AUS B1-1D Bt.

D7a42bS OODlblS

ANSI/A WSB1.10-86
An American National Standard

Guide for the

Nondestructive Inspection
of Welds
\T'$'
VT+RT

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

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K e y Words—-Guide, Eddy Current Inspection, Magnetic ANSI/AWS B1.10-86

Particle Inspection, Nondestructive Inspection, Penctrant In- An American National Standard
spection, Radiographic Inspection, Ultrasonic Inspection,
Visual Inspection, Weld Discontinuities.
Approved by
American National Standards Institute
February 20, 1985

Guide for the

Nondestructive Inspection
of Welds
Second Edition

Superseding AWS B 1.0-77

Prepared by
AWS Committee on Methods of Inspection
Under the Direction of
AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by
AWS Board of Directors, October 22, 1984

Abstract
This Guide acquaints the reader with the common nondestructive inspection (NDT) methods available, and aids
in selecting the method best suited for inspection of a given weld. The inspection methods included are Visual, Penetrant,
Magnetic Particle, Radiography, Ultrasonic, and Eddy Current Inspection.

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135

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Policy Statement on Use of AWS Standards

All American Welding Society standards (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, etc.) are voluntary
consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the American National Standards Institute's rules
for development and approval of American National Standards. When AWS standards are either incorporated in, or
made part of documents that are incorporated in federal, state, or other governmental bodies' laws or regulations, their
provisions carry the full legal authority of the statute. In such cases, changes to AWS standards must be approved
by the governmental body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become part of law and regulations. In all other
cases, these standards carry the full legal authority of the contract or other invoking document that implements the
use of AWS standards. Where this contractual situation prevails, changes or deviations to specific requirements in an
AWS standard must be by agreement between the contracting parties and, where applicable, any governmental agencies
involved.

International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-259-8

American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135

® 1985 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America
89 88 87 86 85 5 4 3 2 1

Note: By publication, of this standard, the American Welding Society does not insure anyone utilizing the standard
against liability arising from the use of such standard. A publication of a standard by the American Welding Society
does not carry with it any right to make, use, or sell any patented items. Each prospective user should make an indepen-
dent investigation.

This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee. It must be reviewed every five
years and if not revised, it must be either reapproved or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations, additions, or dele-
tions) and any pertinent data that may be of use in improving this standard are requested and should be addressed to
AWS Headquarters, Such comments will receive careful consideration by the responsible technical committee, and
you will be informed of the committee's response. Guests are invited to attend all meetings of AWS technical commit-
tees to express their comments verbally. Procedure for appeal of an adverse decision concerning your comments are
provided in the Rules of Operation for AWS Technical Committees. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from the
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135.

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Contents

Personnel v
Foreword vii
List of Tables , ix
List of Figures xi

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Limitation of the Inspection Method 1
1.2 Acceptance Standards 1
1.3 Cost 1

2. Discontinuities 1
2.1 Discussion of Discontinuities 1
2.2 List of Discontinuities 2
2.3 Porosity 2
2.4 Inclusions 2
2.5 Incomplete Fusion , 12
2.6 Incomplete Joint Penetration 12
2.7 Undercut 13
2.8 Underfill 13
2.9 Overlap 13
2.10 Laminations ..,,,,,., 14
2.11 Delamination .-. 14
2.12 Seams and Laps 14
2.J3 Lamellar Tears 14
2.14 Cracks 14
2.15 Insufficient Throat 15
2.16 Convexity and Weld Reinforcement 15
2.17 Insufficient Leg 15

3. Nondestructive Inspection Methods 15

3.1 Visual Inspection 15
3.2 Penetrant Inspection 16
3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection , 16
3.4 Radiographic Inspection. , 18
3.5 Ultrasonic Inspection 21
3.6 Eddy Current Inspection , 25

4. Interrelationships Among Welding Processes,

Discontinuities, and Inspection Methods 26

5. Supplementary Reading Material , , 26

Appendices
A. NDI Selection Guides 29
B. NDI Symbols and Abbreviations 31
Hi

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Personnel
AWS Committee on Methods of Inspection
L. A, Laime, Chairman Northeast Utilities
R. L. Holden, Vice Chairman Welding Consultants, Incorporated
S. J. Walmsley, Vice Chairman Westinghouse Electric Corporation
F. X. Neary, Secretary American Welding Society
W. G. Alexander* New York State Department of
Transportation
W. Borges* Defense Logistic Agency
C. R. Brashears* Alaska Welding Center
L. L. Bright* AE International
L. A. Colarossi* Consultant
E. L. Criscuolo* Consultant
P. E. Deeds, Jr. * Ebasco Services
P. A. Grimm United McGill Corporation
C. J. Hellier* Bestco
D. L. Isenhour** Newport News Shipbuilding
C. E. Lautzenheiser* Southwest Research Institute
W. C. Minton* Southwest Research Institute
W. W. Offher* Consultant
T. L. Payne Bestco
H. Walls, Jr. Cleveland Electric Illuminating
Company
J. L. Wilk Coast to Coast Construction Company
G. J. Wolf Bethlehem Steel Corporation

^Advisory Members
**Chairman—June 1981 to June 1984

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Foreword

The Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds was first prepared by the AWS Committee on Methods
of Inspection in 1977. This most recent edition updates a source of basic information on nondestructive inspec-
tion (NDT) methods. It acquaints the reader with common NDT methods available and aids in selecting the
method best suited for inspection of a given weld, namely: visual, penetrants, magnetic particle, radiography,
ultrasonic and eddy current.
The purpose of this guide is to give the reader an overview of the more common inspection methods available
without unnecessary detail and to provide an aid in deciding which inspection method is generally best suited
for the inspection of a given weld. The words evaluation, examination, inspection, and testing are considered
synonymous when describing various nondestructive methods.
Included in this guide is a fundamental introduction to weld and weld related discontinuities; an introduction
to the more commonly used NDI methods with discussions on their capabilities (including limitations); and
a "wrap-up" on the "Interrelationships among Welding Processes, Discontinuities, and Inspection Methods."
The guide also contains a useful appendix with brief summaries of typical considerations generally used in
selecting an NDI method for Weld Inspection.
This guide has been prepared by the AWS Committee on Methods of Inspection to serve as a simple, but
reliable, source of information. It is not intended that this document provide complete and comprehensive coverage
of the subject. There are many reference manuals available. For more comprehensive coverage of welding inspector
activities, this guide should be used in conjunction with the AWS book Welding Inspection. Welding Inspection
provides a more thorough description of the duties and responsibilities of welding inspectors, the techniques
and characteristics of the usual nondestructive inspection methods, and the major aspects of sampling and
documentation required for an adequate quality control system. For more detailed information on the subject
of inspection, also refer to the documents suggested in Section 5, Supplementary Reading Material.
Comments and suggestions regarding the Guide will be welcome. These comments should be sent to the
Secretary, AWS Committee on Methods of Inspection, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Road,
P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135.

vn

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List of Tables

Table 1 — Common types of discontinuities 3

Table 2 — Discontinuities commonly encountered

with welding processes 13

Table 3 — Applicable inspection methods vs.

discontinuities 28

Table 4 — Applicable inspection methods — four

weld joint types 28

IX

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List of Figures
Fig. 1 — Double V-groove weld in butt
joint , 4
Fig. 2 — Single bevel groove-and fillet
welds in corner joint.... .-. 5
Fig. 3 — Double bevel groove weld in
T-joint 6
Fig. 4 — Double fillet weld in lap joint ..: 7
Fig. 5 — Single pass double fillet weld
in a T-joint 8
Fig. 6 — Single bevel groove weld in
butt joint 9
Fig. 7 — Fillet weld terminology , 10
Fig. 8 — Fillet weld discontinuities. 11
Fig. 9 — Groove weld terminology , 11
Fig. 10 — Groove weld discontinuities 12
Fig. 11 — Magnetic field leakage 17
Fig. 12 — Direct magnetization
using dc prods , 17
Fig. 13 — Indirect magnetization
using a yoke . 17
Fig. 14 — Making a radiograph 19
Fig. 15 — Typical radiographs of weld
discontinuities 20
Fig. 16 — Detection of planar defects
at various orientations by radiography ,... 21
Fig. 17 — Block diagram, pulse-echo
flaw detector 21
Fig. 18 — Similarities between reflections
of light and sound at boundaries 22
Fig. 19 — Refraction 22
Fig. 20 — Diffraction 22
Fig. 21 — Example of longitudinal testing 23
Fig. 22 — No discontinuities 23
Fig. 23 ~- Discontinuity 24
Fig. 24 — Incomplete fusion of
backing bar 24
Fig. 25 — Eddy current weld
inspection , , 25
Fig. 26— Encircling coil for the
eddy current inspection of welded pipe , , 26
Fig. 27 — Typical Eddy Current
surface coils for the inspection of welds -.. , 27
Fig. Bl — Standard location of elements... , 31

XI

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Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds

1. Introduction 1.2 Acceptance Standards. The statement "the weld shall

be radiographically inspected" has no meaning unless
Nondestructive Inspection (NDT) is a general term used acceptance standards are stated. Acceptance standards
in this text to identify the major inspection methods that define different types of characteristics of discontinuities
permit evaluation of welds and related materials without and whether particular types of discontinuities are
destroying their usefulness. permissible. If a particular type of discontinuity is
The terminology used in this guide has been established permissible, then the acceptance standards must specify
in AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions. the maximum size at which that discontinuity is accepta-
Accordingly, a discontinuity is defined as "an interrup- ble. Acceptance standards are an integral part of most
tion of the typical structure of a weldment, such as a lack codes and specifications listed in Section 5 and are com-
of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or phys- monly used as references in purchase specifications.
ical characteristics of the material or weldment." A dis-
continuity is established as a defect by a specification that 1.3 Cost. Different inspection methods have different costs
states the sizes and types of discontinuities that are rejec- in any particular stituation. Two basic cost factors which
table. For the purpose of this guide, reference will be made should be considered in the selection of a nondestructive
to detection of discontinuities without regard to the dis- inspection method are the initial equipment availability cost
tinction between acceptance or rejection. and the cost of performing the inspection. Visual inspec-
There are three principal parameters to be considered tion is almost always the least expensive, but it is also
when choosing an inspection method (1) advantages and limited to the detection of surface discontinuities. In
limitations of the inspection method, (2) acceptance general, costs of radiographic, ultrasonic, and eddy cur-
standards, and (3) cost. rent inspections are greater than those of visual, magnetic
particle, and liquid penetrant inspections.
1.1 Limitations of the Inspection Method. The advan- Selection of the proper inspection method can be quite
tages and limitations of the inspection method can be used complex. To meet the intended purpose and minimize cost,
to determine which method(s) will provide the best results it is suggested that help be obtained from a qualified non-
for a particular test. For example, radiography can detect destructive testing engineer or technician.
cracks whose major planes are aligned parallel with the
radiation beam; such cracks are usually normal to the plate
surfaces. Radiography, however, usually cannot detect 2. Discontinuties
laminations in plate or cracks oriented parallel to the plate
surface. On the other hand, ultrasonics can more readily 2.1 Discussion of Discontinuities. This guide is concerned
detect cracks oriented in either direction provided the only with discontinuities, which may be classed as defects
proper scanning technique is used. (rejectable) depending upon particular specifications or

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2/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

codes. Discontinuities are rejectable only if they exceed Unless porosity is excessive1, it is not as critical a dis-
specification requirements in terms of type, size, distri- continuity as sharp discontinuities that cause stress con-
bution, or location. centrations. Excessive porosity is a sign that the welding
Discontinuities may be found in weld metal, heat- parameters, welding consumables, or joint fit-up are not
affected zones, and base metal of weldments made in the being properly controlled for the welding process selected
four basic weld joints considered in this guide— butt, T, or that the base metal is contaminated or of a composi-
corner, and lap joints. The following section presents a tion incompatible with the weld filler metal being used.
fairly comprehensive list of discontinuities which may be Porosity is not caused exclusively by hydrogen, but the
encountered in the fabrication of metals by welding. The presence of porosity does indicate that there is a possibil-
list is limited to those discontinuities that are of general ity of hydrogen in the weld and heat-affected zones that
interest to owners, designers, and fabricators. When may lead to cracking in ferrous materials.
specific discontinuities are located in the weld metal, heat- 2.3.1 Uniformly Scattered Porosity (la) is porosity
affected zone, weld interface, or base metal, the abbrevi- uniformly distributed throughout the weld metal. When
ations WM, HAZ, BM/WM, and BM, respectively, are excessive1 uniformly scattered porosity is encountered, the
used to indicate the location. cause is generally faulty welding techniques or materials.
The joint preparation technique or materials used may
2.2 List of Discontinuities. The most common types of result in conditions that may cause porosity.
discontinuities in butt, T, corner, and lap joints are listed If a weld cools slowly enough to allow most of the gas
in Table 1 and depicted in Figs. 1 through 10. Where the to pass to the surface before weld solidification, there will
list indicates that the discontinuity is generally located in be few pores in the weld.
the weld, it may be expected to appear in almost any type 2.3.2 Cluster Porosity (lb) is a localized grouping of
of weld. Tungsten inclusions are an exception. Tungsten pores. It often results from improper initiation or termi-
inclusions are found only in welds made by the gas tung- nation of the welding arc.
sten arc process. 2.3.3 Linear Porosity (lc) is a series of pores which
Weld and base metal discontinuities of specific types are aligned. It often occurs along a weld interface, the
are more common when certain welding processes and interface of weld beads, or near the weld root and is caused
joint details are used, e.g. see Table 2. High restraint and by contamination that leads to gas evolution at those
limited access to portions of a weld joint may lead to a locations.
higher than normal incidence of weld and base metal 2.3/4 Piping Porosity (Id) is an elongated gas pore.
discontinuities. Piping porosity in fillet welds extends from the weld root
Each general type of discontinuity is discussed in detail toward the weld surface. When one or two pores are seen
in this section. AWS Dl.l, Structural Welding Code-Steel, in the weld surface, careful excavation may also reveal
uses the term fusion-type discontinuity as all-encompassing subsurface porosity. Much of the piping porosity found
to describe slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, incomplete in welds does not extend all the way to the surface. Piping
joint penetration, and similar generally elongated discon- porosity in electroslag welds can become very long; e.g.,
tinuities in fusion welds. Many codes and specifications 20 in. (508.0 mm).
consider fusion-type discontinuities less critical than 2.4 Inclusions (2)
cracks. However, some codes and specifications specifi- 2.4.1 Slag Inclusions (2a) are nonmetallic solid
cally prohibit not only cracks but also any incomplete materials entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal
fusion or incomplete joint penetration. Spherical discon- and base metal. They can be found in welds made by many
tinuities (almost always gas pores) can occur anywhere arc welding processes. In general, slag inclusions result
within the weld. Elongated discontinuities may be encoun- from faulty welding techniques, the failure of designer to
tered in any orientation. Specific joint types, welding provide proper access for welding the joint, or improper
procedures, and restraint conditions have an effect on the cleaning of the weld between passes. Normally, molten
type, location, and incidence of discontinuities. Examples slag will flow to the top of the weld. Sharp notches in the
of these factors as controlling conditions are described in weld interface or between passes often cause slag to be
the text in the following sections. entrapped under the molten weld metal.
2.4.2 Tungsten Inclusions (2b) are tungsten particles
2.3 Porosity (1)*. The porosity discussed in this guide is
trapped in weld metal and are peculiar to the gas tungsten
the result of gas being entrapped in solidifying metal. The
arc welding process. In this process, a nonconsumable
discontinuity formed is generally spherical but may be
elongated. When there are gas pores in ingots that are *The numbers in parentheses in sections 2.3-2,17 refer to numbers
reduced to wrought products, some of these gas pores may in Table 1 and Figs. 1-7.
appear as laminations in the finished product. 1. For the weld's intended use.

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Discontinuities/3

Table 1
Common types of discontinuities
Type of Discontinuity Section Location* Remarks

1 Porosity 2.3 WM Porosity is also commonly found in the heat-

affected zone if base metal is a casting.
(a) Uniformly scattered 2.3.1
(b) Cluster 2.3.2
(c) Linear 2.3.3
(d) Piping 2.3.4
2 Inclusions 2.4 WM
(a) Slag 2.4.1
(b) Tungsten 2.4.2
3 Incomplete fusion 2.5 WM, BMAVM Also between passes.
4 Incomplete joint penetration 2.6 BM Weld root.
5 Undercut 2.7 BMAVM Adjacent to weld toe or weld root in base metal.
6 Underfill 2.8 WM Weld face or root surface.
7 Overlap 2.9 BM/WM Weld toe or root surface.
8 Laminations 2.10 BM Base metal, generally near midthickness of section.
9 Delamination 2.11 BM Base metal, generally near midthickness of section.
10 Seam and laps 2.12 Base metal surface almost always aligned with
rolling direction.
11 Lamellar tears 2.13 BM Base metal, near HAZ.
12 Cracks (includes hot cracks and 2.14
cold cracks described in text) 2.14.1
(a) Longitudinal 2.14.2,2. 14.3 WM, HAZ Weld metal or base metal adjacent to weld interface.
(b) Transverse 2.14.2,2.14.4 WM, HAZ, Weld metal (may propagate into HAZ and base
BM metal).
(c) Crater 2.14.5 WM Weld metal at point where arc is terminated.
(d) Throat 2.14.6 WM Parallel to weld axis.
(e) Toe 2.14.7 BM/WM
(f) Root 2.14.8 WM Root surface.
(g) Underbead and heat-affected
zone 2.14.9 BMAVM
13 Insufficient throat 2.15 WM Weld face.
14 Convexity or weld reinforcement 2.16 WM Weld fece.
15 Insufficient leg 2.17 WM Fillet weld.
*WM—weld metal
BM—base metal
HAZ—heat affected zone
BMAVM—weld interface

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4/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

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Discontinuities/5

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6/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

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 AldS.Bl.lQ 6b 07542^5 QD01b51

Discontinuities/7

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8/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

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 AldS B1.10 fib 0001^31 7

Discontinuities/9

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10/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

Convexity ( 1 4
Actual throat >—s
Leg and size

13 ) Effective throat

Theoretical throat-

(A)

Concavity

Actual throat arid

effective throat

Theoretical throat-

Numbers in circles refer to Table 1

(B)

Fig. 7—Fillet weld terminology

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Discontinuities/11

Numbers in circles refer to Table 1

Incomplete fusion
©

Fig. 8—Fillet weld discontinuities

Face Weld face

reinforcement

Root
reinforcement
Weld toe
Root surface
(A) Weld root
Groove weld made (B)
before welding other side
Face Groove weld made
reinforcement after welding other side

Face
reinforcement Weld root

Backing weld Weld root

Back weld

Fig. 9—Groove weld terminology

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12/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

rVi

Undercut
0 Underm
f 6
()
0 Undercut
© Underfill-

0 Overlap

Overlap
0

Numbers in circles refer to Table 1

V Incomplete fusion ( 3

Fig. 10—Groove weld discontinuities

tungsten electrode is used to establish a welding arc 2.6 Incomplete joint penetration (4) occurs when weld
between the electrode and the weld or base metal. If the metal fails to penetrate the joint. The unpenetrated and
tungsten electrode is dipped into the molten metal, or if unfused area is a discontinuity described as incomplete
the current is set too high so as to deposit tungsten droplets, penetration. Incomplete penetration may result from
tungsten inclusions will result. Tungsten inclusions appear insufficient welding heat, improper joint design (e.g., too
as light marks or areas on radiographs because tungsten much thickness for the welding arc to penetrate), or
is more dense than steel or aluminum and absorbs more improper lateral control of the welding arc. Some weld-
of the radiation. Almost all other weld discontinuities show ing processes have much greater penetrating ability than
as dark areas on radiographs. others. For joints welded from both sides, back gouging
may be specified before welding the other side to ensure
that there is no incomplete penetration. Pipe welds are
2.5 Incomplete fusion (3) is the result of improper weld- especially vulnerable to this type of discontinuity, since
ing techniques, improper preparation of base metal, or the inside of the pipe is usually inaccessible. Designers
improper joint design. Deficiencies causing incomplete often employ a backing bar or consumable inserts to aid
fusion include insufficient welding heat or lack of access welders in such cases. Welds which are required to have
to all fusion faces, or both. Tightly adhering oxides will complete penetration are commonly inspected by some
interfere with complete fusion, even when there is proper nondestructive method. This is especially true in bridges,
access for welding and proper welding heats are used. pipe lines, pressure vessels, and nuclear applications.

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Discontinuities/13

Table 2
Discontinuities commonly encountered with welding processes
Welding Process Type of Discontinuity
Incomplete Incomplete
Arc Porosity Slag Fusion Penetration Undercut Overlap Cracks

X XXX
SW—Stud welding X X
PAW—Plasma arc welding X X

XXX
SAW—Submerged arc welding X X X X X
GTAW—Gas arc tungsten welding X X
GMAW—Gas metal arc welding X X X X X X X
FCAW—Flux cored arc welding X X X X X X X
SMAW—Shielded metal arc welding X X X X X X X
CAW—Carbon arc welding X X X X X X X

Resistance

XXX
RSW—Resistance spot welding

XXX
RSEW—Resistance seam welding
PW—Projection welding
FW—Flash welding X X
UW—Upset welding X X

Oxyfuel Gas
OAW— Oxyacetylene welding X X X X X
OHW—Oxyhydrogen welding X X X X
PGW—Pressure gas welding X X X
Solid state*
CW—Cold welding X X
DFW— Diffusion welding X X
EXW—Explosion welding x
FOW—Forge welding X
FRW—Friction welding X
USW—Ultrasonic welding X

Other
EBW—Electron beam welding X X
XXX XXX

XXX XXX
ESW—Electroslag welding X X X X X
IW—Induction welding
LBW—Laser beam welding X
PEW—Percussion welding
TW—Thermit welding X X
*Solid State is not a fusion process, so incomplete joining is incomplete welding rather than incomplete fusion.

2.7 Undercut (5) is generally associated with either metal. It results from the failure of the welder to com-
improper welding techniques or excessive welding cur- pletely fill the weld joint as called for in the welding
rents, or both. Undercut is a groove melted into the base procedure.
metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left unfilled
by weld metal. This groove creates a mechanical notch 23 Overlap (7) is the protrusion of weld metal beyond
which is a stress concentrator. When undercut is controlled the weld toe or weld root. It can occur as a result of lack
within the limits of specifications and does not constitute of control of the welding process, improper selection of
a sharp or deep notch, it is not considered a weld defect. welding materials, or improper preparation of base metal.
If there are tightly adhering oxides on the base metal that
interfere with fusion, overlap will often result.
2.8 Underfill (6) is a depression on the weld face or root Overlap is a surface discontinuity that forms a mechan-
surface extending below the adjacent surface of the base ical notch, and is nearly always considered rejectable.

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14/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

2.10 Laminations (8) are flat, generally elongated base mechanical notches associated with the weldment design.
metal discontinuities found in the central thickness area High residual stresses are generally present and hydrogen
of wrought products. Laminations may be completely embrittlement is often a contributor to crack formation.
internal and only detected nondestructively by ultrasonic Welding related cracks are generally brittle in nature,
inspections. They may also extend to an edge or end, exhibiting little plastic deformation at the crack boundaries.
where they are visible at the surface and may be detected 2.14.1 Cracks can be classified as either hot cracks or
by liquid penetrant or magnetic particle examination. They cold cracks. Hot cracks develop during solidification. Cold
may be found when cutting or machining exposes inter- cracks develop after solidification is complete. Cold
nal laminations. Laminations are formed when gas voids, cracks, sometimes called delayed cracking, are commonly
shrinkage cavities, or nonmetallic inclusions in the origi- associated with hydrogen embrittlement. Hot cracks prop-
nal ingot are rolled flat. They generally run parallel to the agate-between the grains. Cold cracks propagate both
surface of rolled products and are most commonly found between grains and through grains.
in shapes and plates. Some laminations are eliminated by
the high temperature and pressure of the rolling operation. 2.14.2 Crack orientation. Cracks may be termed lon-
Metals containing laminations often cannot be relied gitudinal (12a) or transverse (12b), depending on their
upon to carry tensile stress in the through-thickness orientation. When a crack is parallel to the axis of the weld
direction. it is called a longitudinal crack regardless of whether it
is a centerline crack in weld metal or a toe crack in the
2.11 Delamination (9) is the separation of a lamination heat-affected zone of the base metal. Transverse cracks
under stress. The stresses may be generated by welding are perpendicular to the axis of the weld. These may be
or may be externally applied. The separation of existing limited in size and contained completely within the weld
lamellar discontinuities may be found visually at the edges metal or they may propagate from the weld metal into the
of pieces, or ultrasonically by testing with a straight beam adjacent heat-affected zone and into the base metal. In
search unit. A delamination discontinuity, like laminations, some weldments, transverse cracks will form in the heat-
cannot transmit tensile loads perpendicular to the plane affected zone and not in the weld.
of delamination. 2.14.3 Longitudinal cracks (12a) in submerged arc
welds are commonly associated with high welding speeds
2.12 Seams and laps (10) are longitudinal base metal dis- and sometimes related to porosity problems that do not
continuities that may be found in wrought products. When show at the surface of the weld. Longitudinal cracks in
the discontinuity is parallel to the principal stress, it is small welds between heavy sections are often the result
not generally a critical defect. When seams and laps are of high cooling rates and high restraint.
perpendicular to the applied or residual stresses, they will 2.144 Transverse cracks (12b) are generally the result
often propagate as cracks. Seams and laps are surface con- of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of
nected discontinuities. However, their presence may be low ductility.
masked by manufacturing processes that have subsequently 2.14.5 Crater cracks (12c) occur in the crater when the
modified the surface of the mill product. Welding over welding arc is improperly terminated. They are sometimes
seams and laps can cause cracking. referred to as star cracks, though they may have other
shapes. Crater cracks are shallow, hot cracks usually form-
2.13 Lamellar tears (11) are terrace-like fractures in the ing a pronged star-like network.
base metal with a basic orientation parallel to the wrought 2.14.6 Throat cracks (12d) are longitudinal cracks in
surface. They are caused by the high stress in the thick- the weld face in the direction of the axis. They are gener-
ness direction that results from welding. ally, but not always, hot cracks.
Lamellar tearing may extend over long distances and 2.14.7 Toe cracks (12e) are generally cold cracks. They
generally initiates in regions of the base metal having a initiate and propagate from the weld toe where shinkage
high incidence of coplanar, stringer-like, nonmetallic inclu- stresses are concentrated. Toe cracks initiate approximately
sions or in areas of the base metal subject to high welding normal to the base metal surface. These cracks are gener-
stresses, or a combination of the two. The fracture usually ally the result of thermal shrinkage stresses acting on a
propagates from one lamellar plane to another by shear weld heat-affected zone. Some toe cracks occur because
along lines that are near normal to the rolled surface. the transverse tensile properties of the base metal cannot
accommodate the shrinkage stresses that are imposed by
2.14 Cracks (12) occur in weld and base metal when local- welding.
ized stresses exceed the ultimate strength of the material. 2.14.8 Root cracks (12f) are longitudinal cracks at the
Cracking is generally associated with stress amplification weld root or in the root surface. They may be hot or cold
near discontinuities in welds and base metal, or near forms of cracks.

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/15

2.145 Underbead and heat-affected zone cracks (12g) for the acceptance-rejection criteria for nondestructive
are generally cold cracks that form in the heat-affected inspection to be developed by destructive testing investi-
zone of the base metal. They are generally short, but they gations correlated with NDT results. The general knowl-
may join to form a continuous crack. Underbead cracks edge presented in this guide should be of valuable
can become a serious problem when three elements are assistance to the reader as it provides an overview of the
present (1) hydrogen, (2) a microstructure of relatively low inspection methods without unnecessary detail.
ductility, and (3) high residual stress. Underbead and heat-
affected zone cracks can be both longitudinal and trans- 3.1 Visual Inspection. For many types of welds, integrity
verse. They are found at regular intervals under the weld is verified principally by visual inspection (VT). Even for
and also outline boundaries in the heat-affected zone where weldments with joints specified for inspection through-
residual stresses are highest. out by nondestructive inspection methods, visual inspec-
tion still constitutes an important part of practical quality
2.15 Insufficient throat (13) is a depression on the fillet control. Therefore, visual inspection is of the first order
weld face causing the weld throat to be below specifica- of importance. The most extensively used of any method
tion for that size fillet. The welder failed to obtain fusion of nondestructive inspection, visual inspection is easy to
in the base metal, or to deposit sufficient filler metal in apply, quick, and often requires no special equipment other
the throat area. than good eyesight and some relatively simple and inex-
pensive equipment.
2.16 Convexity and weld reinforcement (14). Convexity Despite the many advantages of visual inspection, a
is the configuration present in fillet welds described as major disadvantage is the need for an inspector who has
the maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld considerable experience and knowledge in many differ-
perpendicular to a line joining the weld toes. In groove ent areas which encompass visual welding inspection. The
welds, weld reinforcement is described as that new metal inspector must be familiar with drawings, codes, specifi-
in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint. cations, weld procedure and performance qualification
requirements, workmanship standards, and all aspects of
2.17 Insufficient leg (15) is an undersize fillet weld leg good shop practice. Some codes and specifications require
for the welds intended use. that the welding inspector be qualified and, at times, be
certified.
Certain tools are sometimes necessary for some aspects
of visual weld inspection. Various measuring scales and
fillet gages are used for checking the dimensions of the
3. Nondestructive Inspection Methods weld bead. There are many different types of fillet weld
gages used throughout the world to determine the size of
Nondestructive inspection (NDT) is a general term used fillet welds. Some gages also verify root opening, weld
in this guide to identify all those inspection methods that reinforcement, and weld bevel angle. Measuring devices
permit evaluation of welds and adjacent areas without des- are used to check root openings, clearance dimensions of
troying their usefulness. Most readers already know that materials, backing materials, and alignment and fit-up of
visual inspection certainly meets this criterion, but there the work pieces. Temperature indicators verify correct pre-
are other nondestructive inspection methods. The purpose heat temperature as well as verification of interpass tem-
of this chapter is to acquaint the welding inspector with perature. Boroscopes, flashlights, and mirrors are used in
some of the more commonly used nondestructive inspec- areas of limited accessibility. The development of flexi-
tion methods and the fundamental conditions for their use. ble fiberoptic inspection systems enables the inspector to
For the purpose of this guide the following basic NDT visually inspect areas previously inaccessible to other
methods will be discussed: inspection devices.
(1) Visual 3.1.1 Visual Inspection Prior to Welding. Material
(2) Penetrant examination prior to fabrication can eliminate conditions
(3) Magnetic Particle that tend to cause weld defects. Scabs, seams, and scale
(4) Radiographic may be detected at this time, and plate laminations may
(5) Ultrasonic be observed on cut edges. Other areas requiring inspec-
(6) Eddy Current tion prior to welding are
The salient features of each method are summarized in (1) Proper edge preparation, dimensions, and finish
tables in the Appendix. It should be noted that nondes- (2) Clearance dimensions of backing strips, back-
tructive inspection does not eliminate the need for destruc- ing rings, and consumable inserts
tive testing, but rather complements it. It is not uncommon (3) Alignment and fit-up of work pieces

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16/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

(4) Verification of correct materials by check of Fluorescent penetrants provide a greenish yellow indi-
records cation against a dark background when viewed in a dar-
(5) Verification of cleanliness requirements and con- kened area under a black (ultraviolet) light source. The
dition of tack welds fluorescent method is inherently more sensitive due to the
(6) Verification of welding procedure and perfor- fact that the human eye can more easily discern a fluores-
mance qualification cent indication.
3.1.2 Visual Inspection During Welding. Visual inspec- There are three different penetrants used with both the
tion continues during the fabrication process. Various items visible and fluorescent methods. These are solvent remov-
that must be checked are the following: able, water washable, and post emulsifiable.
(1) Welding process and conditions Solvent removable penetrants are designed to be
(2) Welding variables removed with a solvent cleaner, with a hand-wiping tech-
(3) Filler metal nique. The solvent removable penetrant is very portable
(4) Flux and protective gases and used often for "on location" inspections.
(5) Preheat and interpass temperatures Water washable penetrants are designed to be removed
(6) Distortion control with water. This method is restricted somewhat, since it
(7) Interpass chipping, grinding, or gouging requires facilities such as water, environmental control
(8) Inspection intervals (either time or sequence) tank, and some means of drying the article. The water
3.1.3 Visual Inspection After Welding. Post welding washable procedure is usually used at an "inspection
visual inspection is a beneficial and proven practice which station" and is very efficient for small objects.
includes verification of such items as: Post emulsifiable penetrants are not water soluble. They
(1) Dimensional accuracy are designed to be removed with a separate emulsifier. Post
(2) Completion of welding emulsifiable penetrants require the same facilities as water
(3) Size of legs and throat of fillet welds washable penetrants. Post emulsifiable penetrants are used
(4) Contour, reinforcement, and surface finish of when detection of very minute discontinuities is desired.
welds Penetrant inspection is applicable to magnetic and non-
(5) Degree of underfill, undercut, and overlap magnetic materials and is particularly useful on nonmag-
(6) Weld spatter, crater cracks, impression marking; netic materials, since magnetic particle inspection cannot
scratches, gouges, and arc strikes be used. The liquid penetrant method is used extensively
(7) Handling damage for disclosing surface discontinuities in materials such as
(8) Completion of post weld heat treatment aluminum, magnesium, and austenitic steel welds. It is
(9) Nondestructive inspections and results also useful for locating cracks or other discontinuities
Visual welding inspection, if used before, during, and which may cause leaks in containers and pipes.
after welding, has the proven ability to eliminate most dis- Penetrant inspection is relatively inexpensive and
continuities that would otherwise appear in further non- reasonably rapid. The process is simple and operators find
destructive inspection or failure in service. little difficulty in learning to apply it properly. There are
few, if any, false or nonrelevant indications on reasonably
3.2 Penetrant Inspection. Penetrant inspection (PT) is a smooth surfaces, so interpretation is somewhat easier than
sensitive method of detecting and locating discontinuities, with magnetic particle inspection where anomalies may
provided the discontinuities are open to the surface. The more frequently give false indications, The success of
method employs a penetrating liquid dye which is applied penetrant inspection, like most other inspection methods,
to the surface to be inspected and which enters the dis- depends on the visual acuity of the inspector.
continuity. After a suitable dwell time, the excess penetrant It should be pointed out that some substances in
is removed from the surface and the part is dried. A penetrants can have a deleterious effect on either welds
developer is then applied which acts as a blotter, drawing or base metals on which they are used and can effect the
the penetrant out of the discontinuity. The penetrant, drawn service life of the weld or application of the product.
from an opening on the surface, indicates the presence and Penetrants are difficult to remove completely from
location of a discontinuity. discontinuities, and if they are corrosive to the material,
There are two varieties of the penetrant method, both or otherwise not compatible with the product application,
using a similar principle. One variety uses a visible dye they should be avoided.
and the other uses a fluorescent dye visible with ultravio-
let light. Visible penetrant is usually red in color to pro-
vide a contrast against the white background from the 3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) is used for locat-
developer. Normal white light is usually sufficient to view ing surface or near surface discontinuities in ferromag-
the discontinuities. netic materials. Magnetic particle inspection is based on

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/17

the principles that magnetic lines of force will be distorted the type of current, the directions and density of the
by a change in material continuity; i.e., a discontinuity magnetic flux, and the material properties of the weld to
creating a magnetic field leakage (see Fig. 11). be inspected. When evaluating surface discontinuities only,
alternating current (ac) is preferred with the indirect
magnetization method (Fig. 13). AC has a very low
Disruption of magnetic penetrating ability which allows the magnetic field to be
field and accumulation concentrated at the surface of the weld. The alternating
of particles at crack site nature of the current provides continuous reversal of the
magnetic field. This action provides greater particle mobil-
ity and, in turn, aids the detection of surface discontinuties.

Current {+) Yoke

Magnetic
field lines
Weld
Fig. 11—Magnetic field leakage

A weld can be magnetized by passing an electric cur-

rent through the weld (direct magnetization) or by plac-
ing it in a magnetic field (indirect magnetization).
Test article
The direct magnetization method (Fig. 12) is normally
used with direct current (dc), half wave direct current Magnetic lines
(hwdc) or full wave direct current (fwdc). These types of of force
currents have penetrating abilities that generally enable
slightly subsurface discontinuities to be detected. Direct
magnetization may also be used with alternating current Fig, 13—Indirect magnetization using a yoke
(ac), which is limited to the detection of surface discon-
tinuities only.
When the magnetic field has been established within the
— Lines of magnetic force
weld, magnetic particles (medium) are applied to the
Prod inspection surface. After removal of excess particles, the
Prod residual particles trapped in the leakage field of a discon-
tinuity reveal the location , shape and size of a detectable
discontinuity. These indications usually are distinguisha-
ble by their appearance as sharp, well defined lines of
medium against the background of the weld surface.
Magnetic particle inspection can be very beneficial as
an in-process evaluation. Assurance of a sound weld before
lectric the weld is completed may prevent costly repairs of the
current
final product. "In-Process" magnetic particle inspection
has become more of a common practice due to the porta-
Cracks parallel to lines bility of modern lightweight equipment. This advantage
• Cracks at 90 c to lines of force will NOT show aids in reducing production time.
of force WILL show
The cost of magnetic particle inspection is considera-
Fig. 12—Direct magnetization using dc prods bly less expensive than radiography (RT) or ultrasonics
(UT). Magnetic particle inspection equipment is relatively
low in price compared to the equipment used with these
Detection of slightly subsurface discontinuities depends other methods of nondestructive inspection. Less train-
on several different variables—the magnetizing method, ing time is generally required for personnel to become

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18/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

competent in performing magnetic particle inspection and portable, low energy units capable of radiographing rela-
evaluating discontinuities. Using the MT method, the tively thin objects, to mammoth linear accelerators and
inspector obtains an instant visible indication that can assist betatrons capable of radiographing thick welds [for exam-
in removing a defect. Compared to penetrant inspection ple — 20 in. (508.0 mm) of steel]. Gamma radiation is
(PT), the MT method has the advantage of revealing dis- emitted by radioisotopes, the two most common being
continuities that are not open to the surface (i.e., cracks cobalt 60 and iridium 192. Cobalt 60 will effectively pene-
filled with carbon, slag or other contaminants) and there- trate up to approximately 5 in. (127.0 mm) of steel;
fore not detectable by penetrant inspection. Magnetic par- whereas, Iridium 192 is effectively limited to a steel thick-
ticle inspection is generally faster, requires less surface ness of about 3 in. (76.2 mm).
penetration and is therefore usually more economical than The weld test object is essential for obvious reasons;
penetrant inspection. however, we should understand some basics about radia-
The MT method is limited to ferromagnetic material. tion interaction with the weld to fully appreciate the resul-
This method cannot be used to inspect nonferromagnetic tant film image. The radiographic process is dependent
materials such as aluminum, magnesium or austenitic upon different amounts of radiation absorbed by different
steels. Difficulties may arise when inspecting welds where areas of the weld. Two key factors determine the rates of
the magnetic characteristics of the weld metal differ differential absorption — the amount of mass represented
appreciably from those of the base metal; i.e., austenitic by the weld areas and the penetrating power (defined by
steel surfacing weld on low carbon steel weld. Welded the energy) of the radiation source. The amount of mass
joints between metals of dissimilar magnetic characteris- is related to the density or composition of the weld as well
tics may create magnetic particle indications even though as the thickness. The penetrating power of the radiation
the welds themselves are sound. Most weld surfaces are source is dependent upon the instrument settings of the
acceptable for magnetic particle inspection after the x-ray machine or the particular isotope selected for gamma
removal of slag, spatter, or other extraneous material which radiography. The differences in absorption occur during
may mechanically hold the medium. the exposure process account for variations in dark and
light regions on the radiograph.
3.4 Radiographic Inspection. Radiography (RT) is a Film, another obvious essential element to the radio-
method of nondestructive inspection that utilizes radiation graphic process, is a thin transparent plastic base coated
to penetrate a weld and reveal information about its inter- with fine crystals of silver bromide (emulsion). The emul-
nal conditions. When a weld is exposed to penetrating radi- sion is sensitive to radiation just as photographic film is
ation, some radiation will be absorbed, some scattered, to light. Developing (chemical processing) the film con-
and some transmitted through the weld onto a recording verts the image produced on the film emulsion by exposure
device (see Fig. 14). Most conventional RT techniques used to radiation into a visible, permanent image.
today involve exposures that record a permanent image The interpretation of a radiograph involves evaluating
on a photographic film, although other image recording images resulting from various light and dark regions on
methods are also used. the film. The dark regions represent the more easily
penetrated parts of the weld (for example—thin sections
The basic process of radiographic inspection involves and most types of discontinuities) while the lighter regions
two general steps—the making of the radiograph and its represent the more difficult areas to penetrate (for exam-
interpretation. ple — thick sections). Interpretation is usually performed
The essential elements needed to carry out these two in a room of subdued background lighting by placing the
operations consist of: radiograph in front of a relatively bright light source. The
(1) A source of radiation subdued background lighting reduces light reflections off
(2) Weld to be radiographed the film surface which may obscure the interpreter's view
(3) An x-ray film enclosed in a lightproof film of radiographic images. Figure 15 illustrates several types
holder of weld discontinuities a film interpreter may encounter
(4) A skilled person capable of producing an in his evaluation of weld radiographs.
exposed film A significant limitation of radiography is that discon-
(5) A means of chemically processing the exposed tinuities must be favorably aligned with the radiation beam
film to be reliably detected. This is usually not a problem for
(6) A skilled person capable of interpreting the radi- discontinuities such as porosity or slag since they are
ographic images usually round in cross section and aligned with a beam
Two types of radiation sources commonly used in weld from any direction. This is not the case with planet dis-
inspection are x-ray machines and radioactive isotopes. continuities such as cracks, incomplete fusion, and lami-
X-radiation is produced by machines which range from nations. These discontinuities, or a substantial portion of

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/19

Source

l - ^ - Z _ 3 Discontinuity

A
(Plan view)'developed film

Fig. 14—Making a radiograph

them, must be favorably aligned with the radiation beam (4) Accessibility to both sides of the weld is
to be reliably detected by the interpreter. Figure 16 illus- required to set-up apparatus.
trates this limitation. Compared to other nondestructive inspection methods,
Radiography also has several other limitations: radiography has the following advantages:
(1) It presents a potential radiation hazard to (1) It is generally not restricted by the type of
personnel. material or grain structure.
(2) The cost of radiographic equipment, facili- (2) It has surface and subsurface inspection
ties, safety programs, and related licensing is capability.
relatively high. (3) Radiographic images aid in characterizing
(3) there is usually a relatively long time (identifying type) discontinuities.
between the exposure process and the availabil- (4) It provides a permanent record for future
ity of results. review.

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20/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

L,
a. Slag Inclusions are usually indicated by elongated b. Undercutting appears as a dark linear shadow of
shadows of irregular shape, occurring singly, in a linear wavy contour occurring adjacent to the weld toe. This
distribution! or scattered randomly. discontinuity is usually detected visually, but its correct
identification on the radiograph is needed to prevent
misinterpretation as another type of internal discon-
tinuity.

c. Porosity is shown as rounded shadows of varying d. Incomplete penetration is usually indicated as a

size and density, occurring singly, in clusters, or ran- straight, dark, continuous or intermittent line, near the
domly scattered. center of the weld.

e. Cracks usually appear as fine, dark lines, which may

be straight or wandering.

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/21

Radiation source-
In many respects, a beam of ultrasound is similar to a
Radiation beam of light; both are waves and obey a general wave
v«—beam equation. Each travels at a characteristic velocity in a given
Film location
during exposure homogeneous medium — a velocity that depends on the
process • properties of the medium and the vibrational move of the
wave. Like beams of light, ultrasonic beams are reflected
from surfaces (Fig. 18); refracted when they cross a bound-
ary between two substances that have different characteris-
tic sound velocities (Fig. 19); and diffracted at edges or
around obstacles (Fig. 20). Scattering by rough surfaces,
particles, or coarse grains reduces the energy of an ultra-
sonic beam, similar to the manner in which scattering
reduces the intensity of a light beam.
Ultrasonic inspection is usually performed with either
longitudinal waves (straight beam) or shear waves (angle
beam). The most commonly used frequencies are between
1 and 5 MHz, with sound beams at angles of 0°, 45°, 60°,
Only vertical discontinuity {B)
and 70°.
results in a discernible Exposed and In longitudinal beam testing (commonly used to inspect
radiographic image developed film. plate base material), sound in the form of ultrasonic vibra-
tions is projected into the part perpendicular to the entry

Pulser
Clock

_yrAmplifier^ T Sweep de|ay

Fig. 16—Detection of planar defects at various

orientations by radiography
Sweep length

The references of Section 5 provide additional informa-

tion on industrial radiography.

3.5 Ultrasonic Inspection. Ultrasonic inspection (UT) is

becoming one of the most widely used methods of non-
destructive inspection. Its primary application is the detec-
tion and characterization of internal discontinuities. It is
also used to detect surface discontinuities, to define bond
characteristics, and to measure thickness. The pulse-echo
method with A-scan data presentation is most commonly
used for inspecting welds. This system utilizes a cathode
ray tube (CRT) screen to display test information. The
basic components of the pulse-echo method are shown in
block diagram form in Fig. 17.
High-frequency sound waves are introduced into the
material being inspected to detect surface and subsurface
discontinuities. The sound waves travel through the mate-
rial with some loss of energy (attenuation) and are reflected Test piece
at interfaces. The reflected sound beam is detected and
analyzed to define the presence and location of discon- Fig. 17—Block diagram, pulse-echo
tinuities. flaw detector

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22/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

(b) (c)
(a) normal incidence (b) angle incidence (c) comer incidence

Fig. 18—Similarities between reflections of light

and sound at boundaries

surface by a straight beam search unit (see Fig. 21). When Most weld inspection is performed using the angle beam
the entry surface and the back surface are parallel, a back technique (Fig. 22). Ideally, only discontinuities should
reflection will appear on the CRT. A discontinuity lying appear on the CRT during angle beam inspection (Fig.
between the front and back surfaces will also be displayed 23). This is not the case, however, since the geometrical
on the CRT. By using the height of the reflection on the boundaries of the part being inspected often reflect sound
CRT, from a real or artificial discontinuity of a known back just as a discontinuity would. Therefore, care should
size, a reference level can be established such that reflec- be taken when ultrasonically inspecting joints with com-
tions from discontinuities of unknown sizes may be evalu- plex geometries (such as welds with backing bars) to assure
ated as to approximate size, length, and depth. that ultrasonic indications are the result of the presence
of discontinuities and not simply due to the configuration
of the joint (Fig. 24). Figure 24 illustrates a true discon-
tinuity (slag inclusion) masked by a false indication from
Incident the backing bar; however, this discontinuity can be evalu-
beam ated by inspecting from the opposite side of the weld.
<90° It is generally desirable that the sound beam intercept
Plastic
the plane of the discontinuity at or near 90 degrees so that
Steel a maximum reflected signal returns to the transducer.
However, cracks that are not oriented perpendicular to the
ultrasonic beam can be detected because their surfaces are
Refracted not smooth and sound is reflected from the facets that are
beam approximately perpendicular to the beam. The test sur-
face used for scanning with the search unit is selected
Fig. 19—Refraction primarily on the basis of weld shape and structure, and
often by the accessibility for testing. The scan pattern must
be sufficient to pass the projected sound beam through
the entire volume of weld and heat-affected zone to per-
mit detection of possible discontinuities. This accounts for
the wide variety of different angle search units available.
In special cases, search units are made to particular non-
standard angles.
Since it is important to intercept the discontinuity at or
near 90 degrees, it is common for more than one angle
search unit to be used to inspect a particular weld. AWS
Dl.l currently designates specific angles to be used for
particular thicknesses and joint configurations.
The principal advantages of ultrasonic inspection, as
compared to other methods of nondestructive inspection
Diffratted •
beam
of metal parts are
(1) Superior penetrating power allows the detection
Fig. 20—Diffraction of discontinuities deep in the part.

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/23

10 I 10
9 I 9
8 8
7 7
6
0 H++t Htti im+f tt+H
*"" 5
5
4 4
3 3
2
I 2
1
12 3 4 5 67
1
8 9 10
1

10 10
9
8
7

b •H+++ ++H+ B+H HHi Httt ffH+ Hmt H+++

5
4
1
3
2
i ;
1F
1
J-1 2 3 4 5 6 7
JL 8 9 10

Fig. 21—Example of longitudinal testing

10 j 10
9
8
7 j
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Fig. 22—No discontinuities

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24/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

10 10
9
8
7
6
nil'

5
4 :

3
1 j
2 i
1 , j
89 10

Fig. 23—Discontinuity

10 10
9
8
7

mn :HfH- -H+++
2 in. 5
4
3 I 1
2
1
1
8 9 10

Fig. 24—Incomplete fusion of backing bar

(2) High sensitivity permits the detection of very Some disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection include:
small discontinuities.
(3) Greater accuracy in determining the position of (1) Manual operation requires careful attention by
internal discontinuities, estimating their size and charac- experienced technicians.
terizing their orientation, shape and nature. (2) Extensive technical knowledge is required for
(4) Only one surface need be accessible. the development of inspection procedures.
(5) Operation is electronic, which provides almost (3) Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very
instantaneous indications of discontinuities. This makes small or thin, or inhomogeneous are difficult to inspect.
the method suitable for immediate interpretation, automa- (4) Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer
tion, rapid scanning, production line monitoring and proc- immediately beneath the surface may not be detectable.
ess control. With some systems, a permanent record of (5) Couplants are needed to provide effective trans-
inspection results can be made for future reference. fer of ultrasonic-wave energy between search units and
(6) Scannihg ability enables inspection of a volume parts being inspected.
of metal extending from front surface to back surface of (6) Reference standards are needed for calibrating
a weld. the equipment.

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Nondestructive Inspection Methods/25

3.6 Eddy Current Inspection. Eddy current inspection The most common eddy current coils used for weld
(ET) can be defined as an electromagnetic nondestructive inspection are shown in Figs. 26 and 27. Figure 26 shows
inspection method in which small electrical currents are an encircling coil which is used primarily on welded pipe
induced in a material, and any changes in the flow of these with a longitudinal butt joint. Since the eddy currents flow
currents due to inhomogeneities in the material are in a circumferential direction, longitudinal discontinuities
detected by a nearby coil for subsequent electronic process- would produce the most significant change in eddy cur-
ing and presentation. Its use for surface, and in some cases rent flow. Hence, this technique would be most sensitive
subsurface, inspection of welds for discontinuities (see Fig. to longitudinally oriented discontinuities. The pipe is
25) is only one of many applications. Eddy current tech- usually passed through the coil on rollers, which makes
niques have also been successfully applied to measure con- the technique suitable for automation. Figure 27 shows
ductivity, grain size, hardness, and thickness; identifying several types of surface probes commonly used. These
materials with different composition, microstructure, mag- probes can be used on welds in any position and are usually
netic permeability, and heat treatment; and determining hand manipulated.
the thickness of coatings and plating on various materials. Their size, windings, and core (if any) vary with the
In eddy current inspections, an alternating current is type of material, orientation of discontinuities of interest,
passed through a coil place in the proximity of the weld. and size of the smallest discontinuity of interest.
The changing current in the coil creates an alternating Several advantages of using eddy current inspection on
magnetic field in the material. The varying magnetic field welds include:
in the weld, in turn, creates electrical currents, or "eddy" (1) The equipment used with surface probes is
currents, in the material. These eddy currents, which vary generally lightweight and portable (see Fig. 25).
with the magnetic field, create their own magnetic field (2) Some weld surface conditions, such as exces-
which interacts with the initial field. The test coil, or in sive roughness and minor undercut, may result in non-
some cases a separate "pickup" coil, is electronically relevant indications. Welds with such conditions can
monitored to detect any changes in this field interaction, usually be inspected by eddy current techniques without
Discontinuities in the weld will alter the magnitude and the need to verify the indication's relevance by further
direction of the eddy currents and thus be detected through processing (i.e.-, grinding to remove the surface irregularity
the test signal. The signal is then displayed on an analog and retesting).
meter, digital meter, cathode ray tube (CRT), X-Y plotter, (3) Since intimate contact between the weld metal
or strip chart recorder depending on the particular equip- and probe is not required, painted or coated welds can
ment and application. be inspected. This can result in significant savings in the

Fig. 25—Eddy current weld inspection

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26/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

4. Interrelationships Among Welding

Processes, Discontinuities, and Inspec-
Eddy
To tion Methods
current
instrument
flow
Encircling This section includes several tables indicating particu-
coil
lar relationships existing between welding processes, dis-
continuities, and inspection methods. This information is
provided as a reference only and should not be consid-
ered applicable for every specific inspection situation.
Many factors which are beyond the scope of this guide
affect these relationships. For example, Table 2 lists the
discontinuities for each welding process that may occur
under varying conditions and with many combinations of
filler and base metals. When specific welding variables
are controlled, depending on the type of filler and base
metals, some of the discontinuities would not be expected
to form.
Table 3 relates inspection methods to the various types
of discontinuities. Other factors also must be considered
before the inspection method may be reliably chosen for
consistent results. For example, the shape of the weld, the
compatibility of the material with the inspection method,
and the welding process all affect the choice of an inspec-
-Unfused area tion method.
of the weld Table 4 relates joint types to applicable nondestructive
inspection methods. Again, further information is neces-
sary before a preferred method can be chosen. Material
Fig. 26—Encircling coil for the eddy current
type and shape, welding process, criticality level of the
inspection of welded pipe
weldment, and unacceptable discontinuity types must be
considered in selecting the most suitable method of
inspection.
areas of in-service inspections and periodic preventive One should not attempt to draw conclusions by com-
maintenance inspections. paring one table to another. Each table stands by itself and
(4) In some instances, such as the inspection of is only provided as a general guide. If information beyond
welded pipe, the inspections can be partially or completely that presented by this document is needed, the supplemen-
automated for a high speed, relatively inexpensive tary reading material given in section 5 should be
inspection. reviewed, or a competent nondestructive inspection con-
There are three general limitations in using eddy current sultant should be contacted.
inspection on welds: Further information on the applicability of several of
(1) The test article (i.e., weld) must be an electri- the nondestructive inspection methods may be found in
cal conductor. (This document addresses only conductive the Appendix.
materials.)
(2) The depth of inspection is generally limited to
1/4 in. (6.4 mm) for nonferromagnetic materials and 0.010 5. Supplementary Reading Material
in. (.25 mm) for ferromagnetic materials. The penetra-
tion in ferromagnetic materials may be significantly (1) Betz, C. E., Principles ofPenetrants, Chicago, IL:
increased by using special techniques such as magnetic Magnaflux Corp. — Principles of Magnetic Particle Test-
saturation of the area being inspected. ing, Chicago, IL: Magnaflux Corp.
(3) Since many variables can affect an eddy cur- (2) Krautkramer, J., and H. Krautkramer, Ultrasonic
rent signal (i.e., permeability, conductivity, probe posi- Testing of Materials, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, Inc.
tion and weld contour), care must be taken to suppress (3) Libby, H. L., Introduction to Electromagnetic Non-
or separate variables of no concern from those of interest. destructive Test Methods, New York, NY: Wiley-
In many cases, this is not readily accomplished. Interscience.

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 AWS Bl-lO flb 078M2bS

Supplementary Reading MateriallTJ

Pencil- Horseshoe
Pancake point or U-shape Tangent
probe probe coil coil

Fig. 27—Typical eddy current surface coils for

the inspection of welds

(4) McGonnagle, W. J., Nondestructive Testing, New (8) Radiography in Modern Industry, 4th Ed., Roches-
York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. ter, NY: Eastman Kodak Co.
(9) Richardson, H. D., Industrial Radiography Man-
(5) McMaster, Robert C. Ed., Nondestructive Testing ual, Washington, D.C.: Government 1968. Reprinted 1979
Handbook, 2nd Ed., Columbus, OH: The American Soci- by The American Society for Nondestructive Ibsting.
ety for Nondestructive Testing. (10) Standard Terminology and Definitions for Weld
(6) Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control, 8th Conditions and Defects, NAVSHIPS 250-634-7.
Ed., ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 11, Metals Park, OH: (11) Symbols for Welding and Nondestructive Testing,
American Society for Metals. ANSI/AWS A2.4-79, Miami, FL: American Welding
Society.
(7) Nondestructive Testing Training Handbook Series, (12) Welding Handbook, 7th Ed., Vol. 1, Miami, FL:
San Diego, CA: General Dynamics/Convair Division. American Welding Society.
[Programmed instruction (self study) and classroom train- (13) Welding Inspection, 2nd Ed., Miami, FL: Ameri-
ing (reference texts) available for liquid penetrant, mag- can Welding Society.
netic particle, ultrasonic, eddy current, and radiographic (14) Welding Terms and Definitions, ANSI/AWS
testing methods.] A3.0-85, Miami, FL: American Welding Society.

/*-

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28/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

Table 3
Applicable inspection methods vs. discontinuities
Applicable inspection methods
Discontinuities RT UT PT MT VT ET
Porosity A O A" Ob A" O
Slag inclusions A A U 0" U O
Incomplete fusion 0 A U Ob U O
Incomplete penetration A A u O u O
Undercut A O o O A O
Overlap U O A A 0 0
Cracks O A A" Ab A" A
Laminations u A Aa,c Ab,c Aa.c U
Notes:
a. Surface
b. Surface and slightly subsurface
c. Weld preparation or edge of base metal
Legends:
RT—Radiographic testing
UT—Ultrasonic testing
PT— Penetrant testing, including both DPT (dye penetrant testing) and FPT
(fluorescent penetrant testing)
MT—Magnetic particle testing
VT—Visual testing
ET—Eddy current testing
A—Applicable Method
O—Marginal applicability depending on other factors such as material thickness,
discontinuity size, orientation and location

Table 4
Applicable inspection methods—four weld jjoint types
Inspection method!
Joints RT UT PT MT VT ET
>

Butt A A A A A
Corner O A A A A
OOO

T O A A A A
Lap O A A A
o
Legends:
RT—Radiographic testing
UT—Ultrasonic testing
PT—Penetrant testing, including both DPT (dye penetrant testing) and FPT
(fluorescent penetrant testing)
MT—Magnetic particle testing
VT—Visual testing
ET—Eddy Current testing
A—Applicable Method
O—Marginal applicability depending on other factors such as material thickness,
discontinuity size, orientation and location

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 AWS B1-1Q fib DDOlbSl E

Appendix A
NDl Selection Guide
Equipment Needs Applications Advantages Limitations
Visual
Magnifiers, color enhancement, Welds which have discontinuities on Economical, expedient, requires Limited to external or surface con-
projectors, other measurement the surface. relatively little training and relative- ditions only. Limited to the visual
equipment, i.e., rulers, microme- ly little equipment for many appli- acuity of the observer or inspector.
ters, optical comparators, light cations.
source.

Liquid Penetrant
Fluorescent or dye penetrant, de- Weld discontinuities open to sur- Portable, relatively inexpensive Surface films such as coatings,
velopers, cleaners (solvents, emul- face, i.e., cracks, porosity. equipment. Expedient inspection scale, smeared metal mask or hide
sifiers. etc.). Suitable cleaning gear. results. Results are easily interpret- rejectable defects. Seepage from
Ultraviolet light source if fluores- ed. Requires no electrical energy weld porosity at the surface can also
cent dye is used. except for light sources. mask indications. Parts must be
cleaned before and after inspection.
Magnetic Particle
Prods, yokes, coils suitable for Most weld discontinuities open to Relatively economical and expe- Applicable only to ferromagnetic
inducing magnetism into the weld. the surface — some large voids dient. Inspection equipment is con- materials. Parts must be cleaned be-
Power source (electrical). Magnet- slightly subsurface. Most suitable sidered portable. Unlike dye fore and after inspection. Thick
ic powders. —some applications re- for cracks. penetrants, magnetic particle can coatings may mask rejectable dis-
quire special facilities and detect some discontinuities slight- continuities. Some applications re-
ultraviolet lights. ly below the surface. quire parts to be demagnetized after
inspection. Magnetic particle in-
spection requires use of electrical
energy for most applications.

Radiography
(Gamma)
Gamma ray sources, gamma ray Welds which have voluminous dis- Generally not restricted by type of Planar discontinuities must be
camera projeciors, film holders, continuities such as porosity, in- material or grain structure. Surface favorably aligned with radiation
film, lead screens, film processing complete joint penetration, and subsurface inspection capabil- beam to be reliably detected. Radi-
equipment, film viewers, exposure corrosion, etc. Lamellar type dis- ity. Radiographic images aid in ation poses a potential hazard to
facilities, radiation monitoring continuities such as cracks and in- characterizing discontinuities. Pro- personnel. Cost of radiographic
equipment. complete fusion can be detected vides a permanent record for future equipment, facilities, safety pro-
with a lesser degree of reliability. grams, and related licensing is rela-
May also be used in certain appli- tively high. A relatively long time
cations to evaluate dimensional re- between exposure process arid avail-
quirements such as fit-up, root ability of results. Accessibility to
conditions, and wall thickness. both sides of the weld required.
Radiography
(X-Rays)
X-ray sources (machines), electri- Same application as above. Adjustable energy levels. Generally High initial cost of X-ray equip-
cal power source, same general produces higher quality radiographs ment. Not generally considered
equipment as used with gamma than gamma sources. Also, same portable. Also, same limitations as
sources (above). advantages as above. above.
Ultrasonic
Pulse-echo instrument capable of Most weld discontinuities including Most sensitive to planar type dis- Surface condition must be suitable
exciting a piezoelectric material and cracks, slag, and incomplete fusion. continuities. Test results known im- for coupling of transducer. Couplant
generating ultrasonic energy with- Can also be used to verify weld mediately. Portable. Most ultrasonic (liquid) required. Small, thin welds
in a weld, and a suitable cathode ray thickness. flaw detectors do not require an may be difficult to inspect. Refer-
tube scope capable of displaying the electrical power outlet. High ence standards are required. Re-
magnitudes of received sound penetration capability. quires a relatively skilled operator
energy. Calibration standards, liq- or inspector,
uid couplant.

Eddy Current
An instrument capable of inducing Weld discontinuties open to the sur- Equipment used with surface probes Relatively shallow depth of inspec-
electromagnetic fields within a weld face, (i.e. cracks, porosity, incom- is generally lightweight and porta- tion. Many material and test varia-
and sensing the resulting electrical plete fusion) as well as some ble. Painted or coated welds can be bles can affect the test signal.
currents (eddy) so induced with a subsurface discontinuities. Alloy inspected. Can be partially or com-
suitable probe or detector. Calibra- content, heat treatment variations. pletely automated for a high speed,
tion standards. relatively inexpensive test.

29

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Appendix B
NDI Symbols and Abbreviations

— Test-all-around symbol
Bl. Basic Symbols — (N) Number of tests
— Test in field
Bl.l Basic Testing Symbols. Basic nondestructive test-
Tail
ing (NDT) symbols should be as follows:
Specification or other reference
Type of Test Symbols
Acoustic emission AET B1.3 Standard Location of Elements. The ele-
Eddy current ET ments of a testing symbol should have standard
Leak LT locations with respect to each other as shown in
Magnetic particle MT Fig.Bl.
Neutron radiographic NRT
Penetrant FT
Proof PRT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT B2. General Provisions
Visual VT
B2.1 Location Significance of Arrow. The arrow
B1.2 Elements of the Testing Symbol. The testing sym should connect the reference line to the part to be
bol consists of the following elements: tested. The side of the part to which the arrow
• Reference line points should be considered the arrow side of the
— Arrow part, The side opposite the arrow side of the part
— Basic testing symbol should be considered the other side.

Length of section
Number of tests to be tested

Test in field
Reference line

Test-all-around
Tail symbol

Specification
or other
reference
• Basic testing symbol Arrow

Fig. Bl—Standard location of elements

31

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32/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

B2.2 Location of Testing Symbol radiation may be indicated by a symbol located

B2.2.1 Arrow Side Location. Tests to be made on the drawing at the desired angle.
on the arrow side of the part should be indicated
by a test symbol placed below the reference line.

MT
\
VT
7
UT RT

NRT
B2.2.2 Other Side Location. Tests to be made
on the other side of the part should be indicated
by a test symbol placed above the reference line
away from the reader.

B2.4 Combination of Nondestructive Testing

MT ET
\ Symbols and Welding Symbols
B2.4.1 Welding and NDT Symbols. Nondes-
tructive testing symbols and welding symbols may
RT VT be combined.

MT UT
B2.2.3 Symbols on Both Sides. Tests to be
made on both sides of the part should be indi- MT
cated by test symbols placed above and below the
reference line. X
PRT VT+RT
RT VT \
RT

PT MT
PT MT
RT

B2.2.4 Centered Symbols. When nondestruc- X

tive testing symbols have no arrow or other side
significance, the testing symbols should be cen-
X
tered on the reference line.
B2.4.2 Symbols Alone. Nondestructive testing
symbols may be combined.
-RT-

RT
-PT+ET-
NRT- -AET-
LT
X
B2.3 Direction of Radiation. When specified, RT+PT
the direction of radiation may be shown in con- RT+LT PT+NRT
junction with the radiographic and neutron radio-
graphic testing symbols. The direction of

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Appendix B/33

B2.4.3 Arrow Side Significance. In cases

where a nondestructive testing symbol having no MT8 X
arrow or other side significance is combined with PRT10
a symbol having such significance, the testing
symbols may be combined.
•RT4' •PT 1 0 0 '

LT+PRT
• RT
7 Dimensions in mm

B3.2.2 Location Shown. To show the exact

RT
location of a section to be tested as well as its
length, dimension lines should be used.

MT6 MT6
-18-
B2.5 Use of References. Specifications or other
references need not be used on testing symbols
MT6,
L
when the examination procedure is prescribed
elsewhere. When a specification or other refer-
7
ence is used with a testing symbol, the reference
should be placed in the tail. B3.2.3 Test of Full Length. When the full
length of a part is to be tested, no length dimen-
sion need be shown on the testing symbol.
-12\- -^354 B3.2.4 Partial Testing. When less than 100
RT PT percent of the length of a weld or part is to be
tested with locations to be selected by a specified
procedure, the percentage of the length to be
tested is indicated.

MT 50%
B3. Methods of Specifying Extent RT 25%
of Nondestructive Examination
B3.1 U.S. Customary and Metric Units. When
it is necessary to show dimensions with nondes- B3.3 Specifying Number of Tests. To specify a
tructive testing symbols, the same system of units number of tests to be taken on a joint or part at
that is the standard for drawings shall be used. random locations, the number of desired tests
Dual units should not be used on testing symbols. should be shown in parentheses.
If it is desired to show conversions from metric
to US customary or vice versa, a table of conver- (9)
sions may be included on the drawing. For gui- PT
dance in drafting standards, reference is made to RT8
the ANSI Y14 Drafting Manual. For guidance on (3)
the use of metric (SI) units, reference is made to
AWS A2.3, Metric Practice Guide for the Welding
Industry, latest edition. MT6 UT
\ (4) (2)
B3.2 Specifying Length of Section to be Tested
B3.2.1 Length Shown. To specify tests of
welds on parts where only the length of a section B3.4 Specifying Tests Made All Around A
need be considered, the length should be shown Joint. To specify tests to be made all around a
to the right of the basic test symbol. joint, the test-all-around symbol shall be used.

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34/GUIDE FOR THE NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF WELDS

PT
MT
MT3

UT

B3.5 Specifying Examination of Parts (Areas).

When required, nondestructive examination of
parts (areas) should be indicated by one of the
following methods:
B3.5.1 Plane Areas. For nondestructive exami-
nation of an area represented as a plane on the The symbols below indicate an area of revolu-
drawing, the area to be examined should be tion subject to an internal proof test and an exter-
enclosed by straight broken lines having a circle nal eddy current test. Since no dimensions are
at each change of direction. The testing symbol given, the entire length is to be tested.
specifying the kind of nondestructive test should
he used in connection with these lines as shown
below. When necessary, these enclosures should ET
be located by coordinate dimensions. PRT

B3.6 Acoustic Emission. Acoustic emission is

generally applied to all or a large portion of a
component, such as a pressure vessel or pipe.
The symbol indicates application of AET to the
component without specific reference to location
of sensors. Arrows are not used and there is no
significance to top of bottom replacement of the
B3.5.2 Areas of Revolution. For nondestructive NDT symbol.
testing areas of revolution, the area should be
indicated by using the test-all-around symbol and
appropriate dimensions. On the drawing below, AET
the upper symbol indicates that the bore of the
flange is to be subjected to a magnetic particle
examination for a distance of three inches from
the face, all the way around. The lower symbol
indicates an area of revolution to be subjected to
radiographic examination where dimensions are
not available on drawing.
fcr

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