain = α1.
• For large signal
signal, nonlinearity becomes evident
evident.
large-signal gain = α 1 + 3α 3 A3 / 4 . The gain varies
when input level changes.
• If α3 < 0, the output is a “compressive” or
“saturating” function of the input Æ the gain is
compressed when A increases
increases.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 14
Output of Bipolar Differential Pair
⎛ −V ⎞
tanh ( x ) = x − x 3 + x 5 −
1 2 7 7 Vod
x +K = α F I EE RC tanh⎜⎜ id ⎟⎟
3 15 315 Vid ⎝ 2VT ⎠
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 15
ut Voltage (dBV) Effects of Nonlinearity – 1dB Compression Point
α 1 A1−dB
20 log = 1dB
3
α 1 A1− dB + α 3 A1− dB
3
4
1dB
α1 α1
dB =
A1−dB 0.145 = 0.3808
α3 α3
Outpu
2
A1− dB 20logAin
V pp / 8
dB = 10 log
dBm l
50Ω × 1mW
• 1-dB compression point is defined as the input signal level that causes
small-signal
small signal gain to drop 1 dB
dB. It’s
It s a measure of the maximum input
range.
•1-dB compression point occurs around -20 to -25 dBm (63.2 to
35 6 V iin a 50
35.6mVpp 50-Ω
Ω system)
t ) in
i typical
t i l frond-end
f d d RF amplifiers.
lifi
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 16
Effects of Nonlinearity – Desensitization (Blocking)
• Desensitization -- small signal experiences a vanishingly small gain when co-
exists with a large signal, even if the small signal itself does not drive the
system into nonlinear range.
A l i two-tone
Applying t t t x(t) = A1cosω1t+ A2cosω2t to
iinputs t Eq.(3.1),
E (3 1) we h
have
⎛ 3 3 ⎞ gain of
y (t ) = ⎜ α 1 A1 + α 3 A1 + α 3 A1 A22 ⎟ cos ω1t + L ,
3
desired
⎝ 4 2 ⎠
signal
⎛ 3 ⎞
For A1<< A2, it reduces to y (t ) = ⎜ α 1 + α 3 A22 ⎟ A1 cos ω1t + L ,
⎝ 2 ⎠
Observations:
• Weak signal
signal’s
s gain decreases as a function of A2 if α3 < 0. For sufficiently large
A2, the gain drops to zero Æ the weak signal is “blocked” by the strong signal.
(Why cannot we see stars during day?)
• Many RF receivers must be able to withstand blocking signals 60 to 70 dB
greater
t th
than the
th wantedt d signals.
i l
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 17
Effects of Nonlinearity – Intermodulation
• Harmonic distortion is due to self-mixing of a single-
t
tone signal.
i l It can be
b suppressed dbby llow-pass filtering
filt i
the higher order harmonics.
• However,
However there is another type of nonlinearity --
intermodulation (IM) distortion, which is normally
determined by a “two tone test”.
• When two signals with different frequencies applied to
a nonlinear system, the output in general exhibits some
components that are not harmonics of the input
frequencies. This phenomenon arises from cross-
mixing (multiplication) of the two signals
signals.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 18
Effects of Nonlinearity – Intermodulation
x(t ) = A1 cos ω1t + A2 cos ω 2
1
y (t ) = α 2 ( A1 + A2 ) +
2 2
DC Term
2
⎡ 3 2 ⎤
α A + α
⎢ 1 1 4 3 1 1A ( A 2
+ 2 A2 ) ⎥ cos ω1t +
⎣ ⎦ 1st Order
⎡ 3 2 ⎤ Terms
α A +
⎢ 1 2 4 3 2 α A ( 2 A1
2
+ A 2 ) ⎥ cos ω 2 t +
⎣ ⎦
1
2
[
α 2 A12 cos 2ω1t + A2 2 cos 2ω 2 t + ] 2nd Order
α 2 A1 A2 [cos(ω1 + ω 2 )t + cos(ω1 − ω 2 )t ] + Terms
1
4
[ ]
α 3 A13 cos 3ω1t + A2 3 cos 3ω 2 t +
3rd Order
3 ⎧⎪ A1 A2 [cos(2ω1 + ω 2 )t + cos(2ω1 − ω 2 )t ] + ⎫⎪
2
α3 ⎨ ⎬ terms
4 ⎪⎩ A1 A2 2 [cos(2ω 2 + ω1 )t + cos(2ω 2 − ω1 )t ] ⎪⎭
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 19
Intermodulation – Why do we care about IM3 mostly?
In wireless communication system such as cellular handsets with narrow-band
operating frequencies (i.e., a few tens of MHz), only the IM3 spurious signals
(2w1 - w2) and (2w2 - w1) fall within the filter passband.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 20
Intermodulation -- Third Order Intercept Point (IP3)
• Two-tone test: A1=A2=A and A is sufficiently small so that higher-
order nonlinear terms are negligible and the gain is relatively
constant and equal to α1.
• As A increases, the fundamentals increases in proportion to A,
whereas IM3 products increases in proportion to A³.
9 4 α1
x(t ) = A cos ω1t + A cos ω 2 α 1 >> α 3 A 2 → IIP3 = and OIP3 = α 1 IIP3
4 3 α3
y (t ) = α 2 A 2 +
A1dB 0.145
⎡ 9 ⎤ ⎡ 9 ⎤ = ≈ −9.6dB
A⎢α 1 + α 3 A 2 ⎥ cos ω1t + A⎢α 1 + α 3 A 2 ⎥ cos ω 2 t + AIP 3 4/3
⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦
α 2 A 2 [cos 2ω1t + cos 2ω 2 t ] + α 2 A 2 [cos(ω1 + ω 2 )t + cos(ω1 − ω 2 )t ] +
1
2
3⎧
[cos(2ω1 + ω 2 )t + cos(2ω1 − ω 2 )t ] + ⎫
α 3 A [cos 3ω1t + cos 3ω 2 t ] + α 3 A ⎨
1 3 3
⎬
4 4 ⎩[cos( 2ω1 + ω 2 )t + cos( 2ω1 − ω 2 )t ] ⎭
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 21
Intermodulation – IP2 vs. IP3
A1=A2=A α1
IP2 2 Order IM Product: IP 2
ND A =
40 α2
Fundamental
α1 A α1 A
20
0 α 2 A2 α 2 A2
20
-20 Freq
IP3
-40 1 ω1 − ω 2 ω1 ω2 ω1 + ω 2
1 1
-60 3RD Order IM Product 4 α1
3rdOrder IM AIP 3 =
-80
3 Product α1 A α1 A 3 α3
1
-100 2nd Order
IM Product
ΔP
2 3
α 3 A3 3
α3 A3
-120 IIP3 4 4
-60 -40 0
-20 0 20 40 Freq
2ω1 − ω 2 ω1 ω2 2ω2 − ω1
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 22
Calculate IIP3 without Extrapolation
A
α1 A α1 A
1
ΔP
3
α 3 A3 3
α3 A3 P
4 4
3 A3
Freq 20logAin
2ω1 − ω 2 ω1 ω2 2ω2 − ω1
i
P/2
ΔP[dB ]
IIP3 [dBm] = + Pin [dBm]
2
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 23
Relationship Between 1-dB Compression and IP3
1-dB compression point with single tone applied:
α AIP 3
AIP 3 =
4 α1
A1−dB = 0.145 1 = 3.04 = 9.66dB
3 α3 α3 A1dB
1-dB compression point with two tones applied:
α1
2
AIP 3 3α 3
= = 5.25 = 14.4dB
A1dB α
0.22 1
α3
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 24
Determine IIP3 and 1-dB Compression Point from Measurement
• An amplifier operates at 2 GHz with a gain of 10dB. Two-tone test with equal power
applied at the input, one is at 2.01 GHz. At the output, four tones are observed at 1.99,
2.0, 2.01, and 2.02GHz. The power levels of the tones are -70,-20,-20, and -70dBm.
Determine the IIP3 and 1-dB compression point for this amplifier.
• Solution: 1.99 and 2.02 GHz are the IP3 tones.
IIP 3 = (P1 − G ) +
1
[P1 − P3 ] = −20 − 10 + 1 [− 20 + 70] = −5dBm
2 2
P1dB = −5 − 9.66 = −14.66dBm
dB
20 log( 1 A)
OIP3
P
3
20 log 3 A3
4
20logAin
IIP3
ΔP[ dB ]
IIP3 [ dBm] = + Pin [dBm] P/2
2
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 25
Intermodulation of Cascade Nonlinear Stages
y1 (t ) = α 1 x(t ) + α 2 x 2 (t ) + α 3 x 3 (t ) + ...
y 2 (t ) = β1 y1 (t ) + β 2 y1 (t ) + β 3 y1 (t ) + ...
2 3
x(t ) y1 ((tt ) y 2 ((tt )
AIP 3,1 AIP 3, 2 AIP 3,3
Linearity is more important for back-end stages.
1 1 α 12 α 12 β12
2
≈ 2 + 2 + 2 +K
AIP 3 AIP 3,1 AIP 3, 2 AIP 3,3
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 26
Noise Figure of Cascade Stages
−1 −1 −1
NF = 1
tot
+ ( NF − 1
1
) + NF 2
+ NF + ..... +
3 NF m
G p1 G G
p1 p1 G G G p1 p 2..... p ( m −1)
NFtot – total equivalent Noise Figure
NFm – Noise Figure of mth stage
Gpm – Available
A il bl power gain
i off mth stage
t
Noise figure is more important for front-end stages.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 27
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity -- defined as the minimum signal level that the
system can detect with acceptable SNR.
SNRin Psig / PRS
NF = =
SNROUT SNROUT
• The overall signal power is distributed across the channel
bandwidth, B, integrating over the bandwidth to obtain total
mean square power
Psig ,tot = PRS • NF • SNROUT • B
Pin ,min dBm
= PRS dBm / Hz
+ NF dB + SNRmin dB
+ 10 log B
where
here PRS is the so
source
rce resistance noise po
power.
er
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 28
Maximum Input Power
20 log( A)
Pout − PIM ,out
1
OIP3
PIIP 3 = Pin +
2
Pin − PIM ,in 3Pin − PIM ,in
P
3 = Pin + =
20 log 3 A 3
2 2
4
20logAin 2 PIIP 3 + PIM ,in
IIP3 Pin =
P/2
3
where PIM,out denotes output-referred power of IM3 products, Pout=Pin+G,
PIM,OUT= PIM,in+G. The input level for which the IM products become equal to
the noise floor F is thus given by
2 PIIP 3 + F 2 PIIP 3 − 174dBm + NF + 10 log B
Pin = =
3 3
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 29
Dynamic Range
• Dynamic Range (DR) -- defined as the ratio of the maximum to
minimum input levels that the circuit provides a reasonable
signal quality.
• Spurious Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) -- determine the upper
Spurious-Free
end of dynamic range on the intermodulation behavior and the
lower end on sensitivity.
• Thee uppe
upper end
e d of
o the
t e dynamic
dy a c range
a ge iss de
defined
ed as tthe
e
maximum input power in a two tone test for which the 3rd IM
products do not exceed the noise floor F=-174dBm+NF+10logB.
• The SFDR is thus given by
⎛ 2P + F ⎞ 2( PIIP 3 − F )
SFDR = Pin , max − Pin , mim = ⎜ IIP 3 ⎟ − ( F + SNRmin ) = − SNRmin
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
• Example: NF=9dB, PIIP3=-15dBm, B=100kHz, SNRmin=12dB Æ
SFDR=(-15-(-174+9+50))/1.5-12=54.7dB.
Basic Concepts – Linearity, noise figure, dynamic range, FDAI, 2008 Page 30
